Section 1. 0 Physical Quantities and Units

UNIT 1: PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS
1.0 Introduction
This unit serves the purpose of equipping you with pre-requisite concepts that are vital
for the understanding of this introductory mechanics course. The content of this unit
covers physical quantities, SI units, scalars and vectors.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 demonstrate an understanding that all physical quantities consist of a numerical

magnitude and a unit;
 recall the seven base quantities and their units;
 check the homogeneity of physical equations using base units;
 use standard prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal sub-multiples or
multiples of base and derived units;
 make reasonable use of significant figures;
 distinguish between scalar quantities and vector quantities and give examples of
each;
 carry out addition and subtraction of coplanar vectors;
 resolve a vector into two mutually perpendicular components;
 calculate the resultant from sum of components.
1.1 Physical quantities
Physical quantities are those quantities which can be measured. Examples of physical
quantities include length, mass, time, speed, volume and force. On the contrary, those
quantities which are not measurable are called abstract quantities. Curiosity, anxiety,
love and hatred are obvious examples of abstract quantities.
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All physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit. Suppose one says,
“the distance between Harare and Bindura is 89”. Without a unit, this is a meaningless
statement. When stating measurements of any physical quantity, you must always give
the measurement as a number multiplied by a unit. For example, 50 kg means 50
multiplied by a mass of one kilogram. Here, 50 is the numerical magnitude and kg is the
unit. Also, 6 s means 6 multiplied by a time of one second. In this case, 6 is the numerical
magnitude and s is the unit.
1.2 SI Units
The International System of Units (SI) is an internationally agreed system of

measurement which consists of seven base quantities and their units (Table 1.1).
1.2.1 Base quantities and their units
Table 1.1: The seven base quantities and their units.

Base quantity Base unit
Name Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
1.2.2 Derived quantities and their units
In Physics, we use far more physical quantities than just the seven base quantities. All
other physical quantities which are not among the seven base ones are called derived
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quantities. In derived quantities, both the physical quantity and its unit are derived from a
combination of base units, using a defining equation.
Worked Example 1.1
Find the derived units of the following derived quantities by means of defining equations:
(a) speed;
(b) density.
Solution
(a) Speed is defined by the equation:
s
v  , where v is the speed, s is the distance travelled in metres and t is the time taken in
t
seconds.
Distance (i.e.), length is a base quantity and is measured in metres (m). Time is also a
base quantity and its unit is the second (s). From the defining equation, the derived unit of
speed is the metre per second ( ms 1 or m/s).
(b) Density is defined by the equation:
m
 , where  is the density, m is the mass in kilograms (kg) and V is the volume in
V
 
cubic metres m3 .
Combining the units in the defining equation yields the derived unit of density which is

the kilogram per cubic metre kgm3 . 
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Note: Some derived units are quite complicated when expressed in terms of the base unit
combinations, and, for convenience, are given special names. The symbol of a unit
named after a person has a capital letter. For example, the SI unit of energy is the joule
(J) and the SI unit of power is watt (W).
Self Assessment Question 1.1
Find the derived units of the following derived quantities by means of defining equations:
(a) pressure;
(b) energy.
Table 1.2: Some of the derived units with special names.
Derived quantity Derived unit

Name Symbol
Work, energy joule J = kgm2s-2
Force newton N = kgms-2
Power watt W = kgm2s-3
Frequency hertz Hz = s-1
Worked Example 1.2
Express the newton (N) as a product or quotient of base units.
Solution
(a) The newton (N) is a unit of force.
Force is defined by the equation:
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force (N)  mass (kg) x acceleration ( ms 2 ).
Therefore, the newton ( N )  kgms2 .
1.2.3 Homogeneity of equations
A physical equation is said to be homogeneous, when the base units on each term of its
left hand side (LHS) are identical to the base units on each term of its right hand side
(RHS).
Worked Example 1.3
Use base units to check the homogeneity of the following physical equations:
(a) F  ma;
(b) v  u  at;
where F is the resultant force, m is the mass, v is the final velocity, u is the initial
velocity, a is the acceleration, and t is the time.
Solution
(a) LHS: The unit of force, F  newton  kgms2 .
RHS: The unit of ma  kgms2 .
The equation F  ma is homogeneous since the base units on both sides are the same,
(i.e.), kgms-2.
(b) LHS: The unit of v  ms 1.

RHS: The unit of u  ms 1 and the unit of at  ms 2  s  ms 1.
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Therefore, the equation v  u  at is homogeneous since the base units on the LHS side
are matching with the base units on the RHS (i.e.), ms-1.
1.2.4 Prefixes and their symbols
Standard prefixes can be used with base units for very small or very large numbers
(Table 1.3).
Table 1.3: Main prefixes and their symbols.

Prefix Symbol Multiplying factor
Yotta Y 1024
Zeta Z 1021
Exa E 1018
Peta P 1015
Tera T 1012
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo k 103
Hecto h 102
Deca da 10
Deci d 10-1
Centi c 10-2
Milli m 10-3
Micro  10-6
Nano N 10-9
Pico p 10-12
Femto f 10-15
Atto a 10-18
Zepto z 10-21
Yocto y 10-24
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For example: 1000 m  1103 m  1 km, 0.000009N  9 106 N  9N and
1200000000 s  1.2 109 s  1.2 Gs.
1.2.5 Significant figures
Consider masses of 4 kg, 4.0 kg, 4.00 kg and 4.000 kg. Writing 4.000 kg implies that we
have measured the mass more precisely than if we write 4 kg. Writing 4.000 kg tells us
that the mass is accurate to the nearest gram.
A figure of 4 kg may have been rounded to the nearest kilogram. The actual mass could
be anywhere between 3.5 kg and 4.5 kg. The number 4.000 kg is given to 4 significant
figures (4s.f.).
To find the number of significant figures we count the total number of digits, starting
from the first non-zero digit, reading from left to right.
Express (a) 0.002062 and (b) 189.3 to:
(i) 1s.f.
(ii) 2s.f.
(iii) 3s.f.
Note: During calculations if some of the figures are given less precisely than others, then
round up the final answer to the lowest number of significant figures.
Worked Example 1.4
Calvin the cyclist covers a distance of 100.0 m in 68 s. Find his average speed in ms-1.
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Solution
s
speed, v  , where s is the distance travelled in metres and t is the time taken in
t
seconds.
100.0
speed 
68
speed  1.5 ms 1 .
In worked example 1.4, we have rounded the answer to 2s.f. which is the lowest number
of significant figures since distance was given to 4s.f. and time was given to 2s.f.
1.3 Scalar quantities and vector quantities
Scalar quantities are those quantities which have magnitude (size) only. Examples of
scalars include: distance, density, energy, speed, time, temperature, mass, volume and
pressure.
Vector quantities are quantities which have both magnitude and direction. Examples of
vectors include: force, acceleration, velocity, displacement, momentum and torque.
1.3.1 Addition and subtraction of scalars
Scalars can be added together or subtracted from each other using simple arithmetic. For
example:
(i) Subtraction of temperature: 25 0C – 15 0C = 10 0C.
(ii) Addition of length/distance: 4 cm + 12 cm + 100 cm = 116 cm.
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1.3.2 Representing vectors
We use bold letters to denote vector quantities. For example, quantity a in Figure 1.1 (a)
is a vector since it is written in bold. Vectors can be represented by a line segment with
an arrow as illustrated in Figure 1.1 (a).
a direction
magnitude or size
Figure 1.1 (a): Representing vectors
 The length of the line segment represents the magnitude of the vector.
 The direction of the arrow represents the direction of the vector.
1.3.3 Addition and subtraction of vectors
When combining vectors, we need to consider their direction. The overall effect of
combined vectors is called the resultant.
Case 1: Vectors acting along the same line
(a) The resultant of in-line vectors acting in the same direction is found by taking the sum
of the individual vectors.
Worked Example 1.5
Find the resultant of the horizontal forces shown in Figure 1.1 (b).
5N 2N
Figure 1.1 (b): Two horizontal vectors acting in the same direction.
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Solution
Resultant = 5 N + 2 N = 7 N. 7N
(b) The resultant of two in-line vectors acting in opposite directions is found by taking
the difference between the individual vectors (i.e.), the larger vector minus the smaller
vector.
Find the resultant of the vertical forces shown in Figure 1.1 (c).
6N 2N
Figure 1.1 (c): Two vertical vectors acting in opposite directions.
Case 2: Perpendicular vectors
When finding the resultant of two perpendicular vectors Vx and Vy, we draw the vectors as
adjacent sides of a rectangle. The resultant is the diagonal of the rectangle, as illustrated
in Figure 1.2.
Vy
Ө
Vx
Figure 1.2: The resultant R of two perpendicular vectors Vx and Vy.
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The resultant vector R can be found by:
(i) the scale drawing method; or
(ii) the calculation method.
(i) The scale drawing method
The ‘tail’ of Vy is joined to the ‘head’ of Vx as illustrated in Figure 1.3 . If Vx and Vy are
drawn to scale, the resultant vector will be R (as shown in Figure 1.3). Both the
magnitude and direction of the resultant can be found by using an accurate scale drawing
and measuring the length R and angle Ө.
R Vy
Ө
Vx
Figure 1.3: The resultant R of two perpendicular vectors Vx and Vy after joining the
tail of Vy onto the head of Vx .
(ii) The calculation method
Referring to Figure 1.3, we notice that the two vectors Vx and Vy together with the
resultant R form three sides of a right-angled triangle. Hence applying Pythagoras’
theorem gives the magnitude of the resultant vector R.
R  Vx  Vy
2 2
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opposite V y
To find the direction of the resultant, we use: tan   
adjacent Vx
 Vy 
  tan 1  
 Vx 
Worked Example 1.6
0
A force of 6 N acts at 90 to a force of 8 N. Find the magnitude and direction of their
resultant, R.
Solution
R 6N
Ө
8N
Applying Pythagoras’ theorem gives the magnitude of the resultant vector R.
R  8 2  6 2  10 N.
6 3
To find the direction of the resultant, we use: tan   
8 4
3
Therefore:   tan 1    370.
4
The resultant is therefore, a force of 10 N acting at 37 0 to the 8 N force and at 53 0 to the

6 N force.
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1.3.4 Resolving a vector into two mutually perpendicular components
The component of a vector is the effective value of the vector along a particular direction.
In section 1.3.3 (case 2), we saw how to combine two perpendicular vectors so as to get a
single resultant vector. Now we are looking at the reverse process which involves
resolving a single vector into two components at right angles to each other (Figure 1.4).
Vy
V
Ө
Vx
Figure 1.4: Resolving a vector V into two perpendicular components.
adjacent Vx
To find the horizontal component Vx, we use: cos  
hypotenuse V
Therefore, Vx = V cos Ө.
opposite V y
To find the vertical component Vy, we use: sin  
hypotenuse V
Therefore, Vy = V sin Ө.
Resolve the displacement shown in Figure 1.5 into two mutually perpendicular
components.
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y
s = 15 m
300
x
Figure 1.5: Resolving a displacement, s.
1.3.5 Resultant from sum of components

A number of vectors which all lie in one plane are said to be coplanar. When given a
system of coplanar vectors, the resultant of the system can be found in two steps:
Step1: Choose two mutually perpendicular directions and find the components of all the
vectors in these two directions.
Step 2: Find the algebraic sum of the components and then apply the method of finding
the resultant of two perpendicular vectors (see worked example 1.6).
Worked Example 1.7

Find the resultant of three force vectors given in Figure 1.6.
y
6N
300
700 100 x
4N
10 N
Figure 1.6: Three forces acting on a particle.
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Solution
Components in the horizontal direction: 6 cos300  4 cos100  10cos700  5.72 N.
Components in the vertical direction: 6 sin 300  4 sin100  10sin 700  7.09 N.
5.715 N
Ө
R 7.092 N
Magnitude of R  5.7152  7.0922  9 N .

 7.092 
Direction of R =   tan 1    51.1 below the x-axis.
0
 5.715 
The resultant is therefore a 9 N force acting at 51.10 below the positive x-axis.

Find the magnitude and direction of the velocity vectors given in Figure 1.7.
3√2 ms-1 y
8√3 ms-1
450 300
x
2√ 3 ms-1
Figure 1.7: Resultant of three velocity vectors.
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1.4 Summary
 Physical quantities are those quantities which are measurable.

 All physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit.
 There are seven base quantities and their units in the SI system of measurement.
 A physical equation is said to be homogeneous, when all the terms on either side
of the equation have the same units.
 Prefixes are commonly used to indicate decimal submultiples or multiples of both
base and derived units.
 Numerical answers should always be given to the correct number of significant
figures.
 Scalar quantities have magnitude only.
 Vectors have both magnitude and direction.
 The resultant of in-line vectors acting in the same direction is found by adding the
individual vectors.
 The resultant of two in-line vectors acting in opposite directions is found by
subtracting the smaller vector from the larger vector.
 The resultant of two perpendicular vectors is found either by calculation or scale
drawing.
 A single vector can be resolved into two mutually perpendicular components.
1.5 Questions
1. Distinguish between physical quantities and abstract quantities. Give two examples of
each.
2. Copy and complete the following sentences:
(a) Amperes, kilograms and moles are all ………..units. Units made up of
combinations of base units are called ……. units.
(b) Scalar quantities have ……. only. Vector quantities have both ….. and ……
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3. Rewrite each of the following quantities using a suitable prefix:
(a) 5 000 000N.

(b) 0.003 s.
4. Express (a) 0.080 62 and (b) 349.7 to:
(i) 1s.f.
(ii) 2s.f.
(iii) 3s.f.
5. What is the unit of force expressed in base units? What special name is given to this
combination of base units?
6. Find the derived units of the following derived quantities by means of defining
equations:
(a) energy;
(b) power.
7. (a) When is a physical equation said to be homogeneous?
(b) Use base units to check the homogeneity of the equation: v  u + at, where
symbols have their usual meanings.
8. Calvin tries to row directly across Kwekwe river with a velocity of 16 ms-1. The
river has a current of velocity 7 ms-1 parallel to the banks. Calculate the resultant
velocity of the boat.
9. Find the resultant magnitude and direction of two perpendicular forces shown in
Figure 1.8.
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4N 3N
Figure 1.8: Two perpendicular forces.
10. (a) Define the component of a vector.
(b) Calculate the vertical and horizontal components of a force of 400 N which is
acting at 40 0 to the horizontal.
11. Lucy kicks a ball with a force 20 N at 45 0 to the horizontal. Calculate:
(a) the vertical component of the force.

(b) the horizontal component of the force.
12. Find the resultant magnitude and direction of the set of displacement vectors given in
Figure 1.9.
y
60.0 m 40.0 m
200 80.0 m
30 0 x
50.0 m
Figure 1.9: Resultant from sum of components.
13. Find the resultant magnitude and direction of the set of forces given in Figure 1.10.
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y
6N
300
700 100 x
4N
5N
Figure 1.10: Resultant from sum of components.
14. A ball is simultaneously given two velocities of magnitude 14 ms 1 and 8 ms 1 such

that the resultant velocity has a magnitude of 17 ms 1 . Calculate the angle between the
two velocities.
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UNIT 2: KINEMATICS
2.0 Introduction
In this unit, we shall deal with kinematics which is the study of motion without looking at
the causes of that motion. Both rectilinear motion and non-linear motion are going to be
covered in terms of distance, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration and time.
Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 define distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration;

 draw and interpret displacement-time graphs and velocity-time graphs;
 derive equations which represent uniformly accelerated linear motion from the
definitions of velocity and acceleration;
 use equations of uniformly accelerated linear motion to solve problems involving
motion under a constant acceleration and motion under gravity;
 demonstrate an understanding of projectile motion.
2.1 Rectilinear motion
Rectilinear motion refers to motion in a straight line.
2.1.1 Distance and displacement
Distance is the length measured between any given reference points. It is a scalar
quantity. The SI unit of distance is the metre (m).
Displacement is the distance moved in a specific direction. It is a vector quantity. The SI

unit of displacement is the metre (m).
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In Figure 2.1, Calvin moves from A to D along an irregular path ABCD. The distance
moved is the length of the dotted line ABCD. His displacement has a magnitude equal to
the length of the straight line AD and has a direction along this line AD.
A D
C
Figure 2.1: Distance and displacement.
2.1.2 Speed and velocity
Speed is the rate of change of distance.
s
Average speed, v  ;
t
where s is the distance moved in metres and t is the time taken in seconds.
Speed is a scalar quantity and is measured in ms 1 .
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement.
Average velocity, v = s / t
where s is the total displacement in metres and t is the time taken in seconds.
Velocity is a vector quantity and its S.I. unit is ms 1 .
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Worked Example 2.1
A toy-car moves 6 m due north and then 8 m due east. This takes a total time of 2
minutes 20 seconds. Calculate (a) the toy’s average speed, and (b) the toy’s average
velocity.
Solution
s
(a) Average speed, v  where s is the distance moved in metres and t is the time taken
t
in seconds.
6m  8m
v   0.1 ms 1 .
140s
b) 8m
Ө
6m s
opposite
tan  
adjacent
6
  tan 1    370 in the North-Easterly direction. (Recall that alternate or Z angles
8
are equal.)
Total displacement s  6 2  8 2  10 m.
Average velocity, v = s / t, where s is the total displacement in metres and t is the time
taken in seconds.
10 1
Therefore, v   ms 1 .
140 14
22
1
The average velocity is ms 1 at 37 0 in the North-Easterly direction.
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2.1.3 Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
Acceleration, a = dv / dt
where dv is the change in velocity ( ms 1 ) and dt is the time taken (s).
Acceleration is a vector quantity and its SI unit is ms 2 .
2.1.4 Displacement-time graphs
(a) Straight line graphs (motion with uniform/constant velocity)
Velocity from O to P is given by (ds / dt), where ds is the total displacement and dt is the
time taken (Figure 2.2).
displacement (m)
s P
O t time (s)
Figure 2.2: Linear displacement – time graph.
velocity gradientof line OP.
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Therefore, velocity is calculated from the gradient of a displacement-time graph. The
steeper the gradient, the greater the velocity. In Figure 2.2, the gradient is constant
implying that the velocity is also constant.
In the case of distance-time graphs, the gradient would give speed.
Worked Example 2.2
Use Figure 2.3, to find the velocity of the car during (a) the first 10 s and comment on
your answer, and (b) the last 20 s.
s/m
30
20
0 10 30 t/s
Figure 2.3: Displacement-time graph.
Solution
(a) Velocity of the car during the first 10 s  gradient of the graph during the first 10 s.
20  20
velocity, v  .
10  0
 0 ms 1 .
Therefore, the car is stationary. A horizontal line has a zero gradient, and hence a zero
velocity.
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(b) Velocity of the car during the last 20 s  gradient of the graph during the last 20 s.
30  20
velocity, v  .
30  10
 0.5 ms 1 .
(b) Curves (motion with non-uniform velocity)
In Figure 2.4 (a), the gradient is not constant but is gradually increasing with time. This
shows that the velocity is increasing with time, so there is acceleration.
s/m
t/s
Figure 2.4 (a): Velocity is increasing with time.
Figure 2.4 (b) shows a gradient which is gradually decreasing with time. This implies
that the velocity is decreasing with time, so there is a negative acceleration (i.e.), there is
a deceleration/retardation.
s/m
t/s
Figure 2.4 (b): Velocity is decreasing with time.
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The actual (instantaneous) velocity at any point is equal to the gradient at that point. This
is found by drawing a tangent to the curve at that point and calculating its gradient.
2.1.5 Velocity-time graphs
(a) Linear velocity-time graphs
Acceleration  gradient of a velocity-time graph.
Worked Example 2.3
Figure 2.5 shows the velocity-time graph of a trolley which starts from rest and reaches a
velocity of 10 m/s in 5 s. It then maintains this velocity for a further 2 s until it is finally
brought to rest in a further 4 s.
v (m/s)
10
0 5 7 11 t (s)
Figure 2.5: Velocity-time graph.
Find the acceleration of the trolley:

(a) during the first 5 s;
(b) between 5 s and 7 s;
(c) during the last 4 s.
Give a brief comment to each of your answers to the above questions.
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Solution
(a) acceleration  gradient of a velocity-time graph.
 10  0 
acceleration   .
 50 
 acceleration  2 ms 2 .
The gradient is constant during the first 5 s indicating that the acceleration is also
constant/uniform during the first 5 s.
(b) acceleration  gradient of a velocity-time graph
 10  10 
 75 
 acceleration  0 ms 2 .
A horizontal line between 5 s and 7 s implies that the velocity is constant and hence there
is no acceleration during that time interval.
(c) acceleration  gradient of a velocity-time graph
 0  10 
 11  7 
 acceleration  2.5 ms 2 .
The trolley has an acceleration of - 2.5 ms 2 . This is a deceleration of 2.5 ms 2 .
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Note: A positive value for the gradient implies that there is acceleration and a negative
gradient value indicates that there is a deceleration/retardation.
Total distance moved  area under a velocity-time graph.
Use Figure 2.5 to calculate the displacement of the trolley during the last 6 s.
(b) Non-linear velocity-time graphs

In Figure 2.6 (a), the gradient is not constant but is gradually increasing with time. This
shows that the acceleration is increasing with time.
v (m/s)
t/s
Figure2.6 (a): Acceleration is increasing with time.
Figure 2.6 (b) shows a gradient which is gradually decreasing with time. This implies
that the acceleration is decreasing with time.
v (m/s)
t/s
Fig 2.6 (b): Acceleration is decreasing with time.
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A car is accelerated uniformly from rest until it attains a velocity of 20 ms 1 in 2 s.

It then maintains this velocity for another 4 s until it is finally brought to rest in a
further 5 s.
(i) Sketch a velocity - time graph which represents the motion of the car.
(ii) Find: 1. the deceleration of the car during the last 5 s;
2. the total distance travelled by the car during the first 5 s of the journey.
2.1.6 Equations of uniformly accelerated linear motion
Four very important formulae can be used when a body travels with constant
acceleration in a straight line.
v  u  at...(i)
s
1
v  u  t...(ii)
2
1
s  ut  at 2 ...(iii)
2
v 2  u 2  2as...(iv)
Where u is the initial velocity (m/s),

v is the final velocity (m/s),
a is the acceleration (m/s2),
t is the time taken (s),
s is the displacement (m).
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Derivations of the equations which represent uniformly accelerated motion in a
straight line, from the definitions of velocity and acceleration.
(a) Derivation of v  u  at .
dv
Acceleration, a  where dv is the change in velocity (m/s) and dt is the time taken (s).
dt
a
v  u  , where v is the final velocity, u is the initial velocity and t is the time taken.
t
Rearranging yields: v  u  at.
(b) Derivation of s 
1
v  u  t.
2
(final velocity + initial velocity)  v  u  .

1 1
Average velocity 
2 2
s
Also, average velocity  where s is the total displacement and t is the time taken.
t
 v  u  .
s 1
Equating the above two equations for average velocity yields:
t 2
Rearranging gives: s 
1
v  u  t.
2
1
(c) Derivation of s  ut  at 2 .
2
We have shown that s 

1
v  u  t.
2
From equation (i) v  u  at , therefore substituting for v yields: s 

u  u  at t .
2
30
1
This simplifies to: s  ut  at 2 .
2
(d) Derivation of v 2  u 2  2as.
From equation (ii), s 

1
v  u  t , and from equation (i) t  v  u  . Therefore
2 a
substituting
for t yields: s 
u  v  v  u  .
2 a
This gives: 2as  v 2  u 2 and finally: v 2  u 2  2as.
Worked Example 2.4
A trolley travelling downhill accelerates uniformly at 1.5 ms-2. If its initial velocity at the
top of the hill is 3 ms-1, find:
(a) how far it travels in 8 s, and
(b) how far it travels before reaching a velocity of 7 ms-1.
Solution
(a) data
a  1.5 ms-2
u  3 ms-1
t  8s
s ?
s  ut  at 2  3(8)  1.58 2  72 m.
1 1
2 2
In 8 s, the trolley travels 72 m.
31
(b) data
a  1.5 ms-2
u  3 ms-1
v  7 ms-1
s ?
Using v 2  u 2  2as gives 7 2  32  21.5s.
1
49  9  3s  s  13 m.
3
1
Therefore, the distance travelled is 13 m.
3
A car decelerates uniformly at 2 ms-2 from a velocity of 20 ms-1. Calculate the time
required to travel a distance of 100 m.
2.1.7 Motion under gravity
Freefall
A body is said to be in freefall when the only force acting on it is due to the pull of
gravity. This implies that if a body is in freefall, air resistance is negligible.
Galileo Galilei was the first person to demonstrate that all objects on or near the earth’s
surface fall with the same acceleration which is known as the acceleration due to gravity
(g). The acceleration due to gravity is generally taken as a constant equal to 9.81 ms 2 ,
although this value varies slightly from place to place.
32
Terminal velocity
Consider a body falling when the gravitational pull is opposed by air resistance.
The body will not accelerate at the value of ‘g` because air resistance increases with
speed. As the speed of the body increases, so does the air resistance until the air
resistance balances out with the pull of gravity.
Once the air resistance becomes equal to the gravitational pull, there will be no net force
acting on the body, so the body stops to accelerate. Thus, the body continues to fall at its
maximum possible constant speed called its terminal velocity.
Worked Example 2.5
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 20 ms 1 . Calculate h max, the
maximum height reached by the ball. (Ignore air resistance).
Solution
data
u  20 ms 1
a  g  9.81 ms 2
v  0 ms 1 at s  hmax
Using v 2  u 2  2as gives 02  202  29.81 hmax .
02= 202 - 2(9.81) hmax .
202
Therefore, hmax   20.4 m.
2(9.81)
33
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 40 ms 1 . Find: (a) its
velocity and height after 2 s, (b) the time taken by the ball to reach the maximum height
hmax, and (c) the maximum height reached by the ball.
2.2 Projectile motion
A projectile is any particle which is given a non-zero initial velocity such that it moves in
a parabolic path under the influence of gravity only.
2.2.1 Projectile launched at an angle to the horizontal
Consider the example of a projectile which is launched from ground level with an initial
velocity u at an angle α to the horizontal.
y
v
vy
u vx
α
x
Figure 2.7: Projectile launched at an angle to the horizontal
(i) The initial horizontal velocity  u cos .
(ii) The initial vertical velocity  u sin .
Gravitational force is the only force acting on the projectile, so its vertical motion is
under a constant acceleration g. However, the acceleration due to gravity has no
component in the horizontal direction (i.e.), a  0 ms 2 when considering motion in the
34
horizontal direction. Consequently, the horizontal velocity of the projectile remains
constant since there is no horizontal acceleration.
(iii) The velocity, v of the projectile at any time, t is found as follows:
Horizontal velocity at any instant  vx  u cos  constant.
Vertical velocity at any instant  v y  u sin  gt .
Therefore, the magnitude of the velocity at any given instant, v  vx  v y

2 2
and the
 vy 
direction of the velocity at that time is given by:   tan 1   . v vy
 vx 
α
vx
(iv) The position of the projectile at time, t seconds  x 2  y 2 ,
1 2
where x  ut cos and y  ut sin  gt .
2
(v) The time of flight is the time that the projectile is in the air, from the time it is
launched to the time when it first hits the ground. It is found by calculating the time when
the vertical displacement, y is zero (i.e.), the time t > 0 s, that the projectile is in the air
until it reaches the ground.
1
y  ut sin  gt 2 ; from (iv).
2
 1 
0  t  u sin  gt 
 2 
2u sin
t  0 or t  .
g
The projectile is initially at ground level when t  0 , so the required time of flight is
2u sin
given by: t  .
g
35
(vi) The time, t taken by the projectile to reach the maximum height is found by
calculating the time when the vertical component of the velocity of the projectile is zero
(i.e.), v y  0.
v y  u sin  gt ; from (iii).
u sin
0  u sin  gt  t  .
g
(vii) The maximum height is obtained by calculating the value of the vertical
displacement, y when vy is zero.
Using v y  u 2 sin 2   2gy

2
0  u 2 sin 2   2 ghmax ; where y  hmax is the maximum height reached by the projectile.
u 2 sin 2 
 hmax  .
2g
(viii) The range is the horizontal distance travelled by the projectile. It is found by
2u sin
calculating the value of x {from (iv)} with t  , the time of flight.
g
2u 2 sin cos u 2 sin 2

x  ut cos   ; where sin 2  2 sin cos .
g g
(ix) The path followed by a projectile is called the trajectory. The equation of the
trajectory is found as follows:
Starting from (iv), the position of the projectile at time, t seconds is:
36
1
y  ut sin  gt 2 …(1)
2
x
x  ut cos  t  …(2)
u cos
Substituting for t in equation (1) with its equivalence in equation (2) yields:
xu sin  1  x 
2
gx2
y  g   x tan   2 .
u cos 2  u cos  2u cos2 
gx2
y  x tan   2
sec2  .
2u
 y  x tan  
gx2
2u 2
 
1  tan 2  ; (Trajectory equation).
Worked Example 2.6
A ball is kicked from a point on a horizontal ground so that it moves off with a velocity
of 20 ms 1 at an angle of 300 above the horizontal. Assuming that the ball moves only
under the influence of gravity, find:
(a) the time of flight of the ball;

(b) the range of the ball;
(c) the maximum height reached by the ball.
Solution
u = 20 ms 1 ; α = 300 and g  9.81 ms-2.
2u sin
(a) The time of flight, t  , from (v).
g
37
2(20) sin 300
t   2.04 s.
9.81
u 2 sin 2 202 sin 60

0
(b) The range x  ut cos    35.3 m.

g 9.81
u 2 sin 2  202 sin 2 30

0
(c) The maximum height hmax    5.10 m.

2g 2(9.81)
A shell fired from a gun has a horizontal range of 500 m and a time of flight of 10 s. Find
the magnitude and direction of the velocity of projection. Take g = 10 ms-2.
2.2.2 Horizontal projection
Consider the example of a particle which is projected horizontally from a height, h above
the horizontal ground with an initial velocity u as shown in Figure 2.8.
h u
vx
y vy
v
x
Figure 2.8: Horizontal projection
(i) The initial horizontal velocity  u.
38
(ii) The initial vertical velocity is zero (i.e.), uy  0, since the particle is given only an
initial horizontal velocity.
(iii) The velocity, v of the projectile at any time, t is found as follows:
Horizontal velocity at any instant  v x  u = constant.
Vertical velocity at any instant  v y  gt .
Therefore, the magnitude of the velocity at any given instant, v  vx  v y

2 2
and the
vx
α vy
 vy 
direction of the velocity at that time is given by:   tan 1   . v
 vx 
(iv) The position of the projectile at time, t seconds is given by x2  y2 ,

1 2
where x  ut and y  gt .
2
(v) The time of flight, t is found by calculating the time when the vertical displacement, y
is equal to h.
1 2 2h
y gt ; from (iv)  t  ; where y  h.
2 g
(vi) The height, h is obtained by making h in (v) the subject of formula.
2h 1
t  h  gt 2 .
g 2
(vii) The range is found by calculating the value of x with t being the time of flight.
 x  ut .
39
(viii) The equation of the trajectory is found as follows:
Starting from (iv), the position of the projectile at time, t seconds is:
1 2
y gt …(1)
2
x
x  ut  t  …(2)
u
Substituting for t in equation (1) with its equivalence in equation (2) yields:
2
1  x gx2
y  g   2 .
2 u 2u
gx2
 y  2 ; (Trajectory equation).
2u
Worked Example 2.7
A particle is projected horizontally at 40 ms-1 from a point 2 km above a horizontal

surface as shown in Figure 2.9. Find the time taken by the particle to reach the surface
and the horizontal distance travelled in that time. (Take g = 10 ms-2.)
Solution
h u=40 m/s
2000 m
Figure 2.9: Horizontal projection
40
2h 22000
The time taken by the particle to reach the surface, t is: t    20 s.
g 10
The horizontal distance travelled is: x  ut  40  20  800m.
A stone is thrown over the edge of a cliff with a horizontal velocity of 25 ms 1 . The cliff
is 400 m high. Ignoring air resistance, calculate:
(a) the time it takes the stone to reach the ground;
(b) the magnitude of the stone’s velocity when it hits the ground.
2.3 Summary
 Distance is the length measured between any given reference points. It is a scalar
quantity. The SI unit of distance is the metre (m).
 Displacement is the distance moved in a specific direction. It is a vector quantity.
The S.I. unit of displacement is the metre (m).
 Speed is the rate of change of distance. It is a scalar quantity and is measured in
ms 1 .
 Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. Velocity is a vector quantity and its
S.I. unit is ms 1 .
 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. Acceleration is a vector quantity
and its SI unit is ms 2 .
 Velocity is calculated from the gradient of a displacement-time graph.
 On a distance-time graph, the gradient would give speed
 Acceleration = gradient of a velocity-time graph.
 Displacement = Area under a velocity-time graph.
 Distance moved = Area under a speed-time graph.
 The equations of uniformly accelerated linear motion, are:
41
v  u  at...(i)
s
1
v  u  t...(ii)
2
1
s  ut  at 2 ...(iii)
2
v 2  u 2  2as...(iv)
 A body is said to be in freefall when the only force acting on it is due to the pull
of gravity. This implies that if a body is in freefall, air resistance is negligible.
 A projectile is any particle which is given a non-zero initial velocity such that it
moves in a parabolic path under the influence of gravity only.
 The path followed by a projectile is called the trajectory.
2.4 Questions
1. Define the following terms:

(a) displacement,
(b) velocity,
(c) acceleration.
2. Derive, from the definition of acceleration, the equation v  u  at , which represents

uniformly accelerated linear motion, where symbols have their usual meanings.
3. Figure 2.10 shows a graph of velocity against time. Use the graph and the definition
of acceleration to show that:
v2  u2
s
2a
where symbols have their usual meanings.
42
velocity
0 t time
Figure 2.10: A graph of velocity against time.
4. A particle is projected horizontally with a speed of 15 ms 1 . How far is the particle

from the point of projection after 1 s.
5. A particle is projected from a point on a horizontal plane and has an initial velocity of
28 3 ms 1 at an angle of elevation of 600. Find the greatest height reached by the
particle and the time taken to reach this point.
6. A golfer hits a ball so that it moves off with a velocity of 26 ms 1 at 300 to the
horizontal. Ignoring any air resistance and taking g  10 ms 2 , calculate:
(a) the time taken by the ball to reach the ground, and
(b) the range of the ball.
7. A car accelerates from a velocity of 12 ms 1 to a velocity of 36 ms 1 in a distance of

1 km. Find the acceleration of the car.
8. A cyclist is initially travelling at 20 ms 1 , when she applies her brakes. Assume that
her acceleration remains constant at – 0.5 ms-2 until she stops. Find the distance that she
travels before stopping.
43
9. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial speed of 10 ms 1 from a catapult.
Calculate the interval between the two times when the ball is 5 m above the point of
release.
10. A particle is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 34.3 ms 1 . Find how long
after projection the particle is at a height of 49 m above the point of projection for:
(a) the first time,
(b) the second time.
11. A car is accelerated uniformly from rest until it attains a velocity of 20 ms 1 in 10 s.

It then maintains this velocity for 20 s before slowing down over a 3 s period to stop at a
road block.
(a) Sketch the velocity – time graph for the car’s motion.
(b) Find the distance travelled during the first 30 s.
(c) Calculate the acceleration of the car (i) during the first 10 s, and (ii) between 10 s
and 30 s.
12. Figure 2.11 shows a displacement – time graph for the motion of a car. Use the
graph to find the velocity of the car (a) during the first 10 s, (b) between 10 s and 40 s and
comment on your answer, and (c) during the last 10 s.
s/m
30
20
0 10 40 50 t/s
Figure 2.11: A displacement – time graph for the motion of a car.
44
UNIT 3: DYNAMICS
3.0 Introduction
This unit is going to cover dynamics which is the study of motion without neglecting the
causes of that motion. Here, we shall look at Newton’s laws of motion, linear momentum
and its conservation.
Objectives
 state each of Newton’s three laws of motion;

 define the terms inertia, momentum and impulse;
 state the principle of conservation of momentum;
 use the principle of conservation of momentum in simple applications including
interactions between two bodies in one dimension;
 distinguish between elastic and inelastic collisions.
3.1 Newton’s laws of motion
3.1.1 Newton’s first law
Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform velocity in a straight line unless it
is compelled to change that state by some external force.
Newton’s first law implies that all bodies have a built-in reluctance to change their state
of rest or motion (i.e.), reluctance to start moving or to stop moving once it has started.
This reluctance to change the velocity is called inertia. Inertia depends on the mass of an
object (i.e.), the greater the mass, the larger the inertia. Thus, the mass of a body is a
measure of its inertia.
45
Newton’s first law also provides the definition of force as something which changes the
velocity of an object. Therefore, if a body moves with a constant velocity then the
resultant force will be zero.
3.1.2 Newton’s second law
The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the resultant force
acting on the body and takes place in the direction of that resultant force.
Force F is proportional to the rate of change of momentum.
F
d
mv  F  k d mv.
dt dt
Note:
d
mv  change in momentum/ time taken.
dt
F k
mv  mu   km v  u   kma.
 
t  t 
But 1 N is a force which is required to give a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 ms 2 .

This implies that k = 1.
Therefore, F  ma ;
where F = resultant force

m = mass
a = acceleration.
Worked Example 3.1
Find the acceleration produced by a force of 250 N on a mass of 25 kg.
46
Solution
Using F  ma with F = 250 N and m  25 kg gives:
F 250
a   10 ms 2 .
m 25
3.1.3 Newton’s third law
To every action, there is an equal but opposite reaction.
This law implies that forces always occur in pairs. However, the forces do not cancel
each other out because they act on different objects. For example if a car is accelerating
forward, the car tyres will be pushing backward on the road and the reaction to this is a
forward pushing force exerted by the road on the tyres.
Consider a lorry towing a trailer as illustrated in Figure 3.1.
trailer
F F lorry
Figure 3.1: The lorry exerts a forward force F on the trailer but the reaction to this
is a backward force F exerted by the trailer on the lorry.
3.2 Mass and weight
Mass is the amount or quantity of matter in an object. It is the property of a body which
resists change in motion. The mass of a body is a measure of its resistance to acceleration
(i.e.), mass is a measure of the inertia of a body. It is a scalar quantity. The mass of body
is always constant and its S.I. unit is the kg.
47
The weight of a body is the force of gravity acting on its mass. Like any other forces,
weight is a vector quantity and is measured in newtons. Mathematically, weight is given
by:
W  mg ;
where W is the weight of the object,

m is the mass of the object,
g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Unlike the mass which is always constant, the weight of a body varies slightly from place
to place.
Worked Example 3.2
Find: (a) the mass in kilograms of a packet of rice of weight 49.05 N;

(b) the weight in newtons of a packet of rice of mass 3 kg.
Solution
weight 49.05
(a) weight  mg  mass, m    5 kg.
g 9.81
(b) weight  mg  3(9.81)  29.43 N.
3.3 Linear momentum and its conservation
3.3.1 Linear momentum
The linear momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity. Linear
momentum is a vector quantity and is given by the equation:
48
p  mv , where p is the momentum;
m is the mass;
v is the velocity.
The units of momentum are kg ms 1 or alternatively Ns.
Calculate the momentum of a lion of mass 1200 kg moving at 20 ms 1 .
3.3.2 Impulse
From Newton’s second law: F 

d
mv.
dt
Fdt  d (mv)  change in momentum  impulse.
The impulse of a force is the product of the force and the time for which it acts. This
implies that the greater the force acting on an object and the longer it acts for, the larger
the impulse of that force.
Worked Example 3.3
Calculate the impulse produced by a force of 250 N acting for 4 s.
Solution
Impulse  force time  250N  4s  1000Ns.
Therefore, the impulse  1000Ns.
49
3.3.3 The principle of conservation of linear momentum
The total linear momentum of a system of interacting objects in any direction remains
constant provided that no external forces act on the objects in that direction.
Consider two bodies X and Y that are involved in a collision as illustrated by Figure 3.2.
m1 u1 m2 u2 m1 v1 m2 v2
X Y X Y
(i) Before collision (ii) After collision
Figure 3.2: Two bodies X and Y, (i) before , and (ii) after collision.
Where:
m1 and m2 are the masses of two bodies X and Y respectively.

u1 and u2 are the initial velocities of two bodies X and Y respectively.
v1 and v2 are the final velocities of two bodies X and Y respectively.
m1 (v1  u1 ) m (v  u2 )
During collision: Force on X, Fx  and Force on Y, Fy  2 2 .
t t
Newton’s third law states that Fx  - Fy.
m1 (v1  u1 ) m (v  u2 )
Therefore,  2 2
t t
Rearranging gives: m1u1  m2 u 2  m1v1  m2 v2 .
This is the law of conservation of momentum (i.e.), Total momentum before collision 
Total momentum after collision (if there is no external resultant force acting on the
system).
50
Worked Example 3.4
A bullet of mass 20 g is fired at 500 ms 1 into a block of wood of mass 290 g resting on a
smooth surface (Figure 3.3). If the bullet remains embedded in the wood, calculate the
velocity v, that the block moves off at.
at rest (20 g + 290 g)
290 g
20 g 500 m/s v
Figure 3.3: The bullet and block, (i) before , and (ii) after collision.
Solution
Taking velocities to the right as positive and applying the principle of conservation of
momentum: Total momentum before collision  Total momentum after collision.
(0.020)(500) + 0 = (0.020 + 0.290)v  10  0.31v  v  32 ms 1 to the right.
A body of mass 2 kg moving on a smooth horizontal surface at 6 ms 1 , collides with a

second body of mass 1 kg which is at rest. After the collision the bodies coalesce. Find
the common speed of the bodies after impact.
3.3.4 Elastic and inelastic collisions
An elastic collision is a collision in which kinetic energy is conserved.

Total kinetic energy before collision  Total kinetic energy after collision. The relative
speed of approach  the relative speed of separation.
51
An inelastic collision is a collision in which some or all of the kinetic energy is lost and is
transferred to other forms usually internal/heat energy.
Total kinetic energy before collision > total kinetic energy after collision. The relative
speed of approach > the relative speed of separation.
Worked Example 3.5
A car of mass 1000 kg moving at 50 ms 1 collides with a stationary bus of mass 2000 kg
as shown in Figure 3.4.
(a) Find the velocity, v of the bus after the collision, given that the car rebounds at
5.0 ms 1 . (b) Is this collision elastic or inelastic?
50 ms-1 at rest 5.0 ms-1 v
2000 kg 2000 kg
1000 kg 1000 kg
Figure 3.4: The bus and car, (i) before , and (ii) after collision.
Solution
(a) Taking velocities to the right as positive and applying the principle of conservation of
momentum: Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision.
1000(50) + 0 = 1000(- 5.0) + (2000) v  v  27.5 ms 1 .
1
(b) Total Ek before collision  (1000)502  1.25x106 J .
2
52
1 1
Total Ek after collision  (1000)(5.0) 2  (2000)(27.5) 2  7.69x105 J .
2 2
Since the total Ek before collision > total Ek after collision, the collision is inelastic.
3.4 Summary
 Newton’s first law of motion states that, every body continues in its state of rest or
of uniform velocity in a straight line unless it is compelled to change that state by
some external force.
 Newton’s second law of motion states that, the rate of change of momentum of a
body is directly proportional to the resultant force acting on the body and takes
place in the direction of that resultant force.
 Newton’s third law of motion states that, to every action, there is an equal but
opposite reaction.
 The linear momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity.
 The principle of conservation of linear momentum states that, the total linear
momentum of a system of interacting objects in any direction remains constant
provided that no external forces act on the objects in that direction.
3.5 Questions
1. State Newton’s first law of motion and give the implications of this law.
2. Find the acceleration produced by a force of 60 N on a mass of 2 kg.
3. State Newton`s second law of motion and use it to derive the relationship F  ma ,
where: F  resultant force;

m  mass;
a  acceleration.
53
4. A man of mass 60 kg stands on the floor of a lift which is accelerating downwards at 5
ms-2. Calculate the reaction force R exerted by the floor on the man.
5. State the principle of conservation of linear momentum.
6. Distinguish between elastic and inelastic collisions.
7. Two trolleys shown in Figure 3.5 collide ‘head on` on a smooth horizontal surface.
Find the speed v of the lighter trolley after the impact.
5 ms-1 3ms-1 v 1 ms-1
8 kg 8 kg
3 kg 3 kg
Figure 3.5: Two trolleys, (i) before , and (ii) after collision.
8. A toy car of mass 100 g is moving along a straight track at 2.0 ms 1 when it collides
with a stationary toy bus of mass 250 g, during the collision they coalesce.
(a) Find their common speed v after the collision.

(b) Is this collision elastic or inelastic?
54
UNIT 4: FORCES
4.0 Introduction
In this unit, we will study forces. A force is generally a push or pull on an object. In the
previous unit, we saw that Newton’s first law of motion can be used to define a force as
something which changes the velocity of an object. This unit’s content consists of types
of force, equilibrium of forces, centre of mass, centre of gravity and turning effects of
forces.
Objectives
 identify different types of force acting on a body;

 state and use Archimedes’s principle;
 show a qualitative understanding of frictional forces and drag forces;
 state and use Lami’s theorem for three forces in equilibrium;
 show an understanding that the resultant force is zero and the resultant torque is
zero when forces are in equilibrium;
 demonstrate an understanding that the weight of a body may be considered as
acting at a single point known as its centre of gravity.
 define and calculate the moment of a force and the torque of a couple;
 apply the principle of moments.
4.1 Types of force

The three major types of force are: gravitational, electromagnetic and nuclear forces.
4.1.1 Gravitational, electromagnetic and nuclear forces

(a) Gravitational force is an attractive force that exists between all objects with
mass. For example, if you drop a stone, it will fall towards the Earth because of
55
the force of attraction between the stone and the Earth. The stone attracts the
Earth with the same force that the Earth exerts on the stone but this attractive
force has more effect on the stone because, the stone is much lighter than the
Earth. As a result, the stone is pulled towards the Earth.
Planets are held in orbit around the Sun by the gravitational force. The Earth’s
gravitational pull is also responsible for keeping our feet on the ground and gives
us weight.
(b) Electromagnetic force is responsible for the repulsion and attraction between
negative and positive electric charges. It holds electrons to the nucleus. It also
causes magnetic poles to attract and repel. Electromagnetic forces are also the
binding forces of atoms and molecules.
(c) Nuclear forces are only experienced by sub-atomic particles and exist in two
types namely: the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force.
The strong nuclear force holds protons together in a nucleus. (This explains why
the repulsion between positive protons in the nucleus does not force the nucleus
apart). This is the strongest force of all, though it only acts over a very short range.
The weak nuclear force is responsible for radioactive decay of atoms.
4.1.2 Upthrust / Bouyant force

Upthrust or buoyant force is the upward force resulting from an object being totally or
partially immersed in a fluid. It arises from the pressure difference between different
depths (i.e.), p2 > p1, so that there is a net upward force which is called an upthrust or a
buoyant force (Figure 4.1).
Archimedes’ principle states that, when a body is immersed in a fluid (totally or

partially), it experiences an upthrust which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
56
Suppose a cylinder of height h and area of cross-section A is at a distance h1 below the
surface of a fluid of density  as shown in Figure 4.1.
p1A h1
p2A
Figure 4.1: An upthrust (a buoyant) force (i.e.), p2A – p1A.
Volume of fluid displaced, V  volume of cylinder  Ah.
Mass of fluid displaced  density x volume of fluid displaced  ρAh.
Weight of fluid displaced  mass of fluid displaced x acceleration due to gravity

 ρAhg,
but V = Ah. Therefore the weight of fluid displaced = Vg...(i)
On the other hand, the fluid exerts forces p1A and p2A on the top and bottom faces of the
cylinder.
The resultant upward force due to the fluid  upthrust  p2A – p1A
57
= (h + h1)ρAg – h1ρAg
= hρAg,
but V = Ah. Therefore the weight of fluid displaced = Vg...(ii)
By comparison of (i) and (ii) it is clearly visible that: upthrust  weight of fluid
displaced. (This is Archimedes’ principle).
Worked example 4.1
What is the buoyant force (upthrust) on a spherical balloon of diameter 160 cm in air of
density  air  1.20 kgm3 .
Solution
4  4 
Upthrust  Vg    r 3  g  1.20  (0.8) 3 9.81  25 N.
3  3 
4.1.3 Other forces

Other examples of forces include frictional force and drag force.
Frictional force
Friction is force which opposes motion between two contact surfaces. It can cause the
surfaces to heat up and eventually wear away.
Drag force
Both liquids and gases are fluids. The frictional force within a fluid is known as the drag
force. Drag force tries to prevent the motion between objects and fluids. It depends on the
viscosity of the fluid. Viscosity is a measure of how easily the fluid flows. For example,
thick and sticky fluids are very viscous. Air resistance is a common example of drag
force.
58
4.2 Force diagrams
4.2.1 Particle on a plane horizontal plane

Consider a particle of mass m kg, resting on a smooth horizontal plane. Since the particle
does not fall, its weight mg is being balanced by an upward force called the normal
reaction R, which acts perpendicular to the plane as shown in Figure 4.2.
mg
Figure 4.2: A particle of mass m kg, resting on a smooth horizontal plane.

Draw the force diagram for a particle with weight mg at rest on a rough horizontal plane
and experiencing a horizontal pull by a force Q.
4.2.2 Particle on a rough inclined plane

Now suppose the particle is at rest on a rough plane, inclined at Ө to the horizontal. The
frictional force will act up the slope.
R
F
Ө mg
Figure 4.3: A particle at rest on a rough inclined plane.
59
Draw the force diagram showing a particle of mass m kg at rest, suspended by a taut
string.
4.3 Turning effects of forces
4.3.1 Moments
The moment of a force is the turning effect of that force.
Moment of force  force x perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to
that point
Moments are measured in Nm. A turning effect in the clockwise direction is called a
clockwise moment and it is defined as negative. A turning effect in the anti-clockwise
direction is called an anti-clockwise moment and it is defined as positive.
Worked Example 4.2
Find the moments of each of the given forces about X.
(i)
4m 10 N
X
(ii) X
8m
300
15 N
Figure 4.4: Moments of force.
60
Solution
(i) Moment about X = force x perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force
to that point.
= 10 N x 4 m  40 Nm in the clockwise direction.
Since the force produces a clockwise moment, the answer could be written as – 40 Nm,
where the negative sign tells us that the direction of the turning effect produced is
clockwise.
(ii) In this case, the perpendicular distance is found by resolving the 8 m distance
vertically (i.e.), 8 sin 300.
8m
300
15 N
Moment about X = force x perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force
to that point.
= 15 x 8 sin 300 = 60 Nm in the anti-clockwise direction.
This is an anti-clockwise moment, so the answer could be written as 60 Nm, where the
positive sign tells us that the direction of the turning effect produced is anti-clockwise.
4.3.2 Couples
A couple is said to exist when two anti-parallel forces whose lines of action do not
coincide act on a body. A couple has no resultant force. It only produces a turning effect
(i.e.), A couple produces rotation only and no translation. For example, in Figure 4.5 the
61
forces in the driver’s hands applied to a steering wheel can provide a couple to turn the
wheel.
F
Steering wheel
Figure 4.5: Torque due a couple of forces in the driver’s hands applied to a steering
wheel.
The torque of a couple  magnitude of one force x perpendicular distance between the 2
forces forming the couple.
= Fd.
Calculate the torque due to a couple of 50 N forces applied to a steering wheel (30 cm in
diameter) by a driver’s hands (see Figure 4.6).
50 N
30cm
50 N
Figure 4.6: Torque due a couple of forces in the driver’s hands applied to a steering
wheel.
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4.4 Equilibrium
4.4.1 Conditions for equilibrium
A particle is said to be in equilibrium when:
1. there is no resultant force acting in any direction; and

2. there is no net turning effect (i.e.), no resultant torque about any point.
When a particle is in equilibrium, it will either remain at rest (static equilibrium) or move
with a constant velocity (dynamic equilibrium).
4.4.2 Two forces in equilibrium
If a body is in equilibrium under the action of two coplanar forces, then the forces must
be equal and opposite.
Worked Example 4.3
Find the resultant of the two horizontal forces shown in Figure 4.7.
5N 5N
Figure 4.7: The resultant of the two horizontal forces.
Solution
Resultant force  5 N – 5 N = 0 N. Therefore, the two forces are equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction (i.e.), they are balanced.
63
4.4.3 Three forces in equilibrium
Lami’s theorem
If a body is in equilibrium under the action of three coplanar forces P; Q and R (Figure
4.8 (a)), then the forces can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a
triangle taken in order. This is known as the triangle of forces Figure 4.8 (b).
P Q


R
Figure 4.8 (a): Three forces in equilibrium.
Since the forces are in equilibrium, they form a triangle shown in Figure 4.8 (b).
Q 
 R
P 
Figure 4.8 (b): The triangle of forces i.e. vector triangle.
64
Applying the sine rule:
P Q R
  .
sin sin  sin 
Worked Example 4.4
A particle of mass 40 kg hangs in equilibrium suspended by two light inextensible

strings, as shown in Figure 4.9. Find the tensions in the strings. (Use g = 10 ms-2.)
T1 T2
300 600
400 N
Figure 4.9: Three forces in equilibrium.
Solution
Since the forces are in equilibrium, they form a vector triangle shown below.
300
T2
900 400 N
T1 600
65
Applying the sine rule:
T1 T2 400
0
 0
  400.
sin 30 sin 60 sin 900
T1  400sin 300  200N. and T2  400sin 600  346 N.
Find the values of P and Ө for which the following set of forces is in equilibrium (Figure
4.10).
y
5N
0
10 N 45
Ө x
PN
4.3.4 More than 3 forces in equilibrium
Worked Example 4.5

Find the values of F1 and F2 for which the following set of forces shown in Figure 4.11,
is in equilibrium.
y 12 N
F1
600
450 8N x
F2
Figure 4.11: Four forces in equilibrium
66
Solution
Resolving parallel to the x-axis:

8  12cos600  F2 cos450
1
86  F2  F2  14 2 N.
2
Resolving parallel to the y-axis:

F1  12cos300  F2 cos450
Substituting for F2 gives:
F1  12
2
3
 14 2 
1
2
 
 F1  2 7  3 3 N.
Find the values of T and α for which the following set of forces is in equilibrium (Figure
4.12).
y 5N
4N
450 600
α x
TN
5N
Figure 4.12: Four forces in equilibrium
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4.5 Principle of moments
When an object is in equilibrium: The sum of clockwise moments about any point is
equal to the sum of anti-clockwise moments about the same point.
Worked Example 4.6
Find the value of the weight W, for which the seesaw drawn in Figure 4.13 is balanced.
2.5 m 2.5 m
1.5 m
pivot
W 200N 480 N
Figure 4.13 : A balanced seesaw.
Solution
When the seesaw is balanced (i.e.), in equilibrium:
The sum of clockwise moments about the pivot  the sum of anti-clockwise moments
about the pivot.
W  2.5 m  (200 N  1.5 m) + (480 N  2.5 m)
W  600 N.
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4.6 Centre of gravity and centre of mass
The centre of gravity of an object is the single point at which its entire weight can be
considered to act.
The centre of mass of an object is the single point at which its entire mass can be
considered to reside.
In places where the gravitational field strength is uniform, the centre of mass and the
centre of gravity are at the same point. This is true for all objects near the earth’s surface.
The centre of mass of a suspended lamina or body
A suspended lamina or body hangs with its centre of mass directly below the point of
suspension.
For example (see Figure 4.14):
(i) If you suspend a rectangular disc from one of its corners, (e.g.), corner A, it will hang
with one of its diagonals vertical because the centre of mass is at a point on this diagonal.
(ii) If you then suspend the disc from a different corner B, again it hangs with the second
diagonal vertical since the centre of mass is again at a point on the diagonal.
Actually, the centre of mass of the rectangular disc is at X, the point of intersection of the
two diagonals as shown in case (iii).
69
A B
B A
(i) (ii)
A B
(iii)
Figure 4.14: The centre of mass of a suspended a rectangular disc.
4.7 Summary
 A force is generally a push or pull exerted on an object. It can also be defined as

something which changes the velocity of an object.
70
 The three basic types of force are gravitational, electromagnetic and nuclear
forces.
 Archimedes’ principle states that, when a body is immersed in a fluid (totally or
partially), it experiences an upthrust or buoyant force which is equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced.
 Friction is a force which opposes motion.
 The frictional force within a fluid is known as the drag force. It tries to prevent
motion between objects and fluids.
 A system is in equilibrium when there is no resultant force and no resultant
torque.
 If a body is in equilibrium under the action of only two coplanar forces, then the
forces must be equal and opposite.
 If a body is in equilibrium under the action of three coplanar forces, then the
forces can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a triangle
taken in order. This is known as the triangle of forces.
 The moment of force  force x perpendicular distance from the line of action of
the force to that point.
 The torque of a couple  magnitude of one force x perpendicular distance
between the 2 forces forming the couple.
 The principle of moments states that at equilibrium, the sum of clockwise
moments about any point is equal to the sum of anti-clockwise moments about the
same point.
 The centre of gravity of an object is the single point at which its entire weight can
be considered to act.
 The centre of mass of an object is the single point at which its entire mass can be
considered to act.
 A suspended lamina or body, hangs in equilibrium from a point with its centre of
mass directly below the point of suspension.
71
4.8 Questions
1. Briefly describe (a) Electromagnetic force, and

(b) Nuclear forces.
2. State (a) Archimedes’ principle,

(b) the principle of moments.
3. Define (a) moment of a force,

(b) centre of gravity.
4. Calculate the torque due to a couple of 100 N forces applied to a steering wheel (20 cm
in diameter) by a driver’s hands (see Figure 4.15).
100 N
20cm
100 N
Figure 4.15: Torque due a couple of forces in the driver’s hands applied to a
steering wheel.
5. Find the moments of each of the given forces about point P (Figure 4.16 (i) and (ii)).
(i)
2m 10 N
P
Figure 4.16 (i): Moments of force.
72
(ii) P
1.2 m
1500
10 N
Figure 4.16 (ii): Moments of force.
6. Find the value of the weight W, for which the seesaw drawn in Figure 4.17 is
balanced.
1.0 m 2.5 m
pivot
W 200N
Figure 4.17: A balanced seesaw.
7. State two conditions for equilibrium.
8. The system of forces shown in Figure 4.18 is in equilibrium. By means of drawing a

triangle of forces, calculate the magnitude of the force M and angle Ө.
73
3N
4N
9. In Figure 4.19, find the values of P and Q for which the following forces are in
equilibrium.
y
10N P
300 300
x
450 60 0
Q 50 N
Figure 4.19: Four forces in equilibrium.
74
UNIT 5: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
5.0 Introduction
When holding a 50 kg bag of cement above your head, you may feel like hard work, but
on studying this unit, you shall understand that you may be doing no work at all! This
unit is going to cover work, energy and power.
Objectives
 define and calculate work done in a number of situations including work done by
a gas which is expanding against a constant external pressure;
 identify the different forms of energy;
 derive the formula for kinetic energy, from the equations of motion;
 derive the formula for potential energy changes near the Earth’s surface, from the
defining equation W = Fs;
 recall and use the formulae for kinetic energy and potential energy;
 show an understanding of internal energy;
 demonstrate an understanding of the importance of energy losses and use the
concept of efficiency;
 define and calculate power.
5.1 Work
Work is said to be done when a body moves as a result of a force being applied to it.
Work done = force  distance moved in the direction of the force.
75
(i.e.), W  Fs ; where F is the resultant force and s is the distance moved in the direction
of the force.
The SI unit of work is the joule (J).
1 J = 1 Nm .
1 J of work is done, and 1 J of energy is converted from one form to another, when a 1 N
force moves an object through a distance of 1m in the direction of the force.
Note: If a body upon which a force acts does not move, then no work is said to be done.
(i.e.), s  0 m W  0 J .
Worked Example 5.1
Ephraim is 1.65 m tall. Calculate the work done:
(a) if he exerts a 400 N force in lifting his bag 1.5 m high.

(b) If he exerts a 400 N force in holding his bag above his head.
Solution
(a) Work done  force x displacement.

= 400 N x 1.5 m
= 600 Nm
= 600 J.
(b) Work done  force x displacement.

= 400 N x 0 m
= 0 Nm
= 0 J.
76
5.1.1 Work done by a force, F acting at an angle, α to the displacement, s.
When the force, F is exerted at an angle, α to the direction of the displacement, s (see
Figure 5.1). We find the component of the force acting in the direction of the
displacement.
α
s
Figure 5.1: Work done by a force, F acting at an angle, α to the displacement, s.
Work done, W  Fs cos α .
(i)   00  W  Fs.
(ii)   900  W  0 J. For example: work done by the gravitational force acting on a
moving object.
(iii)   1800  W  Fs. For example: work done by frictional force acting on a
moving object.
Worked Example 5.2
Find the work done by a force F = 300 N, in pulling a luggage carrier in Figure 5.2 at an
angle α = 20 0 for a distance s = 45.0 m.
77
Force, F
luggage carrier
Figure 5.2: Work done by a force F, acting at an angle α, to the displacement s.
Solution
Work done, W  Fs cos α

= 300 45.0  cos200
= 12 686 J.
5.1.2 Work done by a gas during expansion
Consider a gas enclosed in a cylinder by a frictionless piston of cross-sectional area A.

Let the pressure, p of the gas be constant (Figure 5.3).
F = pA
dx
Figure 5.3: Work done by a gas during expansion
78
If the gas now expands and pushes the piston outwards through a distance dx, the volume
of the gas is increased by dV. The work done dW by the gas during expansion is given
by:
dW  force x distance moved by the piston  Fdx.
But force  pressure x area  pA.
dW  pAdx . Also (dV  Adx)
Therefore, dW  pdV.
A cylinder contains gas at a pressure of 3.0 x 105 Pa. A piston moves outwards,
increasing the volume of the gas by 0.015 m3. Calculate the work done by the gas during
the expansion.
5.2 Energy
Energy is the ability/capacity to do work. The energy used is equivalent to the work done.
5.2.1 Forms of energy
Energy can exist in different forms namely:
(i) Mechanical energy { potential energy and kinetic energy };

(ii) Heat energy;
(iii) Light energy;
(iv) Sound energy;
(v) Chemical energy;
79
(vi) Nuclear energy;
(vii) Electrical energy;
(viii) Magnetic energy, (etc.).
Basically, there are only two main types of energy namely: kinetic energy and potential
energy.
5.2.2 Kinetic energy (Ek)
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object by virtue of its motion.
Consider a constant force F acting on a body of mass m, which is initially at rest on a

smooth horizontal surface. Suppose that, after moving a distance s across the surface, the
body has a velocity v.
v2  0
Work done on the body  F  s , but F  ma and a  .
2s
mv 2
Therefore, F  .
2s
mv 2 1
But work done on the body  s  mv 2 .
2s 2
1 2
By definition, work done  Ek of the body  mv .
2
Worked Example 5.3
Find the kinetic energy of a lorry of mass 3000 kg moving with a speed of 60 km/h.
80
Solution
2
 60000
Ek  mv 2  3000
1 1
 .
2 2  60x60 
 417 kJ.
5.2.3 Potential energy ( Ep )
Potential energy is the energy stored in a body by virtue of its position, state or shape.
Potential energy exists in several forms:
Table 5.1: Some common forms of potential energy.
Form of potential energy An example of where it is stored

Chemical potential energy Food and fuels
Gravitational potential energy Stone on top of a cliff
Elastic potential energy Stretched rubber band/catapult/spring
Nuclear potential energy Particles in atomic nuclei
Electrical potential energy Electric field
In mechanics, we are mainly concerned with gravitational potential energy which is the
energy gained by an object when it is lifted up against the force of gravity.
Gravitational potential energy  mgh.
Where g  gravitational field strength;

m  mass;
h  height of the body above some reference level where h = 0, usually the
surface of the earth.
81
To show that Ep  mgh, we consider a body of mass m which is lifted vertically through
a height h (Figure 5.4).
The force acting vertically on the object  weight of the object (mg).
mg
h
Figure 5.4: To show that Ep = mgh
Potential energy gained, Ep  work done against gravity

 force x distance moved
 mg x h
 mgh .
 Ep  mgh.
5.2.4 Internal energy
Internal energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all the molecules of a
substance.
5.2.5 Principle of conservation of energy
It states that energy is never created or destroyed but is only transferred from one form to
another (i.e.), the total amount of kinetic and potential energies is constant.
82
Ep + Ek  a constant.
5.2.6 Interchange between Ep and Ek
Consider a body of mass m, which falls freely from rest at a height h in a vacuum (Figure
5.5).
(i) Ep is maximum; Ek is zero.
mg
h (ii) Body now has both Ep and Ek.
(iii) Ep is zero; Ek is maximum (just before

hitting the ground)
Figure 5.5: Interchange between Ep and Ek
As the body falls, it loses potential energy and gains kinetic energy. From the principle of
conservation of energy:
Ek gained  Ep lost.
If v is the velocity of the body after it has fallen a distance h, then:
1 2
mv  mgh  v  2 gh.
2
83
An apple is released from a height of 4.0 m such that it falls vertically downwards under
the influence of gravity only. Find the speed at which the apple hits the ground.
5.2.7 Energy losses
In our everyday lives we use energy but this energy is eventually transferred to internal
energy in our surroundings. It is almost impossible to convert the internal energy back to
any useful form of energy.
For example, a bus is powered by the chemical potential energy which is stored in diesel.
The engine of the bus converts some of this chemical potential energy to kinetic energy
but the rest is wasted as heat. Eventually, as the bus stops, its kinetic energy is also
converted to heat due to friction at the brakes and between the tyres and the road. The
heat energy produced is then transferred to the surrounding air. However, this heat energy
cannot be converted back to any useful form resulting in the so called ‘energy loss’.
5.2.8 Efficiency
A machine is a device that enables work to be done more conveniently. When a machine
does work, not all the energy used is transferred in a useful way. So the rest of the
transferred energy is wasted as internal (heat) energy.
The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the useful energy output to the total energy
input. (i.e.),
energyoutput
efficiency .
energyinput
poweroutput
 .
powerinput
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Efficiency is usually expressed as a percentage, by multiplying the ratio by 100 %.
Worked Example 5.4
An electric generator requires 20 kW of power so as to produce a power output of 17 kW.

What is the efficiency of the generator?
Solution
poweroutput
efficiency  100%.
powerinput
17000
  100%  85%.
20000
5.3 Power
Power is the rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is transferred from
one form to another.
W E
Power, P   .
t t
Where W is the work done,

E is the energy transferred, and
t is the time taken.
The SI unit of power is the watt (W).
W Force, F  displacement, s
Power, P   .
t time, t
displacement
Power, P  Force  .
time
 Power, P  Force velocity  Fv.
85
Norah, the athlete can run at a greatest speed of 10 ms 1 when running on a level track
against a constant drag force of 50 N. Find the maximum rate at which Norah can do
work.
5.4 Summary
 Work is said to be done when a body moves as a result of a force being applied to
it. Work done is equivalent to the energy transferred from one form to another.
The SI unit of work is the joule (J).
 Work done  force x distance moved in the direction of the force.
 The work done by a gas during expansion, dW  pdV.
 Energy is the ability/capacity to do work. The SI unit of energy is the joule (J).
 Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object by virtue of its motion.
1 2
Ek of a body  mv .
2
 Potential energy is the energy stored in a body by virtue of its position, state or
shape. E p  mgh.
 Internal energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all the
molecules of a substance.
 The principle of conservation of energy states that energy is never created or
destroyed but is only transferred from one form to another.
 The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the useful energy output to the total
energy input.
 Power is the rate of doing work or the rate of converting energy from one form to
another. The SI unit of power is the watt (W).
86
5.5 Questions
1. A gas expands at a constant pressure of 1.0 x 105 Pa. Its volume increases from 0.2 m3
to 0.3 m3. How much work is done in the expansion?
2. Find the work done by a force F = 500 N, in pulling a luggage carrier (Figure 5.5) at
an angle α  30 0 for a distance s  5.0 m.
Force, F
luggage carrier
s
Figure 5.6: A luggage carrier
3. Define (a) energy,
(b) power,
(c) internal energy.
1 2
4. Derive, from the equations of motion, the formula Ek  mv .
2
5. Derive, from the defining equation W = Fs, the formula Ep  mgh for potential
energy changes near the earth`s surface.
6. Find the kinetic energy of a particle of mass 200 g moving with a speed of 5 ms 1 .
7. State the principle of conservation of energy.
8. A stone is dropped from the top of a cliff of height of 10 m such that it falls vertically
downwards under the influence of gravity only. Calculate the speed at which the stone
hits the ground.
87
9. A water pump requires 10 kW of power so as to operate at a rate of 6 kJs1 . Calculate
the efficiency of the pump.
10. A car is travelling at a steady speed of 30 ms 1 . The constant resistance to its motion
as it moves on a level road is 2kN. What is the power output of the car’s engine?
11. A bullet of mass m and speed v strikes a stationary block of mass M which rests at
the base of a smooth inclined plane. It becomes embedded in the block.
The block and bullet move up the plane with initial speed V.
The system reaches a maximum h above the horizontal (see Figure 5.7).
block
h
plane
bullet
Figure 5.7: A smooth inclined plane.
(i) Write an expression for the initial kinetic energy of the bullet.
(ii) What is the total energy of the system on impact?
(iii) Show that the loss in kinetic energy of the bullet is approximately
1 2 1
mv  MV 2 .
2 2
(iv) Why does the bullet lose kinetic energy?
(v) What is the final energy of the bullet and block?
(vii) Show that V  2gh.
88
UNIT 6: GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
6.0 Introduction
This unit will cover the concept of the gravitational field. The unit content is focused on:
gravitational field near to the Earth’s surface, gravitational field strength, forces between
point masses and the gravitational potential.
Objectives
 define and calculate gravitational field strength;

Gm1m2
 state and use Newton’s law of universal gravitation (i.e.), F  ;
r2
Gm
 derive the equation g  for the gravitational field strength of a point mass,
r2
using Newton’s law of universal gravitation and the definition of gravitational
field strength;
 demonstrate an understanding that g is approximately uniform on/close to the
Earth’s surface;
 define and calculate gravitational potential and gravitational potential energy.
6.1 Gravitational field and field strength
6.1.1 Gravitational field
The gravitational field is a region in which the gravitational force is experienced. It can
be represented by gravitational field lines whose arrows indicate the direction of the field
(i.e.), the direction in which a mass in the gravitational field would be pulled. The
spacing of the gravitational field lines gives information about the magnitude of the
89
gravitational field (i.e.), the gravitational field strength. The closer the gravitational field
lines, the larger the gravitational field strength and the stronger the gravitational force. In
Figure 6.1, points far away from the Earth have relatively weaker gravitational field
strengths than those close to the Earth (i.e.), the gravitational field strength decreases as
we move away from the Earth’s surface as illustrated by the spacing of gravitational field
lines in Figure 6.1.
Gravitational field lines
Earth
Figure 6.1: Earth’s gravitational field
Close to the Earth’s surface, the gravitational field is considered as uniform although it
actually varies slightly from place to place. This is illustrated by the uniform or equal
spacing of the lines of force near or on the surface of the Earth (Figure 6.1).
6.1.2 Gravitational field strength
Gravitational field strength is the force acting on a unit mass placed in the gravitational
field.
Force
gravitational field strength, g  .
mass
Gravitational field strength is a vector quantity and is measured in Nkg 1 .
90
6.2 Newton’s law of universal gravitation
Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that, every particle of matter in the universe
attracts every other particle with a force which is directly proportional to the product of
the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the separation distance (Figure
6.2).
F F
m1 r m2
Figure 6.2: Two point masses (m1 and m2) at a separation distance r.
Any two point masses or particles (m1 and m2) are gravitationally attracted to each other
m1m2 Gm1m2
with a force F 2
. (i.e.), F  ,
r r2
where F is the gravitational attraction force between two particles of masses m1 and m2,
which are at a distance r apart. G is a constant of proportionality known as the universal
gravitational constant (= 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2).
1
This type of relationship is called an inverse square law (Figure 6.3) since F .
r2
Force/N
r/m
Figure 6.3: Variation of the force F between masses with the separation distance r.
1
(i.e.), F .
r2
91
Worked Example 6.1
Assuming that the Earth and the Moon are uniform spheres, find the magnitude of the
gravitational force between the Earth and the Moon.
(ME = 6.0 x 10 24 kg, mm = 7.4 x 10 22 kg and rEM  3.79 x 10 8 m.)
Earth F Moon
rEM  3.79 x 10 8 m
Figure 6.4: The gravitational force between the Earth and the Moon.
Solution
F
GM E mm

  
6.67x1011 6.0 x1024 7.4 x1022 
 2.1x1020 N .
rEM
2

3.79x10 8 2

6
Assuming that the Earth is a uniform sphere of radius, rE  6.37 x 10 m, find the
gravitational force on a 20 kg mass at the Earth’s surface (Figure 6.5).
(Mass of the Earth ME = 5.98 x 10 24 kg and G = 6.67 x 10 -11 m3 kg-1 s-2.)
rE m  20 kg
Figure 6.5: The gravitational force on a 20 kg mass at the Earth’s surface.
92
Deriving, from Newton’s law of gravitation and the definition of gravitational field
strength, the equation g = Gm/r2 for the gravitational field strength of a point mass.
Gmm1
 Newton’s law of gravitation: F 
r2
F
 Definition of gravitational field strength: g  .
m1
Gmm1 1 Gm
Therefore: g  2
x g 2 .
r m1 r
This equation implies that taking g to be constant everywhere on the Earth’s surface is
facilitated by making the assumption that the Earth is a homogeneous sphere, (i.e.), rE =
constant and also the Earth has a uniform mass distribution, which is not true. Therefore,
1
taking g to be constant is only an assumption since g .
r2
GM E
At a height h above the surface of the Earth, g  .
rE  h2
Worked Example 6.2
Estimate the gravitational field strength at the surface of the Earth given that its radius is
6.37 x 10 6 m and its mass is 5.98 x 10 24 kg (Figure 6.6). (G = 6.67 x 10 -11 m3 kg-1 s-2).
rE g
Figure 6.6: The gravitational field strength at the Earth’s surface.

Solution
93
g
GM E

 
6.67x1011 5.98x1024 
 9.83 Nkg 1 .
r 2
6.37x10 6
2

Worked Example 6.3
Estimate the gravitational field strength at a height of 2.0 x 10 6 m above the surface of
the Earth given that the radius of the Earth is 6.4 x 10 6 m and its mass is 5.98 x 10 24 kg
(Figure 6.7). (G = 6.67 x 10 -11 m3 kg-1 s-2).
rE h g
Figure 6.7: The gravitational field strength at a height h above the Earth’s surface.
Solution
g
GM E

 
6.67x1011 5.98x1024 
 5.65 Nkg 1 .
rE  h2

6.4 x10  2.0 x10
6 6 2

Find the mass of the Earth given that its radius is 6.37 x 10 6 m and the gravitational field
strength at the Earth’s surface is 9.81 Nkg-1. (G = 6.67 x 10 -11 m3 kg-1 s-2).
94
6.3 Gravitational Potential
The gravitational potential (  ) at a point in a gravitational field is the work done against
gravity in bringing a unit mass from infinity to that point.
GM
  .
r
Where:   the gravitational potential due to a body of mass m at a point outside the
body and at a distance r from its centre.
The potential at infinity is zero, so the negative sign for  indicates that the gravitational
potential at that point is less than that at infinity. The attractive nature of gravity pulls
masses together, so we only do work against gravity if the 1 kg mass is pulled away, thus
 must be negative.
The unit for  is the J/kg.
Worked Example 6.4
Calculate the gravitational potential,  at 7000 km from the centre of the Earth of mass
5.98 x 10 24 kg (Figure 6.8). (G = 6.67 x 10 -11 m3 kg-1 s-2).
r  7.0 x 10 6 m
Earth 
Figure 6.8: The gravitational potential,  at 7000 km from the centre of the Earth.
95
Solution
 
GM

 
6.67x1011 5.98x1024 
 5.7 x1053 Jkg1 .
6
r 7.0 x10
Find the mass of a star given that the gravitational potential at a distance of 2.20 x 10 29 m
from the centre of the star is – 3.2 x 10 14 J kg-1 (Figure 6.9).
r  2.20 x 10 29 m
star 
Figure 6.9: The gravitational potential,  at 2.20 x 10 29 m from the centre of a star.
6.3.1 Gravitational potential energy
Gravitational potential energy, Ep is the work done in bringing the mass from infinity to
that point.
GMm
Ep  m  
r
Worked Example 6.5
Calculate the gravitational potential energy of a body of mass 35000 kg at a height of 1.6
x 10 6 m above the surface of the Earth.
(ME = 6.0 x 10 24 kg, rE  6.4 x 10 6 m and G = 6.67 x 10 -11 m3 kg-1 s-2).
96
Solution
Ep  m  
GM E m

6.67 1011 6.0 1024 35000  1.751012 J.
rE  h 6.4 106  1.6 106 
6.3.2 Relationship between the gravitational field strength g and the gravitational
potential .
GM GM
g 2
and    .
r r
Figure 6.10 illustrates the relationship between the gravitational field strength g and the
gravitational potential .
 (J kg-1)
rE
x(m)
Figure 6.10: The value of the gravitational field strength = the value of the gradient
at any point.

Therefore, g   = potential gradient.
x
97
6.4 Summary
 The gravitational field is a region in which the gravitational force is experienced.

 Close to the Earth’s surface, the gravitational field is considered as uniform
although it actually varies slightly from place to place.
 Gravitational field strength is the force acting on a unit mass placed in the
GM
gravitational field. (i.e.), g  .
r2
 Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that, every particle of matter in the
universe attracts every other particle with a force which is directly proportional to
the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their
Gm1m2
separation distance. (i.e.), F  .
r2
 The gravitational potential (  ) at a point in a gravitational field is the work done
against gravity in bringing a unit mass from infinity to that point. (i.e.),
GM
  .
r
 Gravitational potential energy, Ep is the work done in bringing the mass from
GMm
infinity to that point. (i.e.), Ep  m   .
r
6.5 Questions
1. Define the following terms:
(a) gravitational field strength;

(b) gravitational potential;
(c) gravitational potential energy.
2. State Newton’s universal law of gravitation defining all symbols used.
98
3. Derive, from Newton’s law of gravitation and the definition of gravitational field
Gm
strength, the equation g  for the gravitational field strength of a point mass.
r2
4. Find the magnitude of the gravitational force between two point masses each of mass
2.5x107 kg, separated by a distance of 3 cm (Figure 6.11).
2.5x107 kg 3 cm 2.5x107 kg
Figure 6.11: The gravitational force between two point masses

6
5. Assuming that the Earth is a uniform sphere of radius, r = 6.37 x 10 m, find the
gravitational force on a 2.7 kg mass at the Earth’s surface (Figure 6.12).
(Mass of the Earth ME = 5.98 x 10 24 kg and G = 6.67 x 10 -11 m3 kg-1 s-2.)
rE m = 2.7 kg
Figure 6.12 : The gravitational force on a 2.7 kg mass at the Earth’s surface.
6. Estimate the gravitational field strength at the surface of the Earth given that its radius
is 6400 km and its mass is 6.0 x 10 24 kg (Figure 6.13). (G = 6.67 x 10 -11 m3 kg-1 s-2).
rE g
Figure 6.13 : The gravitational field strength at the Earth’s surface.
99
7. Calculate the gravitational field strength at a height of 1.0 x 10 6 m above the surface
of the Earth given that the radius of the Earth is 6.37 x 10 6 m and its mass is
rE h g
Figure 6.14: The gravitational field strength at a height h above the Earth’s surface.
8. Find the mass of the Earth given that its radius is 6.40 x 10 6 m and the gravitational
field strength at the Earth’s surface is 10 Nkg-1. (G = 6.67 x 10 -11 m3 kg-1 s-2).
9. Calculate the gravitational potential  , at 5.0 x 10 20 m from the centre of a star of mass
r  5.0 x 1020 m
star 
Figure 6.15 : The gravitational potential,  at 5.0 x 10 20

m from the centre of the
star.
100
UNIT 7: CIRCULAR MOTION
7.0 Introduction
In this unit, we shall deal with motion in a circle. Here, an accent is placed on kinematics
of uniform circular motion and centripetal force.
Objectives
 convert angles measured in degrees to radians, and vice-versa;

 demonstrate an understanding of the concepts of angular velocity, centripetal
acceleration and centripetal force;
v2 mv 2
 recall and use the equations: v  wr; a   w r and F 
2
 mw2 r ;
r r
 describe geostationary orbits and their applications.
7.1 Kinematics of uniform circular motion
7.1.1 Expressing angular displacement in radians
Angles can be measured in degrees as well as radians.
3600  2 radians. Angles in radians (rad) are often expressed as multiples of  . For
 
example: 1800   ; 900  and 300  .
2 6
Worked Example 7.1
Calculate how many degrees there are in 1 radian.
101
Solution
3600
1rad   570.
2
Now, consider a circle with centre O and radius r (Figure 7.1).
B
r
O α s = AB
Figure 7.1 Motion in a circle.
If α is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by arc AB, then
arc  length, s  
  arc length, s   2r . Therefore, s  r.
cicumference,2r 2 2
s
If s  r , then    1 rad. Therefore, one radian (i.e.), 1 rad is the angle subtended at
r
the centre of a circle by an arc of the circumference equal in length to the radius of the
circle.
A sports car moves round a circular track of radius 200 m. Find the angle in radians
turned through by the car in moving 400 m along the track.
102
7.1.2 Period (T)
Period is the time taken to complete one rotation/revolution. It is measured in seconds.
7.1.3 Frequency (f)
Frequency is the number of complete rotations/revolutions generated per second.

Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).
N
frequency ; where N is the number of rotations and t is the time taken.
t
1
Frequency, f  , where T is the period. Therefore, 1 Hz = 1 s-1.
T
7.1.4 Angular velocity (w)
Consider a particle (Figure 7.1) moving from point A to B along arc s at a constant speed
in a time interval t. The angular velocity, w of the particle is given by:

w ;
t
where  is the angle turned through (rad) and t is the time taken (s).
Angular velocity is measured in rad s-1. One revolution is 2 radians. This takes T
 2
seconds.  w    2f .
t T
w is also called the angular frequency.
From Figure 7.1, in a time t, the distance moved by the particle is the arc length s.
Therefore, the linear speed v of the particle is given by:
103
dis tan ce, s 
speed, v   r  rw.
time, t t
v  wr.
Worked Example 7.2
Suppose a particle is moving in a circular path of radius 2 m at a speed of 24 ms 1 . What

is the speed of the particle in (a) rad/s, (b) rev/min?
Solution
Using v  wr with v  24 ms 1 and r  2 m, gives:

v 24
(a) w    12 rad/s.
r 2
12 12 360
(b) 1 rev  2  12 rad / s  rev / s   60 rev / min  rev / min.
2 2 
7.1.5 Centripetal acceleration
When an object moves at a constant speed in a circle, it will accelerate because its
direction keeps changing and so does its velocity.
v2
Centripetal acceleration, a   w2 r.
r
Centripetal acceleration is directed towards the centre of the circle.
A bus moves at 8.0 ms 1 around a bend of radius 20 m. Find its centripetal acceleration.
104
7.2 Centripetal force
From Newton’s first law, a body continues to move in a straight line unless it is acted
upon by a resultant force. So to make a body move along a circular path, you always need
a resultant force directed towards the centre of the circular path. This is called the
centripetal force.
From Newton’s second law: F  ma.
mv 2
Centripetal force, F   mw2 r.
r
7.2.1 Motion in a horizontal circle
Examples of motion in a horizontal circle:
(i) If a body is of mass m is whirled in a horizontal circle on one end of a piece of

string, then the centripetal force is provided by the tension T in the string.
(ii) When a car is rounding a bend, the centripetal force is provided by the
frictional force between the car tyres and the road.
Worked Example 7.3
What is the centripetal force needed to keep a bicycle of mass 20 kg moving around a
bend of radius 40 m at 10 ms 1 ?
Solution
mv 2 20(10) 2
F   50 N.
r 40
105
7.2.2 Motion in a vertical circle
Consider the motion of an object in a vertical circle as illustrated in Figure 7.2 (at the top
of the circle) and Figure 7.3 (at the bottom of the circle).
At the top of the circle
v T + mg
Figure 7.2: At the top of the circle, the centripetal force is provided by both the
tension T in the string and the weight mg.
mv 2
(i.e.), T  mg  .
r
Therefore, the tension T in the string can be calculated using the equation:
mv 2
T  mg.
r
At the bottom of the circle
At the bottom of the circle, the centripetal force is provided by T – mg, because the
tension and the weight will be acting in opposite directions.
mv 2
( i.e.), T  mg  .
r
106
v
mg
Figure 7.3: At the bottom of the circle, the centripetal force is provided by T – mg.
Worked Example 7.4
A roller coaster has a vertical loop of radius 10 m. Given that the cars hurtle round the
loop at 8.0 ms 1 . Find,
(a) the centripetal force exerted on a rider of mass 80 kg,

(b) the contact force exerted by the car seat on the rider at the bottom of the loop.
Solution
8.0 ms -1
10 m
RB
mg
107
mv 2 80(8.0) 2
(a) F    512 N.
r 10
(b) At the bottom of the loop, the contact force RB is given by:
mv 2 mv 2
RB  mg   RB   mg.
r r
 RB  512  (80)(9.81)  1296.8 N.
7.3 Satellite orbits
A satellite is an object held in an orbit around a relatively larger object by the

gravitational attraction.
7.3.1 Natural satellites
The Moon is an original Earth satellite. The Earth itself is a satellite of the Sun.
7.3.2 Artificial satellites
Observation satellites which monitor weather, vegetation cover, land use or

communication etc. are good examples of artificial satellites.
A centripetal force is required to keep a satellite moving along a circular path. This
centripetal force is provided by the Earth’s gravitational force.
Consider a satellite of mass m in an orbit of radius r and velocity v about a planet of mass
M.
108
Centripetal force  gravitational force.
mv 2 GMm GM
 2 v .
r r r
The orbital period is given by
2r r3
T  2 .
v GM
Both G and M are constants, therefore both the speed and orbital period of an Earth
satellite depend only on the orbital radius.
7.3.3 Geostationary (synchronous) orbit
A satellite in a geostationary orbit will be approximately at a distance of 36 000 km

above the Earth’s equator and takes only 24 hours to complete one orbit. The satellite
appears to remain fixed in the sky, as the Earth spins. Satellites in geostationary orbits
can be used to relay television signals and telephone messages from one point on the
Earth’s surface to another. Examples include Hot bird, Syncom 2 (etc.). Also
METEOSAT weather satellites are placed in geostationary orbits to continuously monitor
large areas of the globe.
A spacecraft orbits the Moon travelling at 1000 ms-1. Given that the Moon has a radius of
6 22
1.7 x 10 m and a mass of 7.4 x 10 kg. Find the height of the spacecraft above the
Moon’s surface. Take G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nmkg-2.
7.4 Summary
 3600  2 radians. Angles in radians (rad) are often expressed as multiples of  .
109
 One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of the
circumference equal in length to the radius of the circle.

 Angular velocity, w  .
t
 The linear speed, v  wr.
v2
 Centripetal acceleration, a   w2 r.
r
 Centripetal acceleration is directed towards the centre of the circle.

mv 2
 Centripetal force, F   mw2 r.
r
 A satellite is an object held in an orbit around a relatively larger object by the
gravitational attraction.
 A centripetal force is required to keep a satellite moving along a circular path.
This centripetal force is provided by the Earth’s gravitational force.
7.5 Questions
1. With the aid of a clear diagram, show that s  r , where s is the length of arc XY, r is
the circle radius and Ө is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle by the arc XY.
2. A ball is kicked such that it moves round a circular track of radius 3.0 m. Find the
angle in radians turned through by the ball in moving 5.7 m along the track.
3. A trolley is moving in a circular track of radius 1.5m at a speed of 0.3 ms 1 . Find the
speed of the trolley in:
(a) rad/s,
(b) rev/min.
4. A train moves at 4.0 ms 1 around a bend of radius 10 m. What is its centripetal

acceleration?
110
5. A body of mass 50 kg moves with constant angular speed of 3 rad/s in a horizontal
circle of radius 6.0m. What is its centripetal force?
6. A roller coaster has a vertical loop of radius 15 m. Given that the cars hurtle round the
loop at 10 ms 1 . Find,
(a) the centripetal force exerted on a rider of mass 50 kg,
(b) the contact forces exerted by the car seat on the rider at the bottom and top of the
loop.
(c) At which point does the rider feel heaviest in the loop?
7. A spacecraft orbits the Moon travelling at 1500 ms-1. Given that the Moon has a radius
of 1.75 x 10 6 m and a mass of 7.32 x 10 22 kg. Find the height of the spacecraft above the
Moon’s surface. Take G = 6.67 x 10 -11 Nm2kg-2.
v2
8. Derive the equation g  for the gravitational field strength by using the definition
r
of the gravitational field strength.
9. Given that a geostationary satellite orbits the Earth at an orbital radius of 4.20 x 10 7 m.
Using G = 6.67 x 10 -11 Nm2kg-2, find:
(a) the speed of the satellite,
(b) the gravitational field strength at this height,
(c) the mass of the Earth.
111
Unit 8: Solutions to Self Assessment Questions
Unit 1: Physical Quantities and Units
1.1. (a) Pressure is defined by the equation:
force
pressure .
area
In terms of base units, the units of:
force = kgms2 and area = m2 .
Therefore, the derived unit of pressure is the kilogram per metre per square second
(kgm-1s-2). This is given a special name - the pascal (Pa).
(b) Energy is defined by the equation:
Energy  force ( kgms2 ) x displacement (m).
Combining the units in the defining equation gives us the derived unit of energy, which is
the kgm2 s2 . This is given a special name - the joule (J).
1.2. (a) (i) 0.002 (ii) 0.0021 (iii) 0.00206
(b) (i) 2 x 10 2 (ii) 1.9 x 10 2 (iii) 189
1.3. Resultant = 6 N – 2 N = 4 N in the downward direction.
4N
112
1.4. Horizontal component = 15cos 30 0 = 13 m.
Vertical component = 15sin 30 0 = 7.5 m.
1.5. Components in the horizontal direction: 8√3cos 300 - 3√2cos 450 = 9 ms 1 .
Components in the vertical direction: 8√3 sin 300 + 3√2 sin 450 – 2√3
= (2√3 + 3) ms 1 .
R (2√3 + 3) ms 1
Ө
9 ms 1

Magnitude of R  92  2 3  3  2
ms 1 = 11 ms 1 .
 2 3  3
Direction of R =   tan 1   = 35.70 above the x-axis.

 9 
The resultant velocity is therefore, 11 ms 1 at 35.70 above the positive x-axis.
Unit 2: Kinematics
2.1 Displacement of the trolley during the last 6 s  Area under the graph.
 10
6  2 .
2
 displacement  40 m.
113
2.2. (i)
v ( ms 1 )
20
0 2 6 11 t (s)
(ii) 1. deceleration  acceleration  gradientof a velocity-time graph.

0  20 .
11  6
 deceleration  4 ms 2 .
2. Distance travelled  Area under a velocity-time graph.

1
5  320  80 m.
2
2.3. (a) data
a  - 2 ms-2
u  20 ms-1
s  100 m
t ?
1
s  ut  at 2 .
2
100  20t 
1
 2t 2  t 2  20t  100  0.
2
114
t  10t  10  0. Therefore, t  10 s (twice).
The time required to travel a distance of 100 m is 10 s.
2.4. u  40 ms 1 and a  g  9.81 ms 2 .
(a) v  u  at  40  9.81(2)  20.38 ms 1 .
height, s  ut  at 2  402  9.812  60.38 m.

1 1 2
2 2
The velocity and height of the ball after 2 s are 20.38 ms 1 and 60.38 m, respectively.
(b) At hmax, v  0 ms 1 .
v  u  at  u  gt.
u 40
Therefore, t    4.08 s.
g 9.81
The time taken to reach the maximum height  4.08 s.
(c) v 2  u 2  2as  u 2  2gh.
At hmax, v  0 ms 1 : 0 2  402  2(9.81)hmax .
402
hmax   81.6 m.
19.62
The maximum height reached by the ball is 81.6 m.
115
2.5. Consider the motion of the shell from X to Y.
u
uy
α
X ux Y
The velocity, u of projection is found as follows:
1
Using s  ut  at 2 , for horizontal motion:
2
where u  u x ; t  10 s; a  0 ms 2 and s  x  500m.
s 500
 s  uxt  ux    50 ms 1 .
t 10
1
Again using s  ut  at 2 , for vertical motion:
2
where u  u y ; t  10 s; a  g  10 ms 2 and s  0 m.
0  u y x10  10102  u y  50 ms 1 .
1
2
Therefore, the magnitude of the velocity of projection,
u  u x  u y  502  502  70.7 ms 1 .

2 2
 uy 
The angle of projection above the horizontal is given by:   tan 1   . u uy
 vx 
α
ux
 50 
  tan 1    450.
 50 
116
The shell is projected at 70.7 ms-1 at an angle of 450 above the horizontal.
2.6.
h u  25 ms 1
400 m
2h 2400
(a) The time taken by the stone to reach the ground, t is: t    9.0s.
g 9.81
(b) The magnitude of the stone’s velocity when it hits the ground, v  vx  v y .
2 2
vx
α vy
vx  constant  25 ms ; v y  u  at  0  9.81 9.0  88.6 ms .
1 1
v
v  252  88.6 2  92 ms 1 .
Unit 3: Dynamics
3.1. momentum, p  mass, m  velocity, v  1200 kg x 20 ms 1  24 000 kg ms 1 .
The units of momentum are kg ms 1 or alternatively Ns.
3.2. Let v be the common speed of the bodies after the collision.
6 ms 1 0 ms 1 (at rest) v
2 kg 1 kg (2 + 1) kg
Before collision After collision
117
Taking velocities to the right as positive and applying the principle of conservation of
2(6) + 1(0)  (2 + 1)v  12  0  3v  v  4 ms 1 .
The common speed of the two bodies after the impact is 4 ms 1 .
Unit 4: Forces
4.1. Due to the roughness of the surface, a frictional force F will act parallel to the plane,
opposing the direction of motion of the particle. If the particle is at rest then F = Q.
F Q
mg
4.2. A taut string will exert a force on an object. This force is called a tension T and is
directed along the string. In this case, the mass m is suspended from a string, so there
exists a downward weight force mg and a tension T acting upwards.
mg
118
4.3. The forces form a vector triangle shown below, since they are in equilibrium.
5N PN
450 Ө
10 N
Applying the cosine rule: P 2  52  102  2  5 10cos450 .
P = 54.3 N.
Using the sine rule:

sin sin 450
    3.7 0.
5 54.3
4.4. Resolving parallel to the x-axis:
T sin  5 cos600  4 cos450  T sin  0.328....(i)
4  T cos  4 sin 450  5sin 600  T cos  3.159...(ii)
(i) 0.328
: tan      5.9 0.
(ii) 3.159
T 2  0.3282  3.1592  T  3.18 N.
The force T is 3.18 N and the angle α is 5.9 0.
4.5. The torque of a couple  magnitude of one force x perpendicular distance between
the 2 forces forming the couple.
119
 50 N x 0.3 m  15 N m in the anti-clockwise direction.
Unit 5: Work, Energy and Power
5.1. dW  pdV  3.0 105  0.015  4500 J.
5.2. As the apple falls, its Ep is converted to Ek :
1 2
mv  mgh  v  2 gh  2  9.81 4.0  8.9 ms 1 .
2
5.3. Power, P  force, F x average velocity, v.
P  Fv  50x10  500 W.
Therefore, Norah can work at a maximum rate of 500 W.
Unit 6: Gravitational field
6.1. F 
 
GM E m 6.67  1011 5.98  1024 20

 196.6 N.
rE
2

6.37  106
2

GM gr 2 9.81 6.37x106
6.2. g  2 E  M E  E 
 
2
 5.97x1024 kg.
r G 6.67x1011 
6.3.   
GM r
M  

 3.2 x1014 2.20x1029 
 1.1x1054 kg.

11
r G 6.67x10
120
Unit 7: Circular motion
s 400
7.1. s  r .      2 rad.
r 200
v 2 (8.0) 2
7.2. a    3.2 ms 2 .
r 20
7.3. Centripetal force = gravitational force of attraction.
mv 2 GMm GM 6.67  1011  7.4 x1022

 2 r  2   4.9  106 m. .
r r v 10002
Note: r is measured from the centre of mass, so the required height about the Moon’s
surface is given by 4.9 x 10 6 – 1.7 x 10 6  3.2 x 10 6 m
121
Unit 9: Solutions to Unit Assessment Questions
Unit 1: Physical Quantities and Units
1. Physical quantities are those quantities which are measurable (e.g.), length and time.
Abstract quantities are those quantities which cannot be measured (e.g.), love and
anxiety.
2. (a) base; derived.

(b) magnitude (size); magnitude (size); direction.
3. (a) 5 MN.
(b) 3 ms.
4. (a) (i) 0.08 (ii) 0.081 (iii) 0.080 6.

(b) (i) 3 x 102 (ii) 3.5 x 102 (iii) 350
5. kg m s-2 ; newton (N).
6. (a) Energy is defined by the equation: energy  force (kgm s-2) x displacement (m).
Combining the units in the defining equation yields the derived unit energy, which is
kgm2 s-2 .
W
(b) Power is defined by the equation: power  ;
t
where W is the work done (kgm2s-2 ) and t is the time (s).
Combining the units in the defining equation yields the derived unit power, which
is kgm2 s-3.
122
7. (a) A physical equation is said to be homogeneous when the base units on each term of
its ‘left-hand` side (LHS) are identical to the base units on each term of its ‘right-
hand` side (RHS).
(b) LHS: units of v  ms 1.
RHS: units of u  ms 1.

units of at  ms 2  s  ms 1.
Therefore, the equation v  u  at is homogeneous since the base units on the LHS are
matching with those on each term of the RHS.
8. (a) Magnitude of R  162  7 2 ms 1  17.5 ms-1.

R 16 ms-1
 16 
Direction of R =   tan 1   = 66.4 0 to the bank.
7
θ
7 ms-1
So the resultant velocity of the boat is 17.5 ms-1 at 66.4 0 to the bank.
9. (a) Magnitude of R  32  4 2 N = 5 N.
R 3N
3
Direction of R    tan 1   = 37 0 to the 4 N force.
 4
θ
4N
So the resultant force is 5 N at 37 0 to the 4 N force and at 53 0 to the 3 N force.
123
10. (a) The component of a vector in a particular direction is the effective value of the
vector in that direction.
(b) y
400 N
40 0
x
Vertical component = 400 sin 40 0 = 257 N.

Horizontal component = 400 cos 40 0 = 306 N.
11. y
20 N
45 0
x
(a) Vertical component  20 sin 45 0 = 14 N.
(b) Horizontal component  20 cos 45 0 = 14 N.
12. Total upward displacement: 40.0 + 60.0sin200 – 50.0 sin 30 0 = 35.52 m.
Total displacement to the right: 80.0  60.0 sin 700  50.0 cos300  19.68 m.
R
35.52 m
θ
19.68 m
124
Magnitude of R  35.522  19.682 m  40.6 m.
 35.52 
Direction of R    tan 1    61.0 above the negative x axis.
0
 19.68 
The resultant displacement is therefore, 40.6 m at 61.0 0 above the negative x axis.
13. Resolving horizontally to the right: 6 cos 30 0 + 4 cos 10 0 – 5 sin 20 0 = 7.425 N.
Resolving vertically upwards: 6 sin 300  4 sin100  5 cos200  2.393N.

7.425 N.
θ
2.393 N
R
Magnitude of R  7.4252  2.3932 N  7.8 N.
 2.393
Direction of R    tan 1    17.9 below the positive x axis.
0
 7.425 
Therefore, the resultant force is 7.8 N at 17.9 0 below the positive x axis.
14.
8 m/s 17 m/s 8 m/s

Ө 
14 m/s 14 m/s
142  82  172
Using the cosine rule: cos 
2(14)(8)
125
Therefore,   97.40.
Therefore, the required angle Ө between the velocities  1800  97.40  82.60.
Unit 2: Kinematics
1. Refer to sub-unit 2.1.
2. Refer to sub-unit 2.1.6.
3. Using the graph, displacement s  area under the velocity – time graph.
s
1
v  u  t   v  u  v  u  , where the acceleration, a   v  u   t   v  u 
2  2  a   t   a 
v2  u2
Applying the difference of two squares yields: s  .
2a
4.
u  15 ms 1
Here, u  15 ms 1 and t  1 s.
The position of the projectile at time, t seconds is given by x2  y2 ,

1 2 1
where, x  ut  151  15 m and y  gt  (9.81)12  4.905m.
2 2
Therefore, after 1 s the displacement from the point of projection is:
152  4.9052  15.8 m.
126
5. The maximum height is obtained by calculating the value of the vertical displacement,
y when vy is zero, a  g  9.81 ms 2 and u  28 3 sin 600 ms 1 .
Using v y  u 2 sin 2   2gy :

2
 2
0  28 3 sin 600  2(9.81)hmax  h max  90 m; where y  hmax is the maximum
height reached by the projectile.
The time, t taken by the projectile to reach the maximum height is found by calculating
the time when the vertical component of the velocity of the projectile is zero (i.e.), vy 
0, u  28 3 sin 600 ms 1 and a  g. Using v  u  at, we get:
2
0  28 3 sin 600  9.81t  t  4 s.
7
6. (a) u  26sin 300  13 ms 1 , a  g  10 ms 2 and the vertical displacement s  0 m.

1 1
s  ut  at 2  0  13t  (10)t 2 ,
2 2
t  0 or 2.6 s, the ball is initially at ground level when t  0 , so the required time of flight
is 2.6 s.
1
(b) The range is found by considering the equation: s  ut  at 2 , in the horizontal
2
direction with s  range, u  26cos300  22.5 ms 1 and t  2.6 s.
Range  horizontal velocity x time of flight  22.5  2.6  59 m.
7. Using the equation, v 2  u 2  2as , with u  12 ms 1 , v  36 ms 1 and s  1000m

yields:
362  122  2(a)(1000)  a  0.576 ms 2 .
8. Using the equation v 2  u 2  2as , with v  0 ms 1 , u  20 ms 1 and a  0.5 ms 2 .

gives:
127
400
0 2  202  2(0.5)s  s   400m.
1.0
9. The stone is at a height of 5 m on its upward journey and again on its downward
1
journey. Using the equation s  ut  at 2 with a  g  9.81 ms 2 , s  5m and
2
u  10 ms 1 .
1
5  10t  (9.81)t 2  4.9t 2  10t  5  0
2
t  0.876s or 1.165 s.
The required time interval is 1.165 – 0.876 = 0.289 s.
1
10. The equation s  ut  at 2 is used with u  34.3 ms 1 , a  g  9.81 ms 2 , and
2
s  49 m.
1
49  34.3t  (9.81)t 2  t 2  7t  10  0
2
Therefore, t = 5 s or 2 s.
The particle is 49 m above the point of projection (a) after 2 s and (b) after 5 s.
11. (a)
v (m/s)
20
0 10 30 35 t (s)
128
(b) Distance travelled during the first 30 s  Area under a velocity-time graph.

1
20  3020.
2
 500m
(c) (i) acceleration during the first 10 s  gradient of a velocity-time graph.

20  0 .
10  0
 2 ms 2 .
(c) (ii) acceleration during between 10 s and 30 s  gradient of a velocity-time graph.

20  20 .
30  10
 0 ms 2 .
12.(a) Velocity of the car during the first 10 s  gradient of the graph during the first 10s.
20  0
 .
10  0
 2 ms 1 .
(b) Velocity of the car between 10 s and 40 s  gradient of the graph.

20  20
 .
40  10
 0 ms 1 .
Therefore, the car is stationary. A horizontal line has a zero gradient, and hence a zero
velocity.
129
(c) Velocity of the car during the last 10 s  gradient of the graph during the last 10 s.
30  20
 .
50  40
 1 ms 1 .
Unit 3: Dynamics
2. Using F  ma with F  60 N and m  2 kg gives:
F 60
a   30 ms 2 .
m 2
4. The man exerts a downward force (60 g) on the lift floor and the floor exerts an equal
and upward force R on the man.
a  5 ms 2
60 g
The resultant downward vertical force on the man is (60g – R).

Newton’s second law of motion ( F  ma ), requires the resultant force (60g – R) to be
equal to the product of the mass and acceleration (60 x 5).
130
60g – R  60 x 5. Therefore, R  288.6 N.
6. An elastic collision is a collision in which kinetic energy is conserved (i.e.), total

kinetic energy before collision = total kinetic energy after collision. The relative speed of
approach = the relative speed of separation.
An inelastic collision is a collision in which some or all of the kinetic energy is

apparently lost and is converted to other forms usually internal/heat energy (i.e.),
total kinetic energy before collision > total kinetic energy after collision. The relative
speed of approach > the relative speed of separation.
7. Taking velocities to the right as positive and applying the principle of conservation of
3(5) + 8(-3) = 3(-v) + 8(-1)  15  24  3v  8  3v  1.
1
Therefore, v  ms 1 .
3
1
The speed of the lighter trolley after the impact is ms 1 , and its direction of motion is
3
reversed.
8.
2.0 ms-1 0 ms-1 v
0.25 kg 0.25 kg
0.10 kg 0.10 kg
Before collision After collision
131
(a) Taking velocities to the right as positive and applying the principle of conservation of
(0.10)(2.0)  (0.25)(0)  (0.10  0.25)v  v  0.57 ms 1 .
mv  0.102.0  0.2 J.
1 2 1
(b) Before collision: Ek 
2
2 2
mv  0.10  0.250.57  0.06 J.

1 2 1
After collision: Ek 
2
2 2
This is an inelastic collision since the kinetic energy before collision is greater than the
kinetic energy after collision.
Unit 4: Forces
2. (a) Refer to sub-unit 4.1.2.

(b) Refer to sub-unit 4.5.

4. The torque of a couple  magnitude of one force x perpendicular distance between the
two forces forming the couple.
 100 N x 0.2 m  20 Nm in the anti-clockwise direction.
5. (i) Moment about P  force x perpendicular distance from the line of action of the
force to that point.
 10 N x 2 m  20 Nm in the clockwise direction.
Since the force produces a clockwise moment, the answer could be written as – 20 Nm.
132
(ii) In this case, the perpendicular distance is found by resolving the 1.2 m distance
vertically (i.e.), 1.2 sin 300.
1.2 m
1.2 sin 300
1500
10 N
Moment about P  force x perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force
to that point.
 10 x 1.2 sin 300  6 N m in the anti-clockwise direction.
This is an anti-clockwise moment, so the answer could be written as 6 Nm.
6. When the seesaw is balanced i.e. in equilibrium:

The sum of clockwise moments about the pivot  the sum of anti-clockwise moments
about the pivot.
W  1.0 m  200  2.5 m W  500 N.
7. A particle is said to be in equilibrium when:
(i) there is no net force acting in any direction; and

(ii) there is no net turning effect about any point.
8.
M 3N
α
133
4N
Applying Pythagoras theorem: M  4 2  32  5 N.

3
Angle  tan 1    36.7 0    1800    143.10.
4
Therefore, force M is 5 N and angle Ө = 143.10.
9. Resolving parallel to the x-axis:
3 Q
P cos300  50 cos600  10 cos300  Q cos 450  0  P  5 3  25....(i)
2 2
P Q
P sin 300  10sin 300  50sin 600  Q sin 450  0    25 3  5...(ii)
2 2
 3 1
(i)  (ii) : P    20 3  20  P  149 N and Q   160 N.
 2 2
Unit 5: Work, Energy and Power
1. dW  pdV  1.0 105  0.1  10 kJ.
2. Work done, W  F cos  500 5.0  cos300  2165 J.
3. (a) Refer to sub-unit5.2.

(b) Refer to sub-unit5.3.
(c) Refer to sub-unit5.2.4.
134
mv  0.205  2.5 J.
1 2 1
6. Ek 
2
2 2
8. As the stone falls, its Ep is converted to Ek :

1 2
mv  mgh  v  2 gh  2(9.81)10  14 ms 1 .
2
poweroutput
9. efficiency  100%.
powerinput
6000
 x100%  60%.
10000
10. Power, P  force, F x average velocity, v.
P  Fv  2000x30  60 kW.
1 2
11. (i) mv .
2
1
(ii) (m  M )V 2 .
2
1 2 1
(iii) Loss  mv  (m  M )V 2 .
2 2
1 2 1 1
 mv  mV 2  MV 2 .
2 2 2
1 2 1
 mv  MV 2 ; where m << M and v >> V.
2 2
(iv) Some Ek is converted to internal/sound / Ek of the block e.t.c.
135
(v) E p  (m  M ) gh.
1
(vi) (m  M )V 2  (m  M ) gh .
2
V 2  2 gh  V  2 gh.
Unit 6: Gravitational field

(c) Refer to sub-unit 6.3.1.
2. Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that, every particle of matter in the
universe attracts every other particle with a force which is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their separation
Gm1m2
distance (i.e.), F  .
r2
Where F = the gravitational attraction force between two particles of masses m1 and m2,
which are at a distance r apart.
G = a constant of proportionality known as the universal gravitational constant

(= 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2).
3. Deriving the equation g = Gm/r2.

Gmm1
 Newton’s law of gravitation: F  .
r2
F
 Definition of gravitational field strength: g  .
m1
Gmm1 1 Gm
Therefore: g  2
x g 2 .
r m1 r
136
4. F 
Gm1m2


6.67x1011 2.5x107  
2
 4.63x107 N .
r2 3.0 x102
2
 
5. F 

GM E m 6.67x1011 5.98x1024 2.7


 26.5 N.

rE
2
6.37x106
2
 
6. g 
GM E


6.67x1011 6.0 x1024 
 9.77 Nkg 1 .

r2 6.4 x10 
6 2

7. g 
GM E


6.67x1011 6.0x10   7.37 Nkg
24
1
.

rE  h2 6.37x106  1.0 x10  6 2
GM gr 2 10 6.40x106
8. g  2 E  M E  E 
 
2
 6.14x1024 kg.
r G 6.67x1011  
9.   
GM


6.67x1011 9.65x1050 
 1.29x1020 Jkg1 .

r 5.0 x1020
Unit 7: Circular motion
1. Consider a circle with centre O and radius r.
Y
r
O Ө s  XY
If Ө is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by arc XY, then
137
arc  length, s  
  arc length, s  x2r . Therefore, s  r .
cicumference,2r 2 2
s 5.7
2. s  r .      1.9 rad.
r 3.0
3. Using v  wr with v  0.3 ms 1 and r  1.5 m, gives:

v 0.3
(a) w    0.2 rad/s.
r 1.5
0.2 0.2 6
(b) 1 rev  2  0.2 rad / s  rev / s   60 rev / min  rev / min.
2 2 
v 2 (4.0) 2
4. a    1.6 ms 2 .
r 10
5. F  mw2 r  50x32 x6.0  2700 N.
6.
10 m/s
5m
RB
mg
mv 2 50(10) 2
(a) F    1000 N.
r 5
(b) At the bottom of the loop, the contact force RB is given by:
mv 2 mv 2
RB  mg   RB   mg  1000  (50)(9.81)  1490.5 N.
r r
138
At the top of the loop, the contact force RT is given by:
mv 2 mv 2
RT  mg   RT   mg  1000 (50)(9.81)  509.5 N.
r r
(c) The rider feels heaviest at the bottom of the loop (i.e.), when the contact force is
greatest.
7. Centripetal force  gravitational force of attraction.
mv 2 GMm GM 6.67x1011 x7.32x1022

 2 r  2  2
 2.2 x106 m. .
r r v 1500
Note: r is measured from the centre of mass, so the required height about the Moon’s
surface is given by 2.17 x 10 6 – 1.75 x 10 6 = 4.2 x 10 5 m.
8. Consider a satellite of mass m in an orbit of radius r and velocity v about a planet of

mass M.
mv 2 GMm
Centripetal force = gravitational force of attraction (i.e.),  2 ...(i)
r r
Defining the gravitational field strength as the force per unit mass placed in the
GM mv 2 v2
gravitational field (i.e.), g  . Equation (i) becomes mg   g  .
r2 r r
9. The circumference of the orbit  2πr and also, a geostationary satellite has a period of
24 hours  86 400 s.
dis tan ce 2r 2 (4.20x107 )
(a) speed     3054 ms 1 .
time T 86400
mv 2 v2 30542
(b) mg  g  7
 0.222 Nkg 1 .
r r 4.20x10
GM gr 2 0.222x(4.20x107 ) 2
(c) g  2
 M   11
 5.87x1024 kg.
r G 6.67x10
139
References
Azzorpadi, F. and Stewart, B. (1995). Accessible Physics. Macmillan Press Limited,

London. pp 1 – 65.
Duncan, T. (1985). Physics. John Murray Publishers Limited, London, UK. pp 133-217.
Gibbs, K. (1990). Advanced Physics. Cambridge University Press, New York. pp 25 – 96.
Graham, T. and Burrows, A. (2000). Advancing Maths for AQA Mechanics 1. Heinemann
Educational, London, UK. pp 7 – 149.
Halliday, D., Resnick, R. and Walker, J. (1993). Fundamentals of Physics. John Wiley
and Sons, New York. pp 1 – 379.
Johnson, K. and Hewett, S. (2000). Advanced Physics for You. Nelson Thornes Limited,
Delta Place, UK. pp 6 – 89.
Muncaster, R. (1993). A’ Level Physics. Nelson Thornes Limited, London, UK. pp 2 –

140.
Nelkon, M. and Parker, P. (1982). Advanced level Physics. Heinemann Educational

Books Limited, London. pp 3 – 113.
Sadler, A.J. and Thorning, D.W.S. (1996). Understanding Mechanics. Oxford University
Press, New York. pp 1 – 268.
Wilson, J.D. and Buffa, A.J. (1997). College Physics. Prentice Hall, London, UK. pp 1 –
236.
140

Section 1. 0 Physical Quantities and Units

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Section 1. 0 Physical Quantities and Units

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UNIT 1: PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 demonstrate an understanding that all physical quantities consist of a numerical

1.1 Physical quantities

The International System of Units (SI) is an internationally agreed system of

1.2.1 Base quantities and their units

Table 1.1: The seven base quantities and their units.

1.2.2 Derived quantities and their units

Worked Example 1.1

(a) Speed is defined by the equation:

(b) Density is defined by the equation:

Self Assessment Question 1.1

Table 1.2: Some of the derived units with special names.

Derived quantity Derived unit

Worked Example 1.2

Express the newton (N) as a product or quotient of base units.

(a) The newton (N) is a unit of force.

Force is defined by the equation:

Therefore, the newton ( N )  kgms2 .

1.2.3 Homogeneity of equations

Worked Example 1.3

(a) LHS: The unit of force, F  newton  kgms2 .

RHS: The unit of ma  kgms2 .

(b) LHS: The unit of v  ms 1.

1.2.4 Prefixes and their symbols

Table 1.3: Main prefixes and their symbols.

1200000000 s  1.2 109 s  1.2 Gs.

1.2.5 Significant figures

Self Assessment Question 1.2

Express (a) 0.002062 and (b) 189.3 to:

Worked Example 1.4

1.3 Scalar quantities and vector quantities

1.3.1 Addition and subtraction of scalars

(i) Subtraction of temperature: 25 0C – 15 0C = 10 0C.

(ii) Addition of length/distance: 4 cm + 12 cm + 100 cm = 116 cm.

Figure 1.1 (a): Representing vectors

1.3.3 Addition and subtraction of vectors

Case 1: Vectors acting along the same line

Worked Example 1.5

Self Assessment Question 1.3

Figure 1.1 (c): Two vertical vectors acting in opposite directions.

Case 2: Perpendicular vectors

(i) the scale drawing method; or

(ii) the calculation method.

(i) The scale drawing method

(ii) The calculation method

Worked Example 1.6

Applying Pythagoras’ theorem gives the magnitude of the resultant vector R.

The resultant is therefore, a force of 10 N acting at 37 0 to the 8 N force and at 53 0 to the

Self Assessment Question 1.4

1.3.5 Resultant from sum of components

Worked Example 1.7

Figure 1.6: Three forces acting on a particle.

Components in the horizontal direction: 6 cos300  4 cos100  10cos700  5.72 N.

Magnitude of R  5.7152  7.0922  9 N .

Self Assessment Question 1.5

Figure 1.7: Resultant of three velocity vectors.

 Physical quantities are those quantities which are measurable.

2. Copy and complete the following sentences:

(a) 5 000 000N.

4. Express (a) 0.080 62 and (b) 349.7 to:

7. (a) When is a physical equation said to be homogeneous?

Figure 1.8: Two perpendicular forces.