MICRONUTRIENTS

VITAMINS

- Comes from the Latin word vita meaning life and the suffix amine, which is a nitrogen compound.
- It was discovered later that not all vitamins contain nitrogen; nevertheless, “vitamin” has been used pervasively and has
become a common word.
- Vitamins are a group of unrelated organic compounds.
- Needed only in minute quantities in the diet but essential for specific metabolic reactions within the cell.
- Necessary for normal growth and maintenance of health.
- Also crucial in the growth, repair, and healthy functioning of body tissues.
- Do not give energy to the body.
- They merely help convert food into energy through many biochemical reactions.
- Taking extra vitamins cannot increase one’s physical capacity.
- However, shortage of vitamins may lead to fatigue.
- A long-term vitamin deficiency even results in the deterioration of health.
- The human body cannot make its own vitamins except vitamin D and niacin which are produced in the body.
- Shortage of vitamins particularly A, B, and C may result in loss of appetite.
- Vitamins do not have caloric value.
- Vitamin supplements, however, may contain few calories in their sugar coating.

Terms Associated with Vitamins

1. Precursors and Provitamins – These are compounds that can be changed to active vitamins. For example,
carotenes and cryptoxanthin are precursors of vitamin A. Ergosterol when radiated becomes vitamin D.
2. Preformed Vitamins – These are naturally occurring vitamins that are in inactive form and ready for biological
use.
3. Avitaminosis – This refers to a condition resulting from lack of a vitamin. In the later stage of this condition when
more defined signs and symptoms occur, a nutritional deficiency disease is recognizable. For example,
avitaminosis A leads to night blindness and xeropthalmia. Avitaminosis C leads to scurvy and a deficiency of
vitamin B leads to beriberi.
4. Hypervitaminosis – This is sometimes referred to as “vitamin toxicity”, a result of excessive accumulation of a
vitamin in the body.
5. Vitamin Malnutrition – The prefix “mal” meaning bad denotes that too much or too little vitamin is not good for
the health.
6. Vitamin-like Compounds – Some substances have physiological roles like vitamin but are present in larger
amounts and are partially synthesized in the body. These substances include inositol, lipoic acid, and ubiquinone.
7. Antivitamin or Vitamin Antagonists – These are substances that interfere with the normal functioning of a
vitamin. They need to be similar in chemical composition as the vitamin they “antagonize”. Example are
dicumerol against vitamin K, avidin against biotin, and thiaminase against thiamine or vitamin B1.

TOXICITY SYMPTOMS FOR SELECTED VITAMINS

VITAMIN TOXICITY FROM OVERDOSE

Water- soluble Vitamins:
Vitamin C Diarrhea
Nausea, cramps
Formation of excess oxalic acid in the body
Acidification of urine
Interference with the use of therapeutic drugs
Conditioning to a higher requirement both in infants
and adults
Intestinal obstruction
 False positive urine diabetic test
Niacin Skin burning, flushing, and itching
Nausea, vomiting
Liver and eye damage
Vitamin B12 Allergic shock, especially when vitamin is injected
Fat – soluble Vitamins:
Vitamin A Liver damage
Hair loss
Bone damage
Potential birth defects
Vitamin D Severe high blood calcium
Brain damage
Heart damage
Potential birth defects
Vitamin E Cramps, diarrhea
Dizziness, blurred vision, headaches
Increased serum triglycerides in women
Decreased serum thyroid hormone in men and
women
Vitamin K Formation of blood clots
Jaundice in infants

Historical Background

- Formally called “accessory food factors” because their presence in minute quantities is easily overlooked.
- The last group of organic compounds which were discovered to be vital to life maintenance and growth.
- The word vitamin was coined by Casimir Funck in 1912 when he was searching for a constituent in rice bran
which could cure beriberi.
- The missing substance he called vitamine comes from vita meaning necessary for life and amine denoting that
the anti beri-beri factor contained nitrogen.
- He hypothesized that nutritional deficiencies which were observed in the past such as scurvy, pellagra, and
rickets, were due to the lack of “vitamin”.
- Researchers later showed that not all these dietary factors contained nitrogen, so the final letter “e” was
dropped, hence the word “vitamin”.

Classification of Vitamins on the Basis of Solubility

1. The fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K in association with lipids are found in foods.
2. The water-soluble vitamins are B complex and vitamin C

General Properties and Stability

Besides solubility properties, fat-soluble vitamins differ from water-soluble vitamins based on the following
factual criteria:

1. Fat-soluble vitamins generally have precursors or provitamins.

2. Because they can be stored in the body, deficiencies are slow to develop.
3. They are not absolutely needed daily from food sources.
4. They are generally stable, especially in ordinary cooking methods.

On the other hand, water-soluble vitamins have the following general characteristics:

1. They must be supplied every day in the diet.

 2. They do not have precursors.
3. They are not stored significantly in the body and any excess is excreted in the urine.
4. Deficiency symptoms develop relatively fast.
5. Being water-soluble, they are most likely to be destroyed in ordinary cooking.

A. Fat-soluble Vitamins

1. Vitamin A (Retinol)

a. Chemical and physical nature

a.1 Preformed vitamin A – animal sources

a.2 Provitamin A – precursor carotene; pigment found in green and yellow plants; body converts into vitamin
A.

b. Absorption and storage

b.1 Absorption aided by bile salts, pancreatic lipase, and dietary fat.

b.2 Carotene converted into vitamin A in intestinal wall.

b.3 Absorbed through lymphatic system and portal blood to liver (same route as fat).

b.4 Large storage capacity in liver, hence potential toxicity levels with large intakes.

c. Stability

Vitamin A is rather stable to light and heat, but prolonged heating in contact with air destroys it. It is easily
destroyed by oxidation and ultraviolet light. A cool atmosphere and refrigeration tend to preserve this
vitamin. Vitamin E may be used with vitamin A to preserve the latter.

d. Physiologic functions

d.1 Vision cycle – Vitamin A is a necessary component of visual purple (rhodopsin), light- sensitive pigment in
the retina enabling it to make adjustments to light and darkness. Retinal is a prosthetic group of
photosensitive pigments of both rods (rhodopsin) and cones (iodopsin). The reaction involves the oxidation-
reaction systems of retinol-retinal and stereochemical changes of the vitamin A molecule. When there is a
deficiency of vitamin A, the rods and cones cannot adjust to light changes, resulting in night blindness. An
injection of vitamin A corrects this condition within a matter of minutes. Color blindness and other defects of
vision cannot be cured by vitamin A.

d.2 Epithelial tissue – Vitamin A plays a vital role in the proper synthesis and maintenance of epithelial tissue,
hence the integrity of skin and internal mucosa, and growth and formation of tooth buds. When vitamin A is
lacking, keratinization (hardening and sloughing) happens in the mucous membrane lining of the respiratory
tract, digestive tract, urinary system, eyes, and the skin. Keratinization of the eye epithelium is the stigma of
xeropthalmia.

d.3 Growth and bone development – Vitamin A is also necessary for the growth and development of skeletal
and soft tissues through its effect upon protein synthesis and differentiation of bone cells. It appears that the
active metabolite in this capacity is retinoic acid and not retinol. A normal intake of vitamin A helps in the
 normal bone development. It also affects tooth formation on the early life of animals forming epithelial cells.
Excessive vitamin A, however, causes complete disintegration of the bone matrix.

d.4 Reproduction – Vitamin A intake must be increased to assure normal reproduction and lactation.
Although not yet clear, the role of vitamin A in reproduction may be in steroid hormone synthesis or in
cellular differentiation.

e. Deficiency

e.1 Poor adaptation or night blindness

e.2 Eye lesion – This condition is the most critical in avitaminosis A. The cornea of the eye is affected early,
and
lacrimal gland fails to function, followed by keratinization and rupture of the corneal tissues. Infection sets
in; pus develops; and the eye hemorrhages. This set of symptoms is known as Bitot’s spot in its mild form
and xeropthalmia in severe form.

e.3 Retarded growth

e.4 Lower resistance to infection

e.5 Faulty skeletal and dental development

e.6 Keratinization of epithelial linings

e.7 Disturbances in the respiratory, GI, and genitourinary tracts.

e.8 Skin lesion – Characterized as “food skin” clinically known as phrynoderma, skin lesion appears as dry
and rough skin with popular eruptions occurring around the hair follicles. The sites of dermal changes are
usually in the thighs, abdomen, upper arm, and back.

f. Toxicity

f.1 Violent headache

f.2 Nausea and vomiting

f.3 Thickening of the skin with peeling off

f.4 Swollen, painful long bones

f.5 Coarse sparse hair

f.6 Enlargement of the spleen and liver

f.7 In young girls, there is cessation of menstruation

f.8 Hypercarotenemia – The ingestion of large number of foods containing carotene merely results in
deposition of carotene in tissues, particularly the skin and eyes, and gives the person a disturbing yet
harmless orange appearance.

g. Food sources
 g.1 Preformed vitamin A – animal sources (liver, egg, yolk, milk, cream, butter, and cheese)

g.2 Fortified margarine or skim milk fortified with vitamin A are common foods that are ideal carriers of this
vitamin.

g.3 Fishes – dilis, mussels or tahong, and other shellfish.

g.4 Precursors or provitamin A – Green and yellow vegetables (dark leaves of malunggay, sweet potatoes or
kamote, kangkong, pechay, squash or kalabasa, spinach or spinaka, alugbati, taro or gabi, saluyot, and bitter
gourd or ampalaya are among the Philippine favorites. Yellow fruits of foreign origin rich in vitamin A are
apricots, peaches, and nectarines.

RECOMMENDED VITAMIN A INTAKES FOR SPECIFIC POPULATION GROUPS

Population Group Reference Weight (kg) RNI µg RE/ day

Infants, mo
Birth - < 6 6 375
6 - <12 9 400
Children, y
1-3 13 400
4-6 19 400
7-9 24 400
Males, y
10-12 34 400
13-15 50 550
16-18 58 600
19 and over 59 550
Females, y
10-12 35 400
13-15 49 450
16-18 50 450
19 and over 51 500
Pregnant Women 800
Lactating Women 900

2. Vitamin D (Calciferol)

a. Chemical and physical nature

a.1 Sterols, more hormone-like in source and action

a.2 Formed in the skin by irradiation of cholesterol by sunlight

b. Absorption and storage

b.1 Absorption accompanies that of calcium and phosphorous in the small intestine

b.2 It is formed by sunlight in the skin absorbed into systemic circulation as hormones
 b.3 Stored in the liver, but not as great as that of Vitamin A

c. Stability
Vitamin D is remarkably stable and foods containing it can be warmed or kept for long periods without
deteriorating.

d. Physiologic functions

d.1 Vitamin D absorbs calcium and phosphorus.

d.2 It is also essential for normal growth and development and is important in the formation of normal
bones and teeth.

e. Deficiency

e.1 Tetany is a syndrome characterized by abnormal muscle twitching, cramps, and sharp bilateral spasms of
joints in the wrists and ankles.

e.2 Rickets in children is the severe form manifested in defective bones and retarded growth. Bones become
soft, fragile, and deformed, such as pigeon-breasted, knock-kneed, bow-legged, malformed teeth, and
rachitic rosary-like chest. In the latter, the ends of ribs are rounded or beaded.

e.3 In infants, dentition and closing of the fontanel are delayed.

e.4 In adults, the term used for deficiency is osteomalacia which means softening of the bones. There are
also skeletal deformities, fragility of bones, and rheumatic-like pains of joints. Osteomalacia is sometimes
called adult rickets.

RECOMMENDED VITAMIN D INTAKES FOR SPECIFIC POPULATION GROUPS

Population Group Reference Weight (kg) RNI µg RE/ day

Infants, mo
Birth - < 6 6 5
6 - <12 9 5
Children, y
1-3 13 5
4-6 19 5
7-9 24 5
10-18
Males 5
Females 5
19 and over 59 550
Adults, y
19-49
Males 59 5
Females 51 5
50-64 10
65 and over 15
Pregnant Women 5
Lactating Women 5

f. Toxicity
 f.1 Nausea

f.2 Diarrhea

f.3 Polyuria

f.4 Weight loss in the early stages

f.5 Demineralization of bones and deposits of minerals in soft tissues (calcifications of soft tissues which is
abnormal) in the later stages.

f.6 Renal damage and uremia as observed in severe cases

f.7 Hypercalcemia – excessive quantities of vitamin D (1,000- 3,000 IU per kg per day for children and adults)
and hypersensitivity to vitamin D leading to hypercalcemia (excess calcium in the blood)

g. Food sources

g.1 Animal sources – fortified margarine, butter, milk, cheese; liver and other glandular organs; fish; sardines
and salmon; egg yolk.

g.2 Plan sources – not significant

3. Vitamin E (Tocopherol)

a. Chemical and physical nature

a.1 Resistant to oxidation (valuable as an antioxidant)

a.2 Fat-soluble, stable to heat and acids

b. Absorption and storage

b.1 Absorbed with other fat-soluble vitamins, aided by bile and fats.

b.2 Stored especially in adipose tissue.

c. Physiologic functions

c.1 Antioxidant functions – It acts in vitro as a lipid antioxidant. It prevents the formation of peroxide from
polyunsaturated fatty acids, thus preventing the oxidation of unsaturated fats. Vitamin E also helps enhance
the activity of vitamin A by preventing its oxidation and loss of activity in the intestinal tract. Vitamin C in
foods is similarly protected when vitamin E is present.

c.2 It helps sustain integrity, especially structural parts containing unsaturated lipids (e.g., cell wall.)

d. Stability

Vitamin E is fairly stable to heat and acids and unstable to alkalis, ultraviolet light, and oxygen. It is also
destroyed when in contact with rancid fats, lead, and iron. Since it is insoluble in water, there is no loss by
extraction in cooking. Storage, deep-freeze food processing, and deep-fat frying destroy much of the
tocopherol present.
 RECOMMENDED VITAMIN E INTAKES FOR SPECIFIC POPULATION GROUPS

Population Group Reference Weight (kg) RNI mg/ day

Infants, mo
Birth - < 6 6 3
6 - <12 9 4
Children, y
1-3 13 5
4-6 19 6
7-9 24 7
Males, y
10-12 34 10
13-15 50 12
16-18 58 13
19 and over 59 12
Females, y
10-12 35 11
13-15 49 12
16-18 50 12
19 and over 51 12
Pregnant Women 12
Lactating Women 16

e. Deficiency

e.1 Hemolysis of RBC

e.2 Low levels of tocopherol in the blood

e.3 Increased urinary excretion of creatine and decreased excretion of creatinine.

f. Toxicity

Hypervitaminosis E has not been reported largely because the nutrients could not be stored to a large extent
in the body. Also, its presence in food is not widespread; whatever concentrated forms are available are not
common.

g. Food sources

g.1 Plant sources – germ oils of wheat, corn, cottonseed or soybean; products from these oils such as
mayonnaise, salad dressing, and margarine; nuts and some legumes.

g.2 Animal sources- egg yolk, (liver), butter, milk.

4. Vitamin K (Phylloquinone, menadione)

a. Chemical and physical nature

 a.1 Fat-soluble

a.2 Synthesized by normal intestinal bacteria

b. Absorption and storage

b.1 Absorbed by usual route for fats- lacteals, portal blood to liver.

b.2 Stored in liver in small amounts.

c. Physiologic functions

c.1 Vitamin K is necessary for the maintenance of prothrombin level in blood plasma. The coagulation of
blood is a series of reactions that depend on several factors. Vitamin K is also needed in the synthesis of
proconvertin.

c.2 Vitmain K is needed for phosphorylation, a chemical process that adds the phosphate radical to glucose
so that its passage through the cell membrane is hastened.

d. Stability

Vitamin K is fairly resistant to heat, but sunlight destroys the K. It is not destroyed by ordinary cooking
methods, and, being fat-soluble, vitamin K is not lost in cooking or boiling water. All vitamin K compounds
tend to be unstable to all alkali.

RECOMMENDED VITAMIN K INTAKES FOR SPECIFIC POPULATION GROUPS

Population Group Reference Weight (kg) RNI mg/ day

Infants, mo
Birth - < 6 6 6
6 - <12 9 9
Children, y
1-3 13 13
4-6 19 19
7-9 24 24
Males, y
10-12 34 34
13-15 50 50
16-18 58 58
19 and over 59 59
Females, y
10-12 35 35
13-15 49 49
16-18 50 50
19 and over 51 51
Pregnant Women 51
Lactating Women 51

e. Deficiency
 e.1 Hemorrhagic disease in newborn

e.2 Delayed blood clotting time in adults

f. Toxicity

f.1 Vomiting

f.2 Hemolysis

f.3 Albuminuria

f.4 Kernicterus – a condition resulting from the accumulation of bile pigments in the gray matter of the
central nervous system.

g. Food sources

Liver, dark green leaves, wheat bran, vegetable oils, especially soybean and wheat germ oil are excellent food
sources. Good amounts are present in tomatoes, tubers, seeds and legumes, and egg yolks.