Basic Thermodynamics

Engr. Samuel N. Arzadon

 Pressure

Absolute, Gage, and Atmospheric

Pressure

 In gases and liquids, the effect of a normal force acting on an area is the pressure. If a
force ΔF acts at an angle to an area ΔA (Fig. 1.7), only the normal component ΔFn enters
into the definition of pressure:

∆𝐹𝑛 𝐹
𝑃 = lim =
∆𝐴→0 ∆𝐴 𝐴
Pressure variation with elevation

 In the atmosphere, pressure varies with elevation. This variation can be expressed mathematically
by summing vertical forces acting on an infinitesimal element of air. The force PA on the bottom of
the element and (P + dP)A on the top balance the weight 𝜌𝑔𝐴𝑑𝑧 to provide
𝑑𝑃 = −𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑧 → 𝐸𝑞. 1
 If 𝜌 is a known function of z, the above equation can be integrated to give P(z)
𝑧
𝑃 𝑧 − 𝑃𝑜 = − න 𝛾𝑑𝑧 → 𝐸𝑞. 2
0
 where we used 𝜌𝑔 = γ. For a liquid, g is constant. If we write Eq. (1) using dh = −dz, we have
𝑑𝑃 = 𝛾𝑑ℎ
 where h is measured positive downward. Integrating this equation, starting at a liquid surface
where usually P = 0, results in
𝑃 = 𝛾ℎ
= 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Pressure Measurement

 Manometers and barometers measure pressure in terms of the

length of a column of liquid such as mercury, water, or oil. The
manometer shown has one end open to the atmosphere and the
other attached to a tank containing a gas at a uniform pressure.
Since pressures at equal elevations in a continuous mass of a liquid
or gas at rest are equal, the pressures at points a and b are equal.
Applying an elementary force balance, the gas pressure is
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔𝐿 → 𝐸𝑞. 3
 where 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 is the local atmospheric pressure, 𝜌 is the density of the
liquid, g is the gravitational acceleration, and L is the difference in
liquid levels.
Pressure Measurement

 The barometer shown is formed by a closed tube filled with liquid mercury
and a small amount of mercury vapor inverted in an open container of
liquid mercury. Since the pressures at points a and b are equal, a force
balance gives the atmospheric pressure as
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 + 𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔𝐿 → 𝐸𝑞. 4
 where 𝜌𝑚 is the density of liquid mercury. Because the pressure of the
mercury vapor is much less than that of the atmosphere, Eq. 4 can be
approximated closely as 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔𝐿 . For short columns of liquid, 𝜌 and
g in Eqs. 3 and 4 may be taken as constant.
 Pressures measured with manometers and barometers are frequently
expressed in terms of the length L in millimeters of mercury (mmHg),
inches of mercury (inHg), inches of water (inH2O), and so on.
Absolute vs Gage vs Atmospheric
Sample Problem

1. A barometer reads 750 mmHg. If 𝜌𝑚 = 13.59 g/cm3 and g = 9.81 m/s2 , the atmospheric
pressure, in N/m2 , is calculated as follows:
Sample Problem

2. A 2.5 m tall steel cylinder has a cross sectional area of 1.5 m2. At the bottom with a height
of 0.5 m is liquid water on top of which is a 1 m high layer of gasoline. This is shown in Fig.
P1.55. The gasoline surface is exposed to atmospheric air at 101 kPa. What is the highest
pressure in the water?
Sample Problem

3. A 30-m vertical column of fluid with density of 1878 kg/m3 is located to a place where g =
9.65 mps2. Find the pressure at the base of the column.
Seatwork

1. The pressure of a boiler is 9.5 kg/cm2. The barometric pressure of the atmosphere is 768
mmHg. Find the absolute pressure in the boiler.
Seatwork

2. A piston/cylinder with cross sectional area of 0.01 m2 has a piston mass of 100 kg resting on the stops, as
shown in Fig. P1.50. With an outside atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa, what should the water pressure be to
lift the piston?
Seatwork

1. Blue manometer fluid of density 925 kg/m3 shows a column height difference of 3 cm vacuum with one end
attached to a pipe and the other open to P0= 101 kPa. What is the absolute pressure in the pipe?
Temperature
Temperature

➢ The intensity of heat of a body

Commonly used temperature scales
• Celsius (C)
• Fahrenheit (F)
• Kelvin (K)
• Rankine (R)
Conversions
𝑡𝐹 = 1.8𝑡𝑐 + 32
𝑇𝐾 = 𝑡𝑐 + 273.15
𝑇𝑅 = 𝑡𝐹 + 459.67
 Reamur Scale

The Réaumur scale is a temperature scale that was proposed by the French naturalist René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur
in 1730. It is based on the principle of dividing the interval between the freezing and boiling points of water into 80 equal
parts, each called a degree Réaumur (°Ré, °Re, or °r). The Réaumur scale was widely used in Europe, especially in France,
Germany, and Russia, until the late 19th or early 20th century, when it was replaced by the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.

Some examples of temperatures in the Réaumur scale are:

- 0 °Ré = freezing point of water = 0 °C = 32 °F

- 10 °Ré = typical room temperature = 12.5 °C = 54.5 °F
- 20 °Ré = human body temperature = 25 °C = 77 °F
- 40 °Ré = baking temperature of bread = 50 °C = 122 °F
- 80 °Ré = boiling point of water = 100 °C = 212 °F

The Réaumur scale is still used in some specific applications, such as measuring the temperature of milk during cheese
production in Italy and Switzerland, and the temperature of sugar syrup when cooking desserts and sweets in the
Netherlands.
Sample Problem

1. Temperature reading is 55°C, convert into °F, °R, and °K.

55°C = 131 °F
55 °C = 55 + 273.15 = 328.15 °K
55 °C = 131 °F + 459.67 = 590.67 °R
Sample Problem

2. Which of the following is the coldest?

a) 100 °C – boiling point of water
b) 274.15 °K = 274.15 °K – 273.15 = 1 °C
c) 32 °F = 32 °F – 32 = 0/1.8 = 0 °C – freezing point of water
Sample Problem

3. Convert 50 °Re into °C, °F, °R, and °K.

Seatwork

4. Elom Tusk invented a new scale for temperature. If the freezing point of water is -20˚E and
the boiling point is 90˚E, what is the equivalent of 40˚E in Celsius and Fahrenheit?