Fundamentals of Political Science Lecture Notes

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Fundamentals of Political Science Lecture Notes
Introduction to Political Science (Ateneo de Manila University)
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Fundamentals of Political Science Lecture Notes
Concept of the State
State
It is the community of persons, more on less numerous, occupying a
definite portion of
of the earth’s surface, having its own government through which the
inhabitants render
habitual obedience free from outside control.
There are four elements of state and these are:
People
Territory
Government
Sovereignty
People
It is important that the community of persons is composed of both
males and females
for purposes of reproduction. Through reproduction that the state will
continue to
exist.
There is no requirement as to the number of people living in a territory

for it to be
classified as a state.
Territory
It should be a fixed and bounded portion of the earth’s surface
within it are natural
resources which are vital for the people to use.
There are four types of territory and these are:
Aerial
Fluvial
Maritime
Terrestrial
Government

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Is the body where the people, through their representatives, can

express their
desire. This is where laws to be implemented in the country are
enacted.
Sovereignty
Refers to the supreme power of the state itself without
interference from other
states. This means that the state is an independent entity where
people enjoy
freedom.
There are two kinds of sovereignty and these are:
Internal & External
State Vs. Nation
Nation
Refers to the people who have common origin, language, beliefs and
customs.
It is an ethnic concept because its focus is the people and their
cultural commonality
and not government and sovereignty.
State
Which is a political concept.
Theories on the Origin of the State
There are six theories on the origin of the state namely:
Divine Origin Theory

Patriarchal Theory
Matriarchal Theory
Force Theory
Social Contract Theory
Marxician Theory
Divine Origin Theory

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The oldest theory about the origin of the state. It is also known as the
theory of divine right of Kings. Believe that the state did not come into being
by any effort of man. It is created by God.
The King who rules over the state is an agent of God on earth.
Patriarchal Theory
The principal exponent of this theory is Sir Henry Maine. According to him,
the city is a conglomeration of several families which developed under the
control and authority of the eldest male member of the family. The head or
father of the patriarchal family wielded great power. Through the process of
marriage, the families began to expand and they gave birth to generation
which stands for a household.
Household Clan Tribe Commonwealth/State.
Edward Jenks
Is the other advocate of patriarchal theory.
There are three factors of patriarchal theory namely;
Male kinship
Permanent Marriages
Paternal Authority
Salient feature of the patriarchal theory is that family grew from the
descendants of the father, not the father.
Matriarchal Theory
The chief exponents of this theory are Morgan, Meclennan, and Edward
Jenks. Instead of permanent marriage there was a sort of sex anarchy. The
kinship was established through the mother.
Queen and princesses ruling over a certain country are the examples of the
matriarchal systems of life.

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Force Theory
The exponents of this theory hold that wars and aggressions by some
powerful tribe were the principal factors in the creation of the state. They
rely on the opt quoted saying “War begot the King” as the historical
explanation of the origin of the state.
According to Edward Jenks
“Historically speaking, there is not the slightest difficult in proving that all
political communities of the modern type over their existence to successful
warfare”
This theory is based on the well – accepted maxim of survival of the fittest
where there is always a natural struggle for existence by fighting all
adversaries/opponent among the animal world.
This theory is also supported by the German philosophers like:
Friedrich Hegel
Immanuel Kant They maintain that war and force are the
deciding factors
John Bemhardi in the creation of the state.
Triestchki
Social Contract Theory
Voluntarily compact among the people for an organized society.
Thomas Hobbes (Legal Sovereignty)
Before there was no law or justice, where human life was marked by force
and deceit. In order to get rid of the unbearable condition they established a
government or authority to which they surrendered their rights.
He outlined his social contract by which men surrendered some of their

rights to a monarch who shall rule upon them.
John Locke (Political Sovereignty)
Natural Law – there was no law governing conduct, unvarying principle of

right and wrong and known to men through the use of reason. Men retained
most of their natural rights under a government they choose.

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Jean Jacques Rousseau (Popular Sovereignty)
Thus, common interest or welfare interest of the people is the general will
enthroning the people themselves the rulers.
The constitution of a state and government was a result of the national will
of men through which their actions were controlled for the interest of all
individuals in a community.
Marxician Theory
He views that the state is a creation by the class struggle with the help of
the force before there was no surplus wealth to quarrel with and so there
was no state.
With the passing of time, society was getting split over classes with
conflicting interest. So, the most dominant class establish the state to
ensure its dominance over the other class. Thus, the state became an
instrument of domination and oppression of one class over the other classes.
History
The first known states were created in the Fertile Crescent, India, China,
Mesoamerica, and the Andes.
Cradle of civilization
Refers to the locations identified as the sites of emergence
of civilization.
Fertile Crescent
Also known as cradle of civilization. It is a crescent
shaped region where
agriculture and early human civilizations flourished.
Mesopotamia
Is a historical region and cultural area in North America.
It is one of the six areas
on the world where ancient civilization arouses
independently.
Tribal State

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Small on size, ruled by chieftain and assisted by council of

leaders.
Oriented Empire
Valley of Tigris, Euphrates, and the Nile attributed by
fertility of soil, climate
abundance of water and vast lands.
Greek City – State

Smaller than oriental empires. Independent & Self –
sufficient.
Roman Imperial State (Italy & Greeks)
Centralized organization, uniform law, units, and imperial authority.
Feudal State (Europe)
Was ruled by King, assisted by royal noble.
National State
England, France, Russia, Portugal, Germany & Italy.
States emerged over territories built by conquest in which within one

culture, one set of ideals and one set of laws have been imposed by force or
treat over diverse nations by civilian and military bureaucracy.
Utility
The state is important because it maintains law and order, safeguard the
rights and liberty of the people, it regulates the activities of people and
establishes peace and eradicates chaos.
Establishment of order, the promotion of individual and general welfare &

promotion of morality.
Essential Function

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Promote its power and authority, maintenance of armed

forces for
defense against foreign invasion.
Service Function
Exists naturally to serve the people through an established
organization.
It promotes the welfare of the people.
Business Function
Derive certain profit and the distribution of opportunity and
wealth.
Government
Gubernaculum Rudder in Latin Word Is the rudder which

means
Gubernare To steer, direct or control. steer the ship of the state.
➢ The will of the state is formulated, expressed and realized.
➢ Is a collective name for the agency or organization, and the

aggregates of decision-making authorities that rule society.
Supreme Court of the Philippines
Who describes government as "an institution or aggregates of institutions by

which an independent society makes and carries out those rules of action
which are necessary to enable men to live in a social state.
Functions of Government
Has two functions classified as:
Constituent function and Ministrant function.
Constituent Function
Are those which constitute the bond of society, and are therefore,
compulsory in nature, such as:
✓ Keeping of order and providing protection for persons and

property from violence and robbery.

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✓ The fixing legal relations between man and wife and between
parents and children.
✓ The regulation of the holding, transmission and interchange of

property and the determination of its liabilities for debt or for
crime.
✓ The determination of contractual rights between individuals.
✓ The definition and punishment of crimes.
✓ The administration of justice in civil cases.
✓ The determination of political duties, privileges and relations of

citizens.
✓ Dealing of the state with foreign powers; the preservation of

the State from external danger of encroachment and the
advancement of its international interests.
Ministrant functions
Are those under taken by way of advancing the general interest of society,
and are therefore, optional, such as public works, public education, public
charity, health, and safety regulations of trade and commerce.
Ideology
Ideology
Everything you believe about how the world should work.
Collectivism
A belief that places the needs of the group.
Individualism

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A belief that values the rights and freedom of the individual.
Political Ideology
Political Ideology
➢ A weapon of the mind.
➢ It can smash opposing creed of political beliefs.
➢ Ideology as a political doctrine.
➢ A coherent set of ideas that provides a basis for organized

political action.
Ideology
Is a form of ideas or set of beliefs related to ethics and a system of
beliefs.
Ethics
Is a set of moral principles.
Abriel M. Nebres
According to him, he defined political ideology as:
➢ It is a political and economic theory that characterizes the

thinking of a group or nation.
➢ The study of nature and origin of ideas and the body of

doctrines that can inspire people for collective behavior to
institute change in the political life of a nation.
➢ It has a big role to the political arena to institute change.
➢ Political analyst think that an ideology relies greatly on faith

and belief.
➢ Are logically related and identified with principles and values.
Francis Zulueta

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He denotes the body of doctrines, myth, symbol of a social movement

institution, class or group.
A set of theories and socio – political system that can be implemented by a

society or a government.
Development in ideology has created new values, attitudes, needs and

interests of the people.
The growth of ideologies is reflected evidently in our way of life and

organizations of society and government to their functions.
Types of Government
Monarchy
It claimed to rule by the will of God. Traditionally, a king or an
emperor but in
modern times this usually describe a dictator.
There are two types of monarchy and these are:
Absolute Monarchy - the ruler rules by divine right.

Limited Monarchy – the ruler rules in accordance with the constitution.
Aristocracy and Oligarchy
Rule of the few whereas political power is exercised by a few or privileged

class and men of noble blood.
The control vest in the hands of a few wealthy and socially prominent
citizen.
People born in families that holds wealth or power will have more ability and
better training than the rest of the people.
It is opposed to democracy teaches that aristocrats in power more likely to

look out for themselves than for the public.
Democracy

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Rule by the people and citizens may take part of the

government.
Abraham Lincoln
According to him, democracy is government of the people, by
the people and
for the people.
Pure or Direct Democracy
People govern directly in which people make laws for their community.
Republican, Representative or Indirect Democracy
People in most constitutional monarchies. This nation has representative

assemblies that provide indirect self – government.
One in which state is formulated and expressed through the agency of a

relatively small selective body of person chosen by the people to act as their
representatives.
Forms of Government
Unitary Government
In which the control of the national and local affairs is exercised by the
central or national governments.
Federal Government
In which the powers of government are divided between two sets of organs.
One for national affairs and the other for local affairs. Each organ being
supreme within its own sphere.
Parliamentary Government
In which the state confers upon the legislature the power to terminate the
tenure of office of the real executive. Under this system, the cabinet or
ministry is immediately and legally responsible to the electorate, while the
titular or nominal executive.
Presidential Government

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In which the state makes the executive constitutionally independent of the

legislature as regards with his tenure and to the large extent as regards his
policies and acts and furnishes him with sufficient powers to prevent the
legislature from trenching upon the sphere marked out by the constitution as
executive independence and prerogative.
Political Ideologies (Liberalism & Communism)
The origin of political ideologies came from the ideas of liberalism. Liberalism
in truth was both the political and economic ideas of the industrialized west.
At times, liberalism is viewed as "meta ideological" which is capable of
integrating a broad aspects of rival beliefs. Essentially, liberalism is a political
dogma that in later stage developed into an economic idea in the nineteenth
century.
Economic liberalism
The system of free enterprise and set aside all
mechanism of state control
and intervention.
"welfare reform and economic intervention" - a centerpiece of

contemporary liberalism.
There are six characteristics of liberalism and these are:
Freedom
Equality
Individualism
Reason
Consent
Toleration
Freedom
is the centerpiece value of liberalism. This emanates from the
belief that man by nature is free and has the desired to do things that would
make him happy. Liberals advocate civil liberty but under the "rule of law", as
they caution and warn that unrestrained liberty may breed licentiousness
among individuals exercising it. Thus, they espoused freedom of individuals
with due regard to the rights and liberties of others.
Equality
All men are born equal, at least in their moral sense but
differences lie on their abilities to perpetuate richness, wealth, and influence.

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Liberals advocate equality before the law and political equality. While they
understand that equality of skills, talent, and resources are impossible liberals
nevertheless refuse to adhere to social equality or equality of income instead
advance the people's equality of opportunity that gives each person an equal
footing to actualize his differing position in regards to others.
Individualism
Liberals judge that man is unique unto himself, that man
is essentially supreme
over and above any collective body. Human being is regarded rational and
moral individuals capable to enrich themselves but only through lawful and
rightful means. The goal of liberal community is to build a liberal society where
individuals can develop and mature, each pursuing a good act unto their best
interests.
Reason
Liberals also consider that man as a rational being is endowed of
intellect and reason, a judgement of a good act or a bad act. Liberals are
therefore inclined to tap their trust in the ability of a person to choose or prefer
wise decisions and judgments in his acts, being in this reason men are best
adjudicators of their own interests. Men ergo may resolve their conflicting
differences through sincere dialogues if not debates.
Consent
Liberals agree that any human relationship should be founded on
trust, willingness and consent. "Government must therefore be based on the
consent of the governed. This is a doctrine that encourages liberals to favor
representation and democracy". In the same vein, any association of human
polity as much as possible should be merged through contracts or agreements
(social contract theory) entered into without the use of force, coercion or
intimidation.
Toleration
Liberals consent that people should allow others to think, act
and speak in ways of which they oppose or differ. They believe that pluralism
in the form of cultural, political, and moral diversity is democratically
encouraging and conflicting beliefs are tried and evaluated in an open
exchange of ideas.
There are two types of liberalism namely:

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Classical Liberalism
Modern Liberalism
Classical Liberalism
Liberals advocate atomism, a belief that society is
made up of a set of largely set self-sufficient individuals who owe little or
nothing to one another. Liberals therefore argue that state intervention in
people's economic activities can only be justified whenever the government
assumes a minimal role over their economic liberalism within their guiding
belief that both the market and wealth work best when left alone by the state.
Economic market under classical liberalism suggests a self-regulating
economic enterprise fashion naturally to address public prosperity, and
opportunities for all.
Modern Liberalism
Contemporary liberalism postulates a liberal
participation of the state over the economic affairs of the people. It allows
interventionism by the government. Usually understood to comply with
intervention in the economic management and social regulations in the event
of market imbalances or failures. Liberals recognized state intervention as a
mechanism of control particularly in the form of social welfare provision that
can protect liberty and thereby enjoy the fruits of freedom by safeguarding
people from social setbacks.
Communism
Refers to economic system where abolition of private
property ownership is the goal of ideology in achievement classless society. A
communist society would be classless in the sense that wealth would be owned
in common by all, and system of "commodity production" would be replaced
by one of production for use geared to the satisfaction of genuine human
needs. As Marx put it, "the free development of each is the precondition for
the development in all", human beings are thus allowed to shape their own
destinies and realized their full potentials as rational beings. Communism as
an ideology believes that the system of social organization is anchored on
communal property ownership which is characterized that all economic and
social activity in a state is controlled by a strong centralized power or party.
Fascism
is a term applied to extreme right-wing political position and mass
movement that had
a tendency to predominate life.

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Strong centralized power, permitting no opposition or criticisms

against the constituted
government, controlling all affairs of the nation, emphasizing an
aggressive nationalism.
In gist fascism is antiliberalism, anticapitalism, and

anticommunism.
The development and success of fascism is largely dependent on

the national consensus
of the people.
Centrism
Refers to the tendency to avoid political extremes by taking an
ideologically
intermediate position.
Involves acceptance or support of a balance of a degree of social

equality and a
degree of social hierarchy.
It promotes moderate policies by finding a middle ground between

the left and the
right.
Conservatism
Is a political philosophy that places great emphasis in
conserving as much as
possible of the present social, economic and political
order.
It came to exist as a result of the economic and political

change and in defense
of an increasingly beleaguered conventional social order.
They aim to protect certain customs and traditions of a

country.
There are six characteristics of conservatism and these are:

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Tradition
Authority – Conservatives
Pragmatism – Conservatives
Organism
Human Imperfection
Property – Conservatives
Tradition
This belief system is anchored on preservation of the hallowed
tradition, reliance in
institution and respect for acceptable norms or culture.
Authority- conservatives
Refers to authority emanates from the hierarchy, providing leadership,

guidance and support or those who lack the knowledge, experience and
education that can’t be acquired through effort or self-advancement.
Pragmatism- conservatives
Though on practical circumstances and goals while it distrusts abstract ideas,

conservatives put premium on collective experience, man’s history, and life’s
practicality.
Organism
They view society as a living organism, a biological entity capable
to grow and to be nurtured. Thus, a change is practicable only when it leads
to a desired transformation rather than disintegration.
Human Imperfection
Conservatives know that man is not perfect only
because man is free to do whatever he pleases or chooses. Therefore, human
being, free as they were, are limited, vulnerable and largely reliant and need
to be secured in an orderly, just, and humane community.
Property- conservatives
The concept that human beings’ rational individuals, require property

ownership in the pursuit of happiness. Property ownership is principal because
it gives them the comfort of security and sustainability.
There are two kinds of conservatism and these are:
Classical Conservatism

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Modern Conservatism
Classical Conservatism
This doctrine maintains the belief of preserving the tradition of existing state
of affairs and institutions, or keeping the status quo with very minimal or no
change at all in its structures and belief system.
Modern Conservatism
Allows certain degree of change in the organization and institutions yet

keeping the essence of its belief system in high spirit. They are also traditional
concerning women’s and homosexual rights.
Electoral Systems
Electoral Systems
Is the method used to calculate the number of elected positions in

government that individuals and parties are awarded after elections. In other
words, it is the way that votes are translated into seats in parliament or in
other areas of government (such as the presidency).
The three general types of electoral systems:
Plurality Electoral System

Majority Electoral System
Proportional Representation
Plurality Electoral System
Also called “first-past-the-post” or “winner-take-all” systems, plurality

systems simply award a seat to the individual candidate who receives the most
votes in an election. The candidate need not get a majority (50%+) of the
vote to win so long as he has a larger number of votes than all other
candidates, he is declared the winner. Plurality systems normally depend on
single-member constituencies, and allow voters to indicate only one vote on
their ballot (by pulling a single lever, punching a hole in the ballot, making an
X, etc.) Plurality electoral systems also tend to encourage the growth of
relatively stable political systems dominated by two major parties (a
phenomenon known as “Duverger’s Law”).
Duverger’s Law

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Holds that plurality-rule elections (such as first past the

post) structured within single-member districts tend to favor a two-party
system, whereas "the double ballot majority system and proportional
representation tend to favor multipartism".
Majority Electoral System
Also called “second ballot” systems, majority electoral systems attempt to

provide for a greater degree of representativeness by requiring that
candidates achieve a majority of votes in order to win. “Majority” is normally
defined as 50%-plus-one-vote. If no candidate gets a majority of votes, then
a second round of voting is held (often a week or so after the initial ballot). In
the second round of voting, only a select number of candidates from the first
round are allowed to participate. In some countries, such as Russia, the top
two vote-getters in the first round move on to the second round. In other
countries, such as France, all candidates with a minimum threshold
percentage of votes (in the French case, 12.5% of all registered voters) move
on to the second round. Like plurality systems, majority systems usually rely
on single-member constituencies, and allow voters to indicate only one
preference on their ballot.
Proportional Representation
Is the general name for a class of voting systems that attempt to make the
percentage of offices awarded to candidates reflect as closely as possible the
percentage of votes that they received in the election. It is the most widely
used set of electoral systems in the world, and its variants can be found at
some level of government in almost every country. The most straightforward
version of Proportional representation is simply to award a party the same
percentage of seats in parliament as it gets votes at the polls. Thus, if a
party won 40% of the vote it would receive 40% of the seats.
Example Proportional Representation
Party List System
Under party list forms of PR, voters normally vote for parties rather than for
individual candidates.
Closed party list system

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The parties themselves determine who will fill the seats that they have been
allocated; voters vote only for a particular party, and then it is up to the
party to decide which party members will actually serve as representatives.
Open party list system
Voters are given some degree of choice among individual candidates, in

addition to voting for entire parties.
Party Systems
Party system
Is a concept in comparative political science concerning the
system of government
by political parties in a democratic country.
The idea is that political parties have basic similarities:
➢ They control the government

➢ Have a stable base of mass popular support
➢ Create internal mechanisms for controlling funding,
information and nominations.
Advantages of Party Systems
Stability
Two-party systems are more stable than multiparty systems.
Moderation
The two parties must appeal to the middle to win elections,
so the parties tend to
be moderate.
Ease
Voters have only to decide between two parties.
Dis - advantages of Party Systems
Lack of Choice
Both parties tend to be very similar, limiting voters’
options.
Less Democratic

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A percentage of people will always feel marginalized by

the system.
Political Party
Political Party
Is a group of dedicated people who come together to win elections, operate

the government, and determine public policy.
The most important functions of political party by recruiting the candidates

for public office.
The important goal of political parties is to gain control of the government.
The hope is that the more people that are involved in helping with the
election, the more interest there will be in the outcome, which should
increase voter turnout. The ultimate goal is to get the person the party
supports to win an election.
The Functions of Political Parties
Political parties perform an important task in government. They bring people

together to achieve control of the government, develop policies favorable to
their interests or the groups that support them, and organize and persuade
voters to elect their candidates to office.
Political Parties or Party systems are classified into three main kinds/types
namely:
One Party System

Bi-party System or Two-Party System
Multi-party System
One Party System

Is also called single party system. It is present in a
society where there is at work only one all-powerful and popular political party.
In such a system political power is continuously used by one political party.
During elections, this single party fields several of its own candidates out of
which one candidate is elected by the people as their representative. No other
political party can exist without the consent of this party.

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A system in which a single political party has the right to form the
government, usually based on the existing constitution, or where only one
party has the exclusive control over political power.
In a one-party system, there is no competition in this system. Here, the lone

party nominates the candidates and the voters have only two choices:
Not to vote at all or
Write ‘yes’ or ‘no’ against the name of the candidates nominated by the
party.
Two Party System or Bi-Party System
Refers to the two main parties gets the opportunity to rule from time to
time. In some political systems where there are only two political parties,
the use of power takes place like the swing of the pendulum from one party
to the second after regular intervals. In some other political systems with bi-
party systems, the two major parties share power from time to time but
occasionally the other minor parties also get a chance to rule in alliance with
of one of the two major political parties.
In a two-party system, the power shifts between two major, dominant

parties. For winning the elections, the winner will have to get the maximum
number of votes. However, the maximum number of votes is not equivalent
to a majority of votes. The smaller parties tend to merge with the bigger
parties or they drop out of elections.
Three-party system or two-and-a-half party system
A system with two large parties that can form a government, and a smaller
but still considerable party which can join either in coalition and acts as a
kingmaker.
A system where only three parties have a realistic possibility of winning an

election or forming a coalition is sometimes called a "Third-party system".
Multi-Party System
The party system has several equally popular political parties. Several
political parties are actively involved in politics. In such a system very often
no-single party is in a position to get a clear majority in the elections.
Several parties form a coalition to run the government. In other words, a
multi-party system means the existence of several popular and active

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political parties (three or more than three political parties) in the political
process.
The third and the most common form of government is the multi-party
system. In such a system, there are three or more parties which have the
capacity to gain control of the government separately or in a coalition. In
case, no party achieves a clear majority of the legislative seats, then several
parties join forces and form a coalition government.
Dominant-party system
A system where there is "a category of parties/political organizations that

have successively won election victories and whose future defeat cannot be
envisaged or is unlikely for the foreseeable future".
Non-partisan system
A system of government or organization such that universal and periodic

elections take place without reference to political parties.
Democracy
Demos – from Greek word means whole citizen living within a particular
city-state.
Kratos - power or rule.
Liberal democracies are based on four main principles:
A belief in the individual

The individual is believed to be both moral
and rational.
A belief in reason and progress
Based on the belief that growth and development is the natural condition of
mankind and politics the art of compromise.
A belief in a society

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Based on a desire for order and co-operation not disorder and conflict.
A belief in shared power
Based on a suspicion of concentrated power whether by individuals, groups

or governments.
The Democratic Framework
Liberal democracy
Is organized in such a way as to define and limit power so as to promote

legitimate government within a framework of justice and freedom.
There are four critical elements to the framework and these are:
Legitimacy
Justice
Freedom
Power
Legitimacy
A legitimate government is one that has the appropriate mandate/authority

to rule. This usually means a high degree of popular support as demonstrated
by a free electorate and frequent elections.
Justice
Is achieved when citizens live in an environment in which all
citizens are treated equally and accorded dignity and respect. This may
occur in a representative democracy that is tempered by constitutionalism,
free elections and restraints on power.
Freedom
If freedom is to exist, there must be:
✓ Self-determination such that citizens may make decisions,

learn from them and accept responsibility for them.
✓ The capacity to choose between alternatives.
✓ The autonomy to do what the law does not forbid; and where
prohibitions do exist, they should be for the common good

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✓ Respect for political and civil liberties.
Power
In a liberal democracy effort are made to define and limit power, often by
means of a written constitution. Checks and balances, such as the
separation of the Parliament, senior government and judicial power, are
instituted. In addition, there are conventions of behavior and a legal system
that complements the political system.
Jim Kilcullen
Democracy meant rule by the people, oligarchy meant rule by the few. So, a
city was a democracy if city affairs were subject to an assembly to which all
male citizens belonged and in which decisions were made by simple majority
vote.
Andrew Heywood
Rule by the people. Democracy implies both popular participation and

government in the public interest, and can take a wide variety of forms.
Dr John Hirst
A democracy is a society in which the citizens are sovereign and control the
government.
Joseph Schumpeter
The democratic method is that institutional arrangement for arriving at

political decisions in which individuals acquire the power to decide by means
of a competitive struggle for the people’s vote.
Schumpeter adds that ‘the classical theory of democracy attributed to the

electorate an altogether unrealistic degree of initiative which practically
amounted to ignoring leadership.’
Schumpeter claimed that the purpose of democratic method [is] not to

select representatives who carry out the will of the people, but to choose
individuals who [will] govern on their behalf.
Key democratic practices

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As proposed by Robert Dahl, Schmitter and Karl, and Larry Diamond.
➢ Control over government decisions about policy is

constitutionally vested in elected officials.
➢ Elected officials are chosen in frequent and fairly conducted

elections in which coercion is comparatively uncommon.
➢ Practically all adults have the right to vote in the election of

officials.
➢ Practically all adults have the right to run for elective offices in
the government.
➢ Citizens have a right to express themselves without the danger

of severe punishment on political matters broadly defined.
➢ Citizens have a right to seek out alternative sources of

information. Moreover, alternative sources of information exist
and are protected by law.
➢ Citizens also have the right to form relatively independent

associations or organizations, including independent political
parties and interest groups.
➢ Elected officials are able to exercise their powers without fear

of being overridden.
➢ The polity is self-governing; and able to act independently of

constraints imposed by others.
➢ People have the freedom to speak and publish dissenting

views.
There are four different types of democracies and these are:
Direct democracy
Representative democracy
Constitutional democracy
Monitory democracy
Direct democracy

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All citizens (only adult males who had completed their military training;
women, slaves and plebs were not citizens) are invited to participate in all
political decisions. This form of democracy is no longer practiced. In this form
of democracy citizens are continuously involved in the exercise of power and
decision is by majority rule.
Representative democracy
In a representative democracy, representatives are elected by the people

and entrusted to carry out the business of governance.
Constitutional democracy
In a constitutional democracy a constitution outlines who will represent the

people and how.
Monitory democracy
Political scientist John Keane suggests that a new form of democracy is

evolving in which government is constantly monitored in its exercise of
power by a vast array of public and private agencies, commissions and
regulatory mechanisms.
Election
Election
Is a formal decision-making process by which a population
chooses an individual to hold public office. It fills offices in the legislature,
sometimes in the executive and judiciary, and for regional and local
government. The right to vote is not restricted by gender, race, social status,
or wealth. Citizens become eligible to vote after reaching the voting age, which
is typically eighteen years old. Electors are obliged to vote in elections or
attend a polling place on voting day. If an eligible voter does not attend a
polling place, he or she may be subject to punitive measures, such as fines,
community service, or perhaps imprisonment if fines are unpaid or community
service not performed. Ergo, the purpose of the election is to give fundamental
right to the citizens to enables them to choose the leaders of tomorrow.
Political parties

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Refers to the voluntary association of individuals who advocate certain

principles of policies as superior to all others for the general conduct of
political or government affairs.
The difference between political parties and interest group is that political
party seeks for political power by running for a government position while
interest groups is so called "pressure group" conducts lobbying.
Abilities of Political Parties
✓ Can demonstrate their relevance and their ability to address

citizens’ concerns.
✓ Seek to promote their policies through the work of their

legislators.
✓ Can go about this business alone or through informal or formal

coalitions.
✓ Can form coalitions around specific issues or pledge to work

together on more consistent basis to amplify their strengths.
The roles and functions of Political Parties
Competing in elections to gain influence

Aggregating and representing social interest
Providing a structure for political participation
Providing policy alternatives
Thinking political leaders
Group Politics
A group of people who share an interest, concern, or set
of opinions and who
try to influence politics or the policies of government.
Interest groups and political parties they are both dependent to each other.
Interest groups

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Also called special interest group or pressure group, any association of

individuals or organizations, usually formally organized, that, on the basis of
one or more shared concerns, attempts to influence public policy in its favor.
Interest groups in some democratic countries are also a source of financial

support for election campaigns.
Interest groups enter the political arena when they believe there is no other
way to protect their interests or because they want to secure government
funding.
There are five types of interest groups and these are:
Public Interest
Economic Interest
Professional Groups
Ideological Groups
Single – Issue Groups
Public Interest
Focuses on topics that affect the general public such as
education, politics,
Environment.
Economic Interest
Promotes the economic interests of the members in
the business, labor
trade organizations.
Professional Groups
Advocates for people in particular professions, such
as doctors, lawyers
and teachers.
Ideological Groups
Promotes policies based on a set of core political or
religious belief.
Single-Issue Groups
Focuses on one narrow topic, like immigration or
drunk driving.

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Fundamentals of Political Science Lecture Notes

Introduction to Political Science (Ateneo de Manila University)

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Fundamentals of Political Science Lecture Notes

Concept of the State

There are four elements of state and these are:

There is no requirement as to the number of people living in a territory

There are four types of territory and these are:

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Is the body where the people, through their representatives, can

There are two kinds of sovereignty and these are:

Internal & External

State Vs. Nation

Theories on the Origin of the State

There are six theories on the origin of the state namely:

Divine Origin Theory

Divine Origin Theory

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Household Clan Tribe Commonwealth/State.

There are three factors of patriarchal theory namely;

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According to Edward Jenks

This theory is also supported by the German philosophers like:

Social Contract Theory

Voluntarily compact among the people for an organized society.

Thomas Hobbes (Legal Sovereignty)

He outlined his social contract by which men surrendered some of their

John Locke (Political Sovereignty)

Natural Law – there was no law governing conduct, unvarying principle of

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Jean Jacques Rousseau (Popular Sovereignty)

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Small on size, ruled by chieftain and assisted by council of

Greek City – State

Roman Imperial State (Italy & Greeks)

Centralized organization, uniform law, units, and imperial authority.

Feudal State (Europe)

Was ruled by King, assisted by royal noble.

States emerged over territories built by conquest in which within one

Establishment of order, the promotion of individual and general welfare &

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Promote its power and authority, maintenance of armed

Gubernaculum Rudder in Latin Word Is the rudder which

➢ The will of the state is formulated, expressed and realized.

➢ Is a collective name for the agency or organization, and the

Supreme Court of the Philippines

Who describes government as "an institution or aggregates of institutions by

Has two functions classified as:

Constituent function and Ministrant function.

✓ Keeping of order and providing protection for persons and

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✓ The regulation of the holding, transmission and interchange of

✓ The determination of contractual rights between individuals.

✓ The definition and punishment of crimes.

✓ The administration of justice in civil cases.