LABORATORY WORKS ON SUBJECT "UNDERGROUND HYDRAULICS"

Laboratory work №1

One-dimensional steady-state motion of an incompressible fluid in a porous

medium.

The simplest case of one-dimensional steady-state (steady-state) fluid motion

occurs in a given direction, for example, along the X axis. In modeling the filtration
flows in a porous medium, one-dimensional motion can also be encountered.

The motion in a porous medium is described by the equation of continuity of a

flow. The equation of continuity describes the change in the mass balance of a fluid in
an elementary volume and is generally written as follows:

(1.1)

Here ρ is the density of the liquid, m is the porosity coefficient, v x, vy, vz are,
respectively, the filtration velocity components in the X, Y, and Z directions.

When the incompressible fluid is filtered in the X direction in a homogeneous

porous medium, equation (1.1) is written in the following form:

(1.2)

It follows that .

If we express the filtration rate using Darcy's law (Figure 1.1), we get:

(1.3)

Here k is the permeability coefficient; µ is the dynamic viscosity; - pressure

gradient.
 Figure 1.1

If . It follows from (1.2) and (1.3) that and (1.4).

Here the integration constants C1 and C2 are found according to the following
boundary conditions:

Х=0 Р=Р2

Х=L Р=Р1

Thus, with one-dimensional filtration of an incompressible fluid along the X

axis, the pressure distribution is written as the following linear equation (Figure 1.2).

or (1.5)

Figure 1.2
 Knowing the distribution law at each point, you can determine the filtration rate

(v), the pressure gradient ( ), the fluid flow rate ( where, and d

is the internal diameter of the pipe) and the productivity factor ( ).

The geometric field of the points forms the isobar line (Figure 1.3).

Pressure gradient

Isobar line

Figure 1.3

The line perpendicular to the isobar is the pressure gradient.

Objective: Determination of parameters characterizing linear steady-state filtration -

filtration rate, pressure gradient, isobar line, pressure distribution along the whole
porous media sample, fluid flow, productivity and permeability.

DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL UNIT.

The scheme of the pilot plant is shown in Figure 1.4. Its main part is the
reservoir model. The formation model (1) is a thick-walled pipe of length L, which is
filled with quartz sand of a certain fraction.

Valves are installed at the inlet (2) and the outlet (3). To prevent sand from
spilling out of the model, seals are installed at the inlet and outlet, the permeability of
which is less than the permeability of the model. The pressures at the inlet and outlet
of the model are measured with the help of manometers 4 and 5, and along the
reservoir model with pressure gauges 6,7,8 and 9.
Figure 1.4

The fluid in the reservoir model comes from the tank 10. The flow rate at the
outlet is measured with a rotameter 11.

METHODOLOGY OF THE EXPERIMENT.

In the experiment, water is used as an incompressible fluid. In order to

determine the filtration parameters of an incompressible fluid, the following sequence
of operations is performed.

1. To saturate the porous medium with water, the porosity coefficient is determined
when preparing the reservoir model.

2. With the gate valve closed at the inlet (2), the outlet valve (3) is connected to the
vacuum pump and the remaining air is evacuated from the porous medium for a few
hours, after which the porous medium model input is connected to the water tank (10)
and the porous medium is saturated with water. Based on the value of the volume that
entered and exits from the porous medium, its degree of saturation is determined.

3. The permeability of the porous medium is determined. For this, the flow rate of
water (3) is determined for the difference in the pressures at the inlet (4)
and the outlet (5) of the porous medium for several stationary modes and is recorded in
Table 1. The flow rate Q is determined using a rotameter (11) installed at the outlet.
For different values of Q, on each of the steady-state regimes, a dependence
is constructed. For this purpose, continuous flow is determined as a function
of time. As a result, the dependence is constructed and the correspondence of
the unchanged value of Q in time is indicated.

4. Based on the table, an indicator diagram is constructed (Figure 1.5).

Passing a straight line of the indicator chart through the origin indicates a filtration that
obeys the Darcy law.

Figure 1.5

The permeability of a porous medium is determined from the following expression:

(1.6)

5. The productivity factor is defined as:

or

6. For each of the steady-state regimes, Table 1 records the readings of the
manometers P4, P5, P6, P7, P8 and P9.

Figure 1.6 shows the dependence , based on the readings of the

manometers for each of the steady-state regimes.
 Figure 1.6

Thus, the correspondence between the parameters determined experimentally

and the parameters calculated using Eq. (1.1) is proved.

Table 1

Indicators Number of tests conducted

1 2 3 4 5

Flow rate, Q

Inlet pressure, Р4

Outlet pressure, Р5

Depression, ΔР

Intermediate pressure,
Р6

Р7

Р8

Р9

The permeability coefficient,

к
Productivity factor,
χ

Laboratory work №2

Steady gas filtration in a porous medium.

When the gas flow is steady, its volume flow in the direction of motion remains
unchanged. According to the equation of state of the gas, its density is determined by

the formula , according to the values of pressure (P) and temperature (T). Here

R, Z are respectively the universal gas constant and the exponent, taking into account
the differences between the real and ideal gases.

If the temperature T is constant, the ratios of the values of the densities ρ and ρ0,

respectively, at P and P0, that is , for the ideal case can be taken equal to

unity, that is, α = 1.

If we denote the gas flow rate Gq at a pressure P, then at a pressure P 0 the gas
volume flow will be .

According to equation (1.1), for a one-dimensional steady-state gas motion in

the X direction is expressed as:

(2.1)

According to the Darcy law (μq - gas viscosity):

 and

. (2.2)

Here C1 and C2 are constants of integration, which are found according to the
following boundary conditions:

Х=0 Р=Р2 then

Х=L Р=Р1 .

Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in equation (2.2), we define the law of

pressure distribution in a porous medium:

(2.3) or (2.4).

The dependence P = P (x) is shown in Fig. 2.1.

Figure 2.1

As can be seen from the figure, the distribution of pressure during gas filtration
in a porous medium differs from liquid filtration and has a parabolic character.
 From (2.3) and (2.4) follows (2.5), then the filtration rate

(2.6), is calculated as (2.7).

Knowing the filtration rate, it is possible to determine the gas flow rate at the
outlet

or

Knowing that at atmospheric pressure the volume flow , we have

k P12  P22
Qq  F (2.8).
2  q P0 L

Thus, the gas flow rate is directly proportional to the difference of squares of
pressures.

If we substitute in (2.4) the value of the squared pressure difference obtained in (2.8),

that is , we obtain an expression for determining the pressure

distribution in a porous medium:

From the expression (2.8), the gas permeability is defined as:

2Qq  q P0 L
k (2.9).
F ( P12  P22 )
And productivity

Qq kF
  (2.10)
P12  P22 2  q P0 L
 The experiment is performed on the installation shown in Figure 1.4. The gas
(14) enters the porous medium with a given viscosity. The gas flow rate is determined
according to the meter reading (13).

METHODOLOGY OF THE EXPERIMENT.

1. The valves (2 ') and (3') are opened and gas enters the porous medium.

2. At different positions of the valves (2 ') and (3'), a steady motion mode is created,
the gas flow rate and the corresponding readings of the pressure gauges for each mode
are measured.

3. An indicator chart is constructed. The linear nature of the dependence

indicates the subordination of filtration to the Darcy law (Figure 2.1).

4. According to the expression (2.9), the permeability of the porous medium is

determined.

5. The coefficient of productivity is determined.

6. According to the expression (2.7), the dependence of the filtration rate on the
distance X is determined, that is .

7. According to expression (2.5), the change in the pressure gradient is determined.

Table 2.

Filtration indicators Steady mode

1 2 3 4 5

Indications of a rotameter

Gas consumption, Q

Inlet pressure, Р4
Outlet pressure, Р5

Squareness of depression, ΔР2

Intermediate pressure, Р6

Р7

Р8

Р9

Permeability of the formation, к

Productivity factor, χ

Figure 2.2 shows the dependences of the pressures P4, P5, P6, P7, P8, P9 on the
distance under steady-state gas motion in a porous medium.

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3 shows curves of the dependences of v and on x.

 Figure 2.3

As can be seen from the figure, when the gas moves, the filtration index differs
from the corresponding filtration parameters of the incompressible fluid.

Laboratory work №3

Filtration of non-Newtonian fluids.

Commercial studies show that in some cases the graph of the relationship
is not always a straight line passing through the origin. This means that the
filtering does not obey Darcy's linear law. Examples of violations of Darcy's law
include the following:

1. Filtration of non-Newtonian liquids as a function of rheological properties;

2. The presence of carbonate and clay rocks in the composition of the porous medium;

3. Deformation of the porous medium as a result of changes in reservoir pressure.

Figure 3.1 shows the most frequent dependence in commercial

studies.
 Figure 3.1

In view of the fact that the motion of a liquid and gas is expressed by a curved
line, this presents some difficulties in solving problems from the theoretical point of
view.

Therefore, to simplify the calculations, the curvilinear portion is replaced by a

straight line. For this purpose, the curve OA is replaced by the straight line AB. In this
case, the generalized Darcy law is applied and the dependence takes the
following form:

Q  A(P  P0 ) (3.1).

Here P0 is the initial pressure difference. When. When , Q takes a value
equal to zero.

As a result of practical calculations such cases, the filtration rate can be

expressed in vector form using the generalized Darcy law, as:

; , .

Here is the initial pressure gradient.

Hence, for movement in the direction of the X axis, we can write:

, , (3.2)
 Let us consider the steady-state regime of motion of non-Newtonian fluids in a
porous medium in the direction of the X axis, on the basis of the above and expression
(3.2):

P1  P2
P ( x)  P2  x (3.3)
L
k P P 
Q F  1 2  i0  (3.4).
  L 
If to replace , we will receive:

k ( P1  P2 )  P0
Q F (3.6).
 L
For speed, the expression has the form:

(3.6).

Thus, it is clear from (3.5) that for the accepted law of filtration of non-
Newtonian liquids, the indicator curve does not pass through the origin. And also at
values of less than or equal to the flow rate of the liquid is zero, that is, the
liquid does not move.

METHODOLOGY OF THE EXPERIMENT.

The experiment is carried out using the installation shown in Figure 1.4. The procedure
for carrying out the experiment is similar to the method of studying steady-state
motion of an incompressible fluid, given in laboratory work No. 1. The main
difference is the use of non-Newtonian fluid. The results of the experiment are
recorded in Table 3.

Modes
Filtering rates
1 2 3 4 5

Flow rate, Q
Inlet pressure, Р4

Outlet pressure, Р5

Depression,

The initial pressure difference,

Permeability, к

Productivity, χ

As a result of the experiment, a relationship is constructed and a value

is found that cuts off on the graph, on the axis .

Dependence of the pressure distribution, permeability and productivity

coefficient are similar to laboratory work No. 1.

For the same values of depressions, a production schedule is plotted for

Newtonian (1) and non-Newtonian (2) liquids, shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2

Laboratory work №4

Steady-state radial motion of an incompressible fluid.

 Steady-state radial flow of incompressible fluid is very common in wells. Let us
assume that the well is located in the center of a uniform flat radial formation. The
pressure on the circuit remains constant.

The inflow of liquid to the well is adopted according to the Darcy filtration law.
The reservoir model is shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1

As can be seen from the figure, for an arbitrarily taken point M with coordinates
x and y, equation (1.1) is used to determine the pressure and velocity.

v x v y
 0 (4.1)
x y
k P k P
vx  , vy  (4.2)
 x  y
 Based on the radial symmetry, we can say that the distance from the point M (x,
y) to the center of the well is defined as . Then, if we replace the variables x
and y:

P dP r x dP  r x 
    
x dr x r dr  x r 
 2 P   P    x dP  dP   x  x   dP  r 2  x 2 dP x 2 d 2 P
         
x 2 x  x  x  r dr  dr x  r  r x  dr  r 3 dr r 2 dr 2

 2 P y 2 dP x 2 d 2 P
  (4.3).
x 2 r 3 dr r 2 dr 2
The same way

 2 P x 2 dP y 2 d 2 P
  (4.4).
y 2 r 3 dr r 2 dr 2
Substituting (4.2) into (4.1) we obtain:

(4.5).

If we substitute expressions (4.3) and (4.4) into (4.5), we obtain:

Thus, the one-dimensional steady-state filtration of an incompressible fluid is

described by the following equation:

1 dP d 2 P 1 d  dP 
 2  0 (4.6) or r   0 (4.7).
r dr dr r dr  dr 
From the solution of equation (4.5) we can write the following expression:

P(r )  C1 ln r  C 2 (4.8).
C1 and C2 are integration constants, which are determined according to the following
boundary conditions:

r = R2 P = P2
r = R1 P = P1 (4.9), here R2 and R1 are the radii of the well and the feed
loop; P2 and P1 - pressure in the well and on the power supply.

Based on the boundary conditions, the values of the integration constants C 1 and
C2 are found.

P1  P2 P P P P
C1  C 2  P2  1 2 ln R2  P1  1 2 ln R1
R R R
ln 1 ; ln 1 ln 1 (4.10).
R2 R2 R2
Thus, the pressure distribution in the formation is expressed as follows:

P1  P2 r
P(r )  P2  ln
R R2 (4.11) or
ln 1
R2
P1  P2 R1
P(r )  P1  ln
R1 r .
ln
R2
From here

dP P1  P2 1

dr R r.
ln 1
R2

Figure 4.2 shows the graphs of the dependences of P and on the radius.

Figure 4.3 shows the circular reservoir on the plan and its sectional profile. Here h is
the thickness of the formation.
 Figure 4.3

As can be seen from the figure, the pressure distribution curves around the well
dP
form a "funnel", which is called the "funnel of depression". Knowing , it is
dr
possible to determine the dependence of the filtration rate on the radius.

Knowing the filtration rate, you can determine the flow rate of the well: ,
here - the filtration area. Then,

(4.13)

This is Dupuis's formula.

Knowing the Dupuis formula, the pressure distribution equation can be written
as follows:

или

Knowing the equation of pressure distribution, you can determine other filtration
factors:

• Isobar line;
• Trajectory of filtering particles;

• Change of filtration speed depending on the radius;

• Change in pressure gradient as a function of radius;

• Well production;

• Permeability of the formation.

The geometric place of equal pressure points is the isobar line.

Objective: To determine the indicators characterizing the steady-state flat-filtration of

an incompressible fluid in a homogeneous incompressible porous medium.

METHODOLOGY OF THE EXPERIMENT.

The experiment is carried out on a model that reflects the features of the circular
formation. The pressure on the power supply circuit (10) remains constant (Figure
4.3). The output of the model (1) plays the role of the bottomhole zone; 7 piezometers
are connected to the porous medium; 1 - gate valve (with its help in the well can
provide the necessary flow rate and dynamic level); 9 - a rotameter.

Figure 4.3

The sequence of the experiment is as follows:

1. When the crane (10) is constantly opened and the closed valve (2) in the porous
medium, an initial constant pressure is created. The processes of creating pressure in a
porous medium end when the piezometer readings are the same and remain constant.

2. The tap (1) is opened, fluid is generated in a porous medium and a steady-state time
is expected. The parameters of the rotameter and piezometers that remain unchanged
in time characterize the corresponding indications of the state of steady filtration.

3. Slightly opening the tap (1), increase the water supply, thereby creating second and
further established modes, while noting in the table the readings of the piezometers
and the value of the flow rate.

PROCESSING EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS.

1. For a constant value of production rates, a graph of the dependence is

constructed (Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4

It should be noted that the nature of pressure variation along the radius in the
reservoir model is measured using piezometers installed in a porous medium.
However, in view of carrying out the experiment using water at low pressures (water is
fed into the porous medium by means of a conventional tap), the values of the height
of the water columns ( ) in the piezometers are used instead of the pressure appearing
on the piezometers.
 Figure 4.4 shows a relationship expressing the change in pressure in a
porous medium under different steady-state regimes characterized by different values
of .

Point B with a value characterizes the pressure on the circuit, and the
values at points A1, A2 and A3 express the pressure values .

2. Given that it corresponds to the difference , the indicator

dependence, depending on the steady-state regimes, is constructed between and
(Figure 4.4).

3. The coefficient of productivity

Here and , α is the sector angle (α = 300); and - the values

for between adjacent values of P from the dependence graph for the
mode ; - dynamic level in the well (sm); γ - specific weight (gr / sm3).

4. The specific productivity factor, which is calculated by the formula

, where is the thickness of the formation.

5. Determine the permeability of the formation:

, Here μ is the viscosity of the liquid (μ = 10-3 Pa * s).

Table 4

Piezometer Piezometer level

Calculated level Pressure
readings height

1
2

Contour

6. The pressure distribution (for each mode) can be constructed on the basis of
equations (4.10) and (4.11):

h1  h2 r h1  h2 R1
h(r )  h2  ln h(r )  h1  ln
R R2 or R1 r
ln 1 ln
R2 R2

7. According to the data in Table 4, a dependency graph is plotted.