Current Electricity

BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE PHYSICS (ENGG.
ONLINE)
CHAPTER - 00
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
* Electric current means the flow of electric charge (electron, proton or ions)
* Electric current through a given area is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge through a given
area
* Average Current
A total charge q passes through the vertical plane during time t , gives
q
Iav 
t
* Instantaneous Current
Current at a particular instant of time
q dq
Iin  Lt 
t  0 t dt
* In metals current is due to the movement of free electrons
* In electrolytes current is due to the movement of free ions
* In semiconductors current is due to the movement of free electrons and holes
[hole  vacancy of an electron]
1
BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE PHYSICS (ENGG. ONLINE)
* Conduction Current
The flow of charge carriers, under the action of an electric field
eg. Current in metals
* Convection Current
Due to the movement of medium which contains charged particle.
eg. Current due to the movement of charged clouds
* In conventional method, the direction of electric current is taken in the opposite direction of flow of
electrons
 i.e. electric current flows from higher potential to lower potential.
* The free electrons in an isolated conductor are in random motion at speeds of the order of 105 m / s .
But if we consider a cross section in such a wire, free electrons pass through it in both directions at
the rate of 105 m / s . Hence there is no net transport of charge.
* Average value of thermal velocity is zero
* Application of external potential difference across the conductor
If battery is connected across the conductor, then all free electrons starts to accelerate towards the
positive terminal of the battery.
During this motion they collide with themselves and also with +ve ions. Hence they moves in a zig-zag
path undergoing a small displacement in the opposite direction of the applied electric field with a
constant drift velocity (Vd)
* Drift Velocity (Vd)  Velocity acquired by an electron after collision
* Average value of drift velocity is few mm/s
* 
Velocity of electric current = velocity of light 3  10 m / s
8

* Relaxation Time     The average time interval between two successive collisions of an electron
F Ee
* v = u + at * F = ma * a 
m m
2
Ee
Vd  O  
m
Ee
Vd  
m
* A current carrying conductor is electrically neutral, because –ve charge of drifting electrons is cancelled
by +ve charge of immobile parant atoms. Hence net electric field outside the current carrying conductor
is zero. But there is an electric field inside the conductor. This field is provided by the battery. But there
is a magnetic field outside the conductor. This magnetic field is due to the drifting of electrons.
* Relation between current and drift velocity
n  free electron density
[no. of free electrons per unit volume]
N  Total no of free electrons
q Ne nve nAe 

I     nAe    nAeVd
t t t t t
I  nAeVd
* Current is a scalar [does’nt obey Vector law]


* Current Density J 
Amount of current crossing normally through unit area of the conductor
 I
J * Current density is a vector whose direction is same as that of current
A
3
* Case I [Consider a circular cone]
* Case II
A  A cos 
I I
J 
A A cos 
I  JA cos 

I  J.A
If I is variable
 
dI  J.dA
 
I   J.dA
* Orbital Current
4
e  charge of electron
T  Time period of revolution
f  frequency of revolution
v  linear velocity
w  angular velocity
r  radius of orbit
q e
I 
t T
2r
V
T
2r
T
v
e ev e
V  r I    ef
T 2r 2
1
f
T
 19
* Charge of electron = 1.6  10 C
 31
* Mass of electron = 9.1  10 kg
 19
* Charge of proton = 1.6  10 C
 27
* Mass of proton = 1.67  10 kg
*  particle   He2  Doubly ionized He atom
Charge = 2  charge of proton
Mass = 4  mass of proton
5
OHM’S LAW
At constant temperature, pressure [extend conditions]. The potential difference [voltage] between two
phase of a conductor is directly proportional to current flows through it.
* A conducting device obeys ohm’s law when the resistance of the device is independent of the magnitude
and polarity of the applied potential difference [voltage]
* A conducting material obeys ohm’s law when the resistivity of the material is independent of the
magnitude and direction of the applied potential difference [voltage]
[eg. metals]
* Note
A good conductor is does not exactly obeys Ohm’s law in V-I graph it shows some deviation
6
Electrical Resistance
Electrical resistance is the property of a conductor by virtue of which it opposes the flow of electric
charge, drops potential and dissipates energy
  length of the conductor along the direction of current

A  Are which is normal to the flow of current
  Resistivity or specific resistance
  Conductivity or specific conductance
1



R
A
1
 G  Conductance
R
* Unit of Resistance = 
 RA m 2 
* Unit of Resistivity = m      m 
  m 
CASE I
Resistance of a rectangular block
7
a
* R1 
bc
c
* R2 
ab
b
* R3 
ac
CASE II [Electrical Resistance of Cylindrical shell]
Consider a cylindrical shell of inner radii ‘a’ and outer radii ‘b’. Resistivity of the material is  . Current
is flowing radially out

R
A
Consider an elementary small strip of thickness dx, radii of strip is x, dR be the small resistance of this
strip
8
dx
dR 
2x
b b
 dx 
R   dR   log x a
b

a
2 a x 2
R

2
log b
a  
CASE III [Resistance of a spherical shell]
Consider a spherical shell of inner radii ‘a’ and outer radii ‘b’. Resistivity of the material is  . Current is
flowing radially out
Consider an elementary small strip of radius x and thickness dx

Resistance of that small strip is dR
dx
dR 
4x 2
b b
 dx
R   dR 
a
4 a x 2
b

 
4 a
x 2 dx
9
b
  x 2 1 
4  2  1 a
=
b a
  1  1
=   
4  x  a 4  x  b

 1 1 
= 
4  a b 
  ba 
R  
4  ab 
CASE IV
Resistance of a non uniform wire.
dx
dR 
r 2
10
r2  r1 r  r1
tan   
 x
r r 
r  r1   2 1  x
  
r2  r1
Put c

r  r1  cx
dr
c
dx
dr
dx 
c
dr
dR 
cr 2
r2 r r
 2 dr  2 2
R   dR   2 
c r1
r dr
r1
c r1 r
r2
  r 2 1 
= c  2  1 
 r 1
r r
  1  2  1  1
 
=
c  r  r1 c  r  r2
 1 1 
=   
c  r1 r2 
R
  r2  r 
  r2  r1  r1r2

R
r1r2
11
* Stretching of Wire
* If a uniform wire is stretched, then length increases, area decreases. But volume remains constant
 v  2 v v
R   2
 2
A A2 V A  r 2 
* Relation between Resistance and mass of wire
mass m
Volume = 
density d
 2  2 d
R 
v m
* A uniform wire of Resistance R is stretched to n times its original length. Its new Resistance is n 2 R
 2
R
v
  n 
2
n 2  2
R 
1
  n 2R
v v
 n2R  R 
 100   n  1 100
2
* % charge in Resistance = 
 R 
* A wire is stretched such that its original length increases by n%, if % change is very very small [less
than 5%]
then resistance increases by 2n%
 R  k 2  log R  log k  2 log  

 
 dR d dR  d 
 2   100  2   100 
 R  R 
  
 
 % change in R % change in length 
* Relation between Resistivity and Relaxation Time

V = IR I = nAeVd
   
E  nAeVd   R
A A
12
Ee    Ee
E  nAe Vd  
m  A  m
m

ne 2 
* If metal is heated [n nearly constant in a conductor]
 KE of free electron 
 Collision frequency 
 Relaxation Time    
 Resistivity    
* POINT FORM OF OHMS LAW
V = IR

E  I
A
I
E 
A
   
E  J EJ

E 
J

 
J  E
13
Current through a non uniform wire
I1  I 2  I
I I
J1  J2  J1  J 2
A1 A2
A1  A 2
 
EJ
E1  E 2
I1  I 2
nA1eV1  nA 2 eV2
A1V1  A 2 V2
A1  A 2
V1  V2
14
Electron Mobility   
It is the magnitude of drift velocity per unit electric field
Vd

E
Relation between current and mobility
I  nA e Vd Vd  E
I  nA eE
I

nA c E
Conductivity of a semiconductor
Ie e
In h
I  Ie  I n
V
 n e AeVe  n h AeVh
R
E
 n e A e Ve  n h A e Vh

A
EA
 n e A e Ve  n h A e Vh

1 V V
 n ee e  n h e h
 E E
  n e e e  n h e h
Variation of Resistance with Temperature
CASE I
Heating from 0oC to T1o c
dR  R  dT R 0  Resistance at 0oC
dR
 dT R1  Resistance at T1o c
R
15
R 2  Resistance at T2o c
R1 T
dR 1
R R 0 0 dT
   0  Temperature coefficient of resistance at 0oC
0
x x2
n  R R1   0  T 01
R T
ex  1    .....
0
1! 2!
if x < < 1
nR1  nR 0  0  T1  0 ex  1  x
R 
n  1    0  T1  0
 R0 
R1
 e0 T1 R1  R 0 e0T1
R0
If  0 T1  1
R 1  R 0 1   0 T1  ................ (1)
Heating from 0o c to T2 o c
R2 T
dR 2
 R 0 0 dT
R0
 
R 
n  2    0  T2  0
 R0 
R2
 e0 T2
R0
R 2  R 0 e0 T2
If  0 T2  1
R 2  R 0 1   0 T2  ......................(2)
(2) R 1   0 T2
 2 
(1) R 1 1   0T1
16
R 2  R 2 0 T1  R1  R 1 0 T2
R 2  R 1   0  R1T2  R 2T1 
R 2  R1
0 
R 1T2  R 2 T1
* CASE II
Heating from T10 c to T20 c
R2 T
dR 2
 R 1 T dT
R1
 
1
R  R 1  Re sis tan ce at T10 c

 n  2   1  T2  T1 
 R1  R 2  Re sis tan ce at T20 c
R2 1  Temperature coefficient of Re sis tan ce at T10c
 e1 T2  T1 
R1
x x2
e  1    ......
x
R 2  R1e1T2 T1  1! 2!
if x  1
ex  1  x
If 1  T2  T1   1
R 2  R1 1  1  T2  T1 
R2
 1  1  T2  T1 
R1
R2
 1  1  T2  T1 
R1
R 2  R1
 1  T2  T1 
R1
R 2  R1
1 
R1  T2  T1 
* Relation between  0 and 1
17
R 0  Re sis tan ce at 0o c
R 1  Re sis tan ce at T10 c
 0  Temperature coefficient of Re sis tan ce at 0o c
1  Temperature coefficient of Re sis tan ce at T10c
dR  R  dT
dR
 R  slope of graph
dT
Slope of Temperature - Resistance graph is constant
0 R 0  1R 1
R  R0
1  
R1 R 0 1   0 T1 
0
1 
1   0 T1
Variation of Resistivity with Temperature
0  Resistivity at 0oC
1  Resistivity at T1o c
 2  Resistivity at T2o c
 0  Temperature coefficient of resistivity at 0oC
1  Temperature coefficient of resistivity at T1o c
* 1  0 e 0T1
* 1  0 1   0 T1 
* 2  0e0T2
18
* 2  0 1  0T2 
2  1
* 0 
1T2  2T1
* 2  1e1  T2 T1 
* 2  1 1  1  T2  T1  
 
* 1   T  T
1
1 2 1
* If  is +ve, then R  with  in T

eg. Metals
* If  is –ve , then R  with  in T

eg. Semiconductor, electrolyte, insulator and carbon
* If   0 , then resistance is independent of temperature.

eg. Alloys like Nichrome, constantan etc.
19
* CARBON RESISTOR
* CASE I
4 band Carbon Resistor
* Coloured rings are used to represent resistance of a carbon resistor

* Colour of 1st ring indicate 1st significant figure of resistor
* Colour of 2nd ring indicate 2nd significant figure of resistor
* Colour of 3rd ring indicate the total no. of zeros after 2nd significant figure. [multiplier or power]
* Colour of last ring indicate % accuracy or tolerance
20
* CASE II
Five Band Carbon Resistor
* Colour of 1st ring indicate 1st significant figure of resistor

* Colour of 2nd ring indicate 2nd significant figure of resistor
* Colour of 3rd ring indicate 3rd significant figure of resistor
* Colour of 4th ring indicate multiplier
* Colour of 5th ring indicate tolerance
21
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Resistors in Series
r1, r2 and r3  three resistors connected in series

I  Current flowing through r1, r2 and r3
V  potential difference across A and B
V1, V2 and V3  potential difference across r1 , r2 and r3
22
According to ohm's law V = V1 + V2 + V 3

V1 = Ir1
V2 = Ir2 IRs = Ir1 + Ir2+ Ir3
V3 = Ir3
Rs be the resultent resistance Rs = r1 + r2+ r3
V = IRs
 Hence, when a number of resistors are connected in series, the total (or resultant or equivalant )
resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistors.
 ‘n’ resistors each of resistance R are connected in series the effective resistance is nR.
Resistors in Parallel
r1, r2 and r3  three resistors connected in parallel

I1, I2 and I3  current flowing through r1, r2 and r3
I  Total current
V  potential difference across A and B
Since potential difference across r1, r2 and r3 is same . According to ohm’s law.
V = I1r1, V = I2 r2 and V = I3 r3
V V V
I1  , I 2  and I3 
r1 r2 r3
V
Rp be the resultant resistance I 
RP
I = I 1 + I2 + I3
V V 1 V
  
R P r1 r2 r3
1 1 1 1
  
R P r1 r2 r3
23
 Hence, when a number of resistors are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the resultant resistance
is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistance.
If there exist only 2 resistors
1 1 1
 
R eff R 1 R 2
1 R  R1
 2
R eff R 1R 2
R 1R 2
R e ff 
R1  R 2
R
 n resistors each of resistance R are connected in parallel the effective resistance is
n
eg:1) 2)
24
3) 4)
 Equipotential Method
If two or more than two Junctions in a circuit are connected by a wire having negligible resistance or
negligible capacitance, then these junctions are called equipotential junction. They are at same potential.
Equipotential junctions are replaced by a single junction.
25
Examples:
1)
2)
3)
26
4)
Shorting of Resistance
If a zero resistance wire is connected parallel to an external resistor R then whole current is flows
through the zero resistance wire.
27
28
Path Symmery Method

If there exist identical path between entering point and leaving point of current in a circuit. Then
identical junctions in identical path are at same potential.
eg.(1)
Path ACDB and AEFB identical VC = VE

VD = VF
eg (1)
29
eg (2) RAB = ?
Path ACDB amd AEFB are identical

VC = VE
VD = VF
8R 8R 4R
 ;
3 3 3
Method II
R R R 4R
  
2 3 2 3
30
eg : (3) RAB ?
R R R 6R
  
2 5 2 5
Perpendicular Symmetry Method
RAB = ?
This circuit is symmetric about the perpendicular bisector of AB the circuit of left side is the mirror
image of circuit of right side.
31
8R 16R 2
 2R
3 8
2R  R 2R 2R
  2R 
8R  3  R
; ; 8R 14R 7
2R  R 3 3 3  2R
3 3
2)
8R 2R 8
||  R
3 3 15
Kirchoff’s first Law [Law of conservation of charge]

 Algebraic sum of the total current meeting at a junction is zero
 Incoming current is taken as + ve
 out going current is taken as –ve
 Total incoming current = Total outgoing current.
32
I 1 + I2 – I 3 – I 4 = 0
I 1 + I 2 = I 3 + I4
Junction Rule
[Algebraic sum of the total current meeting at a junction is zero]
 Junction Rule is used to finel potential of a Junction (Vx)
Potential difference across that branch

Electric current through a branch =
Resis tan ce of that branch
Vx  VA Vx  VB Vx  Vc
  0
R1 R2 R3
Solve this equation and find Vx.
Nodal Analysis
 Node is an equipotential point at which two or more than two circuit elements are joined.
 Travel from one node to neighbouring node through each branch.
33
 If we first met +ve terminal of the cell, then gives +ve volt for +ve terminal and 0 volt for –ve terminal.
 If we first met –ve terminal of the cell, then gives –ve volt for – ve terminal and 0 volt for +ve terminal
 Apply Junction rule and find nodal voltage [Algebraic sum of the total current meeting at a junction is
zero].
P.d across that branch

 Current through any branch =
Total Re sis tan ce in that branch
Eg(1) Find current through each branch.
Algebra is sum of the total current emerging from a node is zero.
10  9 30  9 21 9  14 23
I1   1A; I 2   A; I3   A; I3  I1  I2
1 2 2 2 2
V  10  0 V  30  0 V   14  0
  0
1 2 2
 V  30    V  14   0  V  9 volt
 V  10  
2 2
34
eg(2) For what value of R current through 4 resistance is zero.
V 90 V 30
V = 6 volt because current through 4 ohm is zero O  0 put V = 6 than R  2 
2 R
eg (3) Find steady state P.d across capacitor
 at steady state capacitor blocks dc. [Capacitor becomes fully charged]

Hence current through middle branch is zero
VN  v V  2V
0 N 0
R 2R
4V 4V V
VN  ; VC  VN  V  V 
3 3 3
35
Kirchoff’s second Law [Law of conservation of Energy]
In any closed path net emf   IR   q c 0
Application
1. Travelling Method
 It is used to find the potential difference between two points A and B in a given circuit.
 Travel from A to B through any part of the circuit.
 While travelling through a resistor along the direction of current potential falls. Hence IR drop is taken
as –ve
 While travelling through a resistor opposite the direction of current, potential rises. Hence IR is taken
as + ve
 While travelling from +ve terminal of the cell to its –ve terminal potential falls. Hence cell emf is taken
as –ve.
 While travelling from –ve terminal of the cell to its +ve terminal potential rises. Hence cell emf is taken
as +ve.
q
 While travelling from +ve plate of a capacitor to its –ve plate , potential falls. Hence is taken as –ve.
c
q
 While travelling from –ve plate of capacitor to its +ve plate potential rises . Hence is taken as +ve.
c
 VA  VB  netemf   IR   q 0
c
eg: Find VA – VB ?
VA  VB  5  1  12  6  2  3  2  4  0
VA  VB  6volt
36
2. Loop or Mesh Rule

eg: Find current through each branch.
Apply kirchaff’s 2nd law path ABEFA
10   I1  I2  2  30  I1 1  0
2I2  3I1  20 _______(1)

Apply Kircheff’s 2nd Law path BCDEB
14  2I2  30   I 2  I1  2  0
4I2  2I1  44
2I 2  I1  22 ______(2)
2I 2  3I1  20
2I 2  I1  22
1   2   2I1  2
I1  1A
37
2I 2  I1  22
2I 2  1  22
2I 2  23
23
I2  A
2
I2 > I 1
23 21
I 2 - I1  1  A
2 2
Current Division Rule
Total current  Re sis tan ce of other Branch

 Current through any branch =
Sum of all resis tan ce in the circuit
I R2
I1 
R1  R 2
IR 1
I2 
R1  R 2
 If there exist more than two Resistors
R2 R3
Re ff 
R2  R3
I Re ff
I1 
R 1  Re ff
38
Voltage Division Rule
Total voltage  Resis tan ce of that elament

Voltage across any elament =
Sum of all resis tan ce in the circuit
VR 1 VR 2 VR 3
V1  V2  V3 
R1  R 2  R 3 R1  R 2  R 3 R1  R 2  R 3
Eg: Find VA – VB = ?
3 6
I1   2A
3 6
3 3
I2   1A
36
39
Apply k II L
Path ACB
VA  VB  1 2  1 3  0 ; VA  VB  1  0 ; VA  VB  1volt
3  2  3  1 3  3  6  3 
  1V
1 2  3  3 9
Resistence of Cubes
 Cube I
Method I
Path symmetry
VD  VH  VF
VC  VE  VG
40
R R R
R e ff   
3 6 3
5 R eff  2R  R  2R
5
R eff  R
6
Method 2
Applying k II law path ADCB
I I I
VA  VB  R  R  R  0
3 6 3
I I I
VA  VB  R  R  R
3 6 3
R R R
I R eff  I    
3 6 3
5
R eff  R
6
 Cube 2
41
[Path symmetry]
I  2 I 2  I1
VD  VE
VC  VF
42
R
2R 
2  2R 2R 7R
2R || R ; R 5 ; R 
2 2R  5 5
2
7R  R
5 7R
7R || R 7R R AB 
5 R 12
5
 Line symmetry Method
Cube III Top View
43
The circuit is symmetric about the line AB. The circuit of upper side is the mirror image of circuit of
lower side. Then all junctions in perpendicular AB are at same potential.
VC  VG  VH  VD
R || 3R
R  3R 3R
Re ff  
R  3R 4
 Folding the circuit
VC  VG  VH  VD
VC  VD
VG  VH
44
eg:
45
3R 6R 2
 2R
3R 6R
|| 2R  2  2 
2 3R 7R 7
 2R
2 2
 Plane Symmetry Method
The circuit is symmetric about the plane ABFE.

The circuit of upper side of the plane is the mirror image of lawer side of the plane. Then, all junctions
in perpendicular plane are at same potential.
VC  VD  VG  VH
3R
3R || R 
4
46
Perpendicular plane symmetry Method
The circuit is symmetric about the plane perpendicular to AB. The circuit of left side is the Mirror
image of circuit of right side. Then all junction in that plane ar at same potential.
VC  VD  VG  VH
3R || R
 3R
4
eg: Each wire having resistance R . Find RAD?
 r plane symmetry  VE  VF 
47
R 2R 8R
8 || 
3 3 15
Ratio Symmetry Method

eg : RAB = ?
10 20 30 2
The circuit is symmetric about the ratio of resistance   
5 10 15 1
VA  VC  10 I VC  VD  20I
VA  VE  5  2I  10I VE  VF  20I
VC  VE VD  VF
60 II 30
20 
48
Infinite Circuit
repeating elament Put RAB = X
RCD = X
RX
R AB  R  R
RX
RX 2R 2  2RX  RX
X  2R  ; X
RX RX
RX + X2 = 2R2 + 3RX
X2 – 2RX – 2R2 = 0
49
b  2
 4ac 2R   8R 2 2R  3 4 R 2
X  
2a 2 2
2R  2R 3

2
 R  R 3  1 3 R  
Infinite grid Circuit
RAB =?
Condition I
Current entering through A and leaving through 
50
Condition II
Current entering through  and leaving through h B.
Super impose condition I and II
IR
VA  VB  0
2
IR
VA  VB 
2
IR
I Re ff 
2
Re ff  R
2
Electric Cells
 It is a device which converts chemical energy to electrical energy.
 A cell consists of two terminals. One +ve terminal (higher potential terminal) and one – ve terminal
(lower potential terminal).
 Symbolic representation of cell.
 EMF (Electromotive force)

Potential difference across the terminals of the cell is maximum when no current is drawn from the
cell. This open circute voltage is called emf.
Internal resistance (r)
 resistance offered by the cell is called internal resistance
 Internal resistance depends upon
• nature of electrode and electrolyte
• Distance b/w two electrode  r  with  in dis tan ce b / w two electrode 
• Area of electrode  r  with  in Area of electrode 

51
 Discharging of cell
If on external circuit of resistance R is connected across the cell then current will flow from +ve
terminal to –ve terminal through external circuit. This process is called discharging. Inside the cell
discharging current flows from –ve terminal to + ve terminal.
Mechanism of Current flow
If an external circuit of resistance R is connected across the two terminal, of the cell, electron start to
flow from -ve terminal of the cell to +ve terminal through external resistance. Internal mechanism of
the cell takes electron from +ve terminal and pushes them towards –ve terminal. By this way cell
provides constant potential difference across an external circuit for a long time. Direction of discharging
current is opposite to the direction of drifting of electrons.
Terminal Voltage (V)
Due to the potential drop across internal resistance, the potential difference across two terminals, of
the cell decreases from emf to terminal voltage. Hence terminal voltage is defined as the potential
difference across the cell when current is drawn from it (closed circuit voltage)
Terminal voltage = emf – (potential drop across internal resistance)

I
Rr
52
V = E – Ir
r
V 
Rr
R  r  r
V
Rr
R
V  IR
Rr
Combination of cells
 Series connection
Case I Proper Connection
In proper series connection +ve terminal of one cell is connected to the –ve terminal of other cell and
–ve terminal of 1st cell is connected to the +ve terminal of other cell. In this combination both cells are
discharged that means energy flows from both cells to external circuit
i   2
 net  1    2  1   2
R net  r1  r2  R
 net  
I  1 2
R net r1  r2  R
Terminal voltage across1st cell  V1   1  Ir1 

 discharging
Terminal voltage across 2nd cell  V2    2  Ir 
Case II Wrong Connection
In this connection +ve terminal of 1st cell is connected to the +ve terminal of 2nd cell and –ve terminal
of 1st cell is connected to –ve terminal of 2nd cell. In this combination higher emf cell is discharged
while lower emf cell is charged that means energy flows from 1st cell (say higher emf cell) to 2nd cell
(say lower emf cell ) and external resistance R.
1   2
 net  1   2  1   2
R net  r1  r2  R
 net  
I  1 2
R net r1  r2  R
Terminal voltage across Ist cell  V1   1  Ir1  disch arg ing
Terminal voltage across 2nd cell  V2    2  Ir2   2  Ir2  charging


 Consider the series combination of n identical cells each of emf  and internal resistance r. Out of
which m cells are wrongly connected then it will destroy the effect of 2m cells.
53
Hence,  net  n  2m   n  2m  
eg:
 net  5  2  3
reff = 5r
Charging of weak cell
To charge a weak cell by using a charger battery. The +ve terminal of the charger battery is connected
to the +ve terminal of weak cell and –ve terminal of charger battery is connected to –ve terminal of
weak cell. Charging current flows from +ve terminal of charger battery to the +ve terminal of weak
cell.
 CB  
 CB  
I
r  rCB  R
 emf of ch arg er battery    emf of weak cell 

Charging current =
Total resis tan ce in the circuit
During charging energy flows from charger battery to weak cell. Hence charger battery is discharged
while weak cell is charged.
Terminal voltage across charger battery  VCS   CB  IrCB
Terminal voltage across weak cell  V     Ir    Ir

Shorting of cell
A cell is said to be shorted if its terminals are connected by a wire having zero resistance.
 A shorted cell gives maximum current

Imax 
r
54
 Terminal voltage across shorted cell is zero.
r
V    Ir    0
r
Parallel Combination of cells
I1 is not current through upper branch. It is the current when only cell of emf 1 and its internal
resistance r1 is present in the circuit.
1 2 n
I1  I2  In 
r1 r2 rn
Ieff  I1  I 2  I3  ..........I n
1  2 3 
Ieff     ..........  n
r1 r2 r3 rn
I 1 1 1 1
    ............. 
reff r1 r2 r3 rn
 AB  eff  Ieff  reff
55
1  2 1 
   ........  n
I r r2 r3 rn
eff  eff  1
1 1 1 1 1
   .......... 
reff r1 r2 r3 rn
Case 1
1  2

r1 r2 1r2   2 r1 r1r2
eff   eff  reff 
1 1 r1  r2 r1  r2

r1 r2
Case II
1 2
I1  I2 
r1 r2
I1  I2
1 1

r1 r2 1r2   2 r1 r1r2
 eff   eff  reff 
1 1 r1  r2 r1  r2

r1 r2
56
Grouping of cells
Case I
Series grouping
 eff  n
R eff  nr  r
 eff n
I 
R eff nr  R
Case II
Parallel grouping
r
eff   R eff  R
m

I
r
R
m
57
Case III
Mixed grouping
nr nr
 eff  n ; reff  R eff  R
m m
n
I mn
nr I
R nr  mR
m
N
 m  n  N I
nr  mR
58
Generalised Nodal Method
Eg:1 Find current through each branch.
x  20 x  0 x  44
  0
1 2 2
2x  40  x  x  44  0
4x- 84= 0; x = 21 volt
21  20
I1   1A
1
21  0 21
I2   A
2 2
44  21 23
I3   A
2 2
59
Eg: 2 For what value of R current through 4  0
x 9 x 3
0 0
2 R
x  6V
current through 4  0
69 63 3 3
  6;  0
2 R 2 R
3 3
 ;
2 R R2
60
Eg.3 Find steady state p.d across capacitor
xv x  2V
0 0
R 2R
2x  2v  x  2v  0
3x  4v  0
4
x v
3
4 v
p.d across capacitor = vv
3 3
Eg:4 Find current through BD
61
20  0
I1   4A
5
10  0
I2   5A
2
I 2  I1  1A
Eg: 5 Find current through 2 resistor
42
I  1A
2
Eg: 6 Find current through 20
Eg: 7 Find current through 25 v cell
62
15  0
I1   3A
5
30  0
I2   3A
10
50
I3   1A
5
55  0
I4   5A
11
I  I1  I2  I3  I 4  3  3  1  5  12 A
i1
Eg: 8 Find ?
i2
Vx  0 Vx  0 Vx  16
  0 16  8
8 8 4 Ia   2A
4
Vx  Vx  2Vx  32  0
16  8
4Vx  32 Ib   2A
4
Vx  8V i1  Ia  Ib  4A
80 IC 1
IC   1A i2   A
8 2 2
i1 4
 8
i2 1
2
63
Wheatstones Bridge
A network with 4 resistors P, Q, R and S arranged as shown in figure with a cell of emf  between the
points A and C and a galvanometer G between B and D is called wheatstones bridge.
The bridge is said to be balanced when the galvanometer shows zero deflection. (ie the points B and
D are at same potential)
P and Q are called ratio arms and R is variable resistor.
If VB = VD
P R

Q S
If P,Q and R are known S can be found out
Proof :
Apply Kirchoff’s IInd law to the closed path ABDA
net emf +  IR  0
I1P  Ig G   I  I1  R  0
Put I g  0
I1P   I  I1  R  0
I1P   I  I1  R .....(1)
Apply Kirchoff’s IInd law to the closed path BCDB
  I1  I g  Q   I  I1  Ig  S  I g h  0
64
Put Ig = 0
I1Q   I  I1  S  0
I1Q   I  I1  S ....(2)
1  P  R
2 Q S
Conditions for current flowing through B to D or D to B
If VB = VD no current flow through B to D, then

I1 
PQ
Q
VB  VC  I1Q 
PQ
(VC = OV)
Q
VB 
PQ

I2 
R S
S
VD  VC  I 2S 
R S
(VC = OV)
65
S
VD 
R S
If VB = VD
Q S

PQ R S
QR + QS = PS + QS
QR  PS
If current flows through B  D
VB > VD
QR > PS
If current flows through D  B
VB < VD
QR < PS
Partial Symmetry Method
RAB = ?
I1 > I2
(VA - VD) = (VA - VC) + (VC - VD)

2I2R = I1R + (I1 - I2)R
3I2 = 2I1
2
I2  I1
3
(VA - VB) = (VA - VC) + (VC - VB)
IReff = I1R + 2I2R
66
2
 I1  I2  R eff  I1R  2  I1R
3
 2  4
 I1  I1  R eff  I1R  I1R
 3  3
5 7
I1R eff  I1R
3 3
7
Reff = R
5
Star and Delta connection
Star and delta connections are electrically equivalent
Delta to star conversion :
R AB R AC R CA R CB
RA  RC 
R AB  R AC  R CB R AB  R AC  R CB
R BA R BC
RB 
R AB  R AC  R CB
67
Star to delta conversion :
R AR B
R AB  R A  R B 
RC
RARC
R AC  R A  R C 
RB
R CR B
R CB  R C  R B 
RA
eg : RAD ?
20  50
RA   10 
20  50  30
20  30
RB   6
20  30  50
50  30
RC   15 
20  30  50
68
 30  20  600
R AD  10     10  = 22 
 30  20  50
Temperature coefficient of resistance series
at t = 00 C at t = t0 C
R0 = (R1)0 + (R2)0
at t = t0 C
R = R1 + R2
R 0 1   eff t    R1 0 1  1t    R 2 0 1   2 t 
 R1 0   R 2 0  1   eff t    R 1 0   R 2  0    R1 0 1t   R 2 0  2 t
 R 1 0   R 2 0    R 1 0   R 2 0   eff t =  R 1 0   R 2 0    R 1 0 1   R 2 0  2  t
 R1 0   R 2 0   eff t   R 1 0 1   R 2 0  2  t
 R1 0 1   R 2 0  2
 eff 
 R 1 0   R 2  0
Temperature coefficient of resistance parallel
at t = 00 C
 R 1  0  R 2 0
R0 
 R 1 0   R 2 0
at t = t0 C
69
1 1 1
 
R R1 R 2
 R 1 0  R 2  0
Put R  R 1   t   1  eff t 
0 eff
 R 1 0   R 2 0
R1   R1 0 1  1t 
R 2   R 2 0 1   2 t 
 R 1 0   R 2 0 1 1
1  eff t   1  1t   1   2 t 
1 1 1
 R 1  0  R 2 0  R1 0  R 2 0
1  x   1  nx
n
when x <<1
 R 1 0   R 2  0 1 1
1  eff t   1  1t   1   2 t 
 R 1  0  R 2 0  R1 0  R 2 0
 1 1  1 1    
   1   eff t     1  t
  R 2 0  R 1 0   R1 0  R 2 0   R1 0  R 2 0 
 1 1    R 1  0   R 2 0   1 1   1  R 2 0   2  R1  
     eff t     t
  R 2 0  R1 0    R1 0  R 2 0    R1 0  R 2 0    R1 0  R 2 0 
  R 1 0   R 2 0   1  R 2 0   2  R1 0 
   eff   
  R1 0  R 2 0    R1 0  R 2 0 
 1  R 2 0   2  R 1 0 
 eff   
  R 1 0   R 2 0 
70
Thevinins Theorem
 Temporarily remove the element whose current is required
 Find voltage across open terminals. This voltage is called Thevinins voltage (Vth)
 Short circuit all batteries and find the effective resistance across open terminals that resistance is
called Thevinin’s resistance (Rth)
 Replace the entire circuit by using a single cell of emf Vth and internal resistance Rth
 Connect load resistance (RL) back into the terminals from where it was previously removed
V
I
R1  R 2
VR 2
Vth  IR 2 
R1  R 2
 RR 
R th   1 2   R 3
 R1  R 2 
71
Vth
IL 
R th  R L
Heating effect of electric current

Joules Experiment
H  I2
HR
Ht
H  I 2 Rt
1
H  I 2 Rt
J
J  Joule’s mechanical coefficient of heat
J = 4.2 J/cal
72
Joule’s Law of Heating

 Loss of electrostatic potential energy is converted in to heat.
 Heat developed = charge flowing × loss in potential
dq
I
dt
dq = Idt
VA - VB = IR
dH = dq(VA - VB)
dH = Idt × IR
dH = I2Rdt
Heat developed per second is called thermal power generated.
dH
P  I2 R
dt
I2 R 2 V2
PI R2

R R
V2
P  I2R 
R
Electrical Bulb
Tungsten is used for making filament in a bulb, because
 It has high resistance and high melting point (3695 K)
 It has high tensile strength
73
 Rated voltage 
2
Resistance of the bulb =

rated power
Rated power
Rated current 
Rated voltage
V2 V2
P 
R V
I
P  VI
A bulb shows maximum brightness when :

 Potential difference across the bulb = rated voltage
 Current through the bulb = rated current
 Thermal power = rated current
A bulb fuses when
 Potential difference across the bulb > rated voltage
 Current through the bulb > rated current
 Thermal power > rated power
2202
R 100w    484
100
2202
R  40w    1210
40
Resistance of higher wattage bulb is less than that of lower wattage bulb.
74
Bulbs in series
V2
P1  I12 R 1 
R1
V2
P2  I22 R 2 
R2
P  I 2  R1  R 2 
V2
P
R1  R 2
1 R1  R 2 R1 R 2
  2 2
P V2 V V
1 1 1
 
P P1 P2
P1P2
P
P1  P2
75
 In series connection current through each bulb is same, hence we use the expression I2R to compare
thermal power.
 In series connection, no of bulb  , total brightness 

 In series connection, lower wattage bulb (higher resistance bulb) shows more brightness than higher
wattage bulb (lower resistance bulb)
Bulbs in parallel
V2
P1  I R 1 
2
1
R1
V2
P2  I22 R 2 
R2
V2 1 1 
P  V2   
R eff  R1 R 2 
76
V2 V2
P 
R1 R 2
P  P1  P2
V2
 In parallel connection, voltage across each bulb is same, hence we use the expression to compare
R
thermal power
 In parallel connection no of bulb increases, total brightness 
 House hold connections are parallel

 In parallel connection higher wattage bulb (lower resistance bulb) shows more brightness than lower
wattage bulb (higher resistance)
 Decrease brightness of the bulb after long use, is due to evaporation of metal of
metal of filament, thickness of filament decreases. Hence radius of filament
decreases, resistance of filament increases and thermal power decreases.
r
 
R=  2
A r 
V2
P=
R
 Decrease in brightness in the bulb in a room when a high current appliance is switched on
If switch is open If switch is closed
77
V1    I1r
V    Ir I1  I
V2 V1  V
PB 
RB
V 
1 L
   Ir  
2 1
P B
PB  RB
RB
PB1  PB
Heating coils
* Nichrome is used for making heating element in a coil because

*It has high resistance and high melting point
*It does not oxidise when heating
*It is easily drawn into wires
 A coil take t1 seconds to boil certain amount of water. Another coil take t2 second to boil same amount
of water.
 Coils in series
H H H
P1  ; P2  ; P 
t1 t2 t
1 1 1
 
P P1 P2
t t1 t 2
 
H H H
t  t1  t 2
 Coils in parallel
H H H
P1  ; P2  ; P 
t1 t2 t
P  P1  P2
H H H
 
t t1 t 2
1 1 1
 
t t1 t 2
78
t1t 2
t
t1  t 2
Electrical fuse wire

 Fuse wire is used to protect a device from high current
 It is connected series to the device
 It is an alloy of Pb and Sn [75 % Pb and 25 % Sn]
 It has high resistance and low melting point
 When current exceeds safe limit fuse wire will melt and circuit will break
 In an electrical fuse wire heat is radiated through surface area
Heat developed per sec  surface area
I 2 R  2r

I2  2r
r 2
I2
r
r2
I2  r 3
I  r 3/ 2
79
Power loss in transmission cables
2
Pin P 
I ; Ploss   in  R
V V
1
Ploss 
V2
Maximum power transfer theorem

I
RV
Thermal power developed across R
2R
P  I2 R 
R  r
2
If R = 0, P = 0
If R =  , P = 0
 V V 
 I  R    0 
80
dP
If P = Pmax slope of P - R graph = 0 0
dR
dP d  2R 
  0
dR dR   R  r 2 
  R  r 2  1  R  2  R  r  
=   0
2
R  r
2
 
R  r   2R  R  r   0
2
R  r   2R  R  r 
2
rR
 Condition for strongest possible current from a cell or group of cells
Case 1 : If there exist only one cell and one external resistance
r=R
Case 2 : In series grouping
nr = Reff
Case 3 : In parallel grouping
r
 R eff
m
Case 4 : In mixed grouping
nr
 R eff
m
81
Efficiency of a cell
 R
I V  IR 
Rr Rr
W q
Pin    I  I
t t
Ploss = I2r
Pout = Pin - Ploss
= I  I r
2
=    I r  I  VI
Pout VI
 
Pin I2 r
R
 Rr

R

Rr
 R 
% =   100
Rr
Maximum efficency of a cell = 50 % [r = R]
82
 Metre bridge (Slide wire bridge)  A simple form of wheat stones bridge
 AB is a 1 metre long wire of constantan or magnanin and has a uniform cross sectional area
 R is known variable resistor (resistance box)
 G is a galvanometer to detect the balance point with the help of jockey (J)
 K is the key to switch on or switch off the circuit
 Suppose galvanometer shows zero deflection when jockey is pressed at the point D then
R R AD R  / A R 
    
S R DB S  100    / A S 100  
R 100   
 unknown resistance (s) =

e.g: In a meter bridge experiment the null point is found to be 60 cm away from left end. When a resistance
of 15  in connected in series with the resistance in right gap the null point shifts by 10cm towards left
end. Find the value of resistance in right gap.
Let R and S are the respective resistances in left gap and right gap.
R 60 R 3 3
In first case     R  S
S 40 S 2 2
R 60  10 R
In second case    1  R  S  15
S  15 40  10 S  15
3 S
 S  S  15   15  S  30 
2 2
e.g  In a metre - bridge in following figure, the null point is found to be at a distance of 33.7 cm from A.
If now a resistance of 12  is connected in parallel with S, the null point occurs at 51.9 cm. Find the
resistances of R and S
83
S 66.3

R 33.7
Potentiometer
 a uniform wire of length L and resistance R is kept stretched between two points A and B on a wooden
board in a zig-zag manner. Primary circuit is connected between points A and B. It consists of primary
cell of emf p and internal resistance rp, rheostat (RH) and key. Rheostat is used to change primary
current.
84
 Positive terminal of secondary cell (emf s and internal resistance rs) is connected to the point A. Itss
-ve terminal is connected to a galvanometer through a high resistance (HR). The free end of galvanometer
is connected to jockey. Jockey can be pressed any where on potentiometer wire. (This ckt is called
secondary circuit)
 Suppose galvanometer shows zero deflection when jockey is pressed at the point C on potentiometer
wire. ie, current from secondary cell becomes zero. This happens when emf of secondary cell is
balanced by potential drop across AC part of the wire due to current from primary cell.
 s  IR AC  I  Current from primary cell
P R R
 S     R AC        balancing length
 rP  R  R H   L  L
 I   P /  rP  R  R H 
 S    emf of secondary cell)  (balancing length)
 Let 1 be the balancing length when a cell of known emf 1 is used as secondary cell balancing length
becomes  2 when this cell is replaced by another cell of unknown emf  2
 1  1
2   2
2  2

1 1
 
2  1  2 
 1 
 Potential drop due to primary cell per unit length of potentiometer wire is called potential gradient.
 P  R
Potential gradient (k) =   
 rP  R  R H  L
IR
k
L
85
Determination of internal resistance of secondary cell using potentiometer
 An external resistance (RS) is connected across secondary cell. In fig - 1 switch is opened. Hence Rs
draws no current from secondary cell. Balancing length is I
S   .....(1)
 In fig 2 switch is closed, hence Rs draws current ( I ) from secondary cell. This current flows through
the internal resistance of secondary cell. Due to potential drop across internal resistance emf of
secondary cell falls to terminal voltage. Hence balancing length reduces to  '
 SR S 
 VS   '    ' .....(2)
 R S  rS 
1  Rs  rs   
1  rs 
 
rs 
 1 
rs   

 2 Rs ' Rs ' Rs  ' Rs 
  '
 rs  Rs  
 ' 
86
 Advantage of potentiometer over voltmeter  When a voltmeter is connected across a cell. It

draws current from the cell. Due to potential drop across internal resistance the potential difference
across cell falls from emf to terminal voltage. Hence voltmeter shows terminal voltage of the cell as
reading. But a balanced potentiometer draws no current from secondary cell. So internal resistance
of the cell has no effect. Hence potentiometer is the best device to find the unknown emf of a cell by
comparing its emf with the known emf of another cell.
 The high resistance protects the galvanometer by reducing current through it. But balance point remains
unaffected by the presence of this resistance. Because at the balanced stage this resistor carries no
current.
 In a potentiometer emf of secondary cell is balanced by using a part of primary voltage. Hence to get
balance point emf of primary cell should be more than that of secondary cell.
87

Current Electricity

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE PHYSICS (ENGG.

q Ne nve nAe 

* Current is a scalar [does’nt obey Vector law]

* Case I [Consider a circular cone]

  length of the conductor along the direction of current

Consider an elementary small strip of radius x and thickness dx

* Relation between Resistance and mass of wire

 R  k 2  log R  log k  2 log  

* Relation between Resistivity and Relaxation Time

* If metal is heated [n nearly constant in a conductor]

Current through a non uniform wire

It is the magnitude of drift velocity per unit electric field

Heating from 0oC to T1o c

Heating from T10 c to T20 c

R  R 1  Re sis tan ce at T10 c

* Relation between  0 and 1

Variation of Resistivity with Temperature

 0  Temperature coefficient of resistivity at 0oC

1  Temperature coefficient of resistivity at T1o c

* If  is +ve, then R  with  in T

* If  is –ve , then R  with  in T

* If   0 , then resistance is independent of temperature.

* Coloured rings are used to represent resistance of a carbon resistor

* Colour of 1st ring indicate 1st significant figure of resistor

r1, r2 and r3  three resistors connected in series

According to ohm's law V = V1 + V2 + V 3

r1, r2 and r3  three resistors connected in parallel

Path Symmery Method

Path ACDB and AEFB identical VC = VE

Path ACDB amd AEFB are identical

Kirchoff’s first Law [Law of conservation of charge]

Potential difference across that branch

P.d across that branch

Algebra is sum of the total current emerging from a node is zero.

eg(2) For what value of R current through 4 resistance is zero.

 at steady state capacitor blocks dc. [Capacitor becomes fully charged]

Kirchoff’s second Law [Law of conservation of Energy]

In any closed path net emf   IR   q c 0

2. Loop or Mesh Rule

Apply kirchaff’s 2nd law path ABEFA

2I2  3I1  20 _______(1)

2I 2  I1  22 ______(2)

Total current  Re sis tan ce of other Branch

 If there exist more than two Resistors

Voltage Division Rule

Total voltage  Resis tan ce of that elament

The circuit is symmetric about the plane ABFE.

Perpendicular plane symmetry Method

eg: Each wire having resistance R . Find RAD?

Ratio Symmetry Method

repeating elament Put RAB = X

Super impose condition I and II

 EMF (Electromotive force)

• Area of electrode  r  with  in Area of electrode 

Terminal voltage across1st cell  V1   1  Ir1 

Terminal voltage across Ist cell  V1   1  Ir1  disch arg ing

Terminal voltage across 2nd cell  V2    2  Ir2   2  Ir2  charging

Hence,  net  n  2m   n  2m  

 emf of ch arg er battery    emf of weak cell 

Terminal voltage across weak cell  V     Ir    Ir

 Terminal voltage across shorted cell is zero.

Generalised Nodal Method