1.

List the methods adopted to overcome low member strength in Concrete structures
There are several methods that can be adopted to overcome low member strength in concrete
structures, including:

1. Increasing the cross-sectional area: This can be achieved by increasing the dimensions of
the structural member, such as the depth or width of beams or columns.
2. Increasing the concrete strength: This can be achieved by using a higher strength
concrete mix in the construction of the member. For example, using a concrete mix with
a compressive strength of 50 MPa instead of 30 MPa can significantly increase the
member's strength.
3. Reinforcing with steel: Steel reinforcement can be added to the concrete member to
increase its strength and improve its load-bearing capacity. This is commonly achieved
by using reinforcing bars (rebars) or welded wire mesh.
4. Prestressing: Prestressing involves applying an initial compressive stress to the member
before it is subjected to any external loads. This can be achieved by using pre-tensioning
or post-tensioning techniques.
5. Fiber reinforcement: Adding fibers to the concrete mix can improve the strength and
durability of the member. Fiber reinforcement can be achieved using steel, glass,
polypropylene, or other materials.
6. Structural retrofitting: For existing concrete structures with low member strength,
retrofitting techniques can be used to strengthen the member. This can involve adding
additional reinforcement or applying external bonding agents to the surface of the
member.

2. What is meant by fibre wrapping technique and how is it used to reduce the stresses and strains
in the existing members of a structure?

Fiber wrapping technique, also known as fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) wrapping, involves
wrapping the surface of an existing member of a structure with a fiber-reinforced polymer
material. The fibers used in this technique can be made of carbon, glass, or aramid materials,
among others. The polymer material used is typically an epoxy resin or a polyester-based
material.

The fiber wrapping technique is used to reduce the stresses and strains in the existing members
of a structure by providing additional strength and stiffness to the member. The fibers in the
wrapping material act as reinforcement, increasing the member's load-bearing capacity and
enhancing its overall performance. The technique is particularly useful in strengthening existing
concrete or masonry structures, such as buildings, bridges, and tunnels.
The fiber wrapping technique involves the following steps:

1. Surface preparation: The surface of the existing member is prepared by cleaning and
roughening it to create a bond between the member and the wrapping material.
2. Application of adhesive: A layer of epoxy resin or other suitable adhesive is applied to
the surface of the member.
3. Wrapping with fiber: The fiber-reinforced polymer material is wrapped around the
member in layers. The wrapping can be applied in different directions to provide
reinforcement in multiple planes.
4. Curing: The adhesive and wrapping material are allowed to cure, typically for 24-48
hours, to achieve the desired strength.

3. Elaborate various repair and strengthening techniques that are used for columns, beams and
slabs.

There are several repair and strengthening techniques that can be used for columns, beams,
and slabs in concrete structures. These techniques are used to restore or improve the load-
carrying capacity and durability of the members, particularly those that have been damaged or
weakened over time. The following are some of the commonly used techniques:

1. Concrete jacketing: Concrete jacketing involves adding a layer of reinforced concrete

around the existing column, beam, or slab to increase its load-carrying capacity. The new
layer of concrete is reinforced with steel bars and bonded to the existing member with
an adhesive.
2. Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) wrapping: As mentioned earlier, FRP wrapping involves
wrapping the surface of the existing member with fiber-reinforced polymer material to
provide additional strength and stiffness.
3. Steel plate bonding: Steel plate bonding involves bonding a steel plate to the surface of
the existing member using an adhesive. The steel plate provides additional strength and
stiffness to the member.
4. Carbon fiber reinforcement: Carbon fiber reinforcement involves applying carbon fiber
sheets or strips to the surface of the existing member. The carbon fiber provides high
tensile strength and stiffness, which enhances the load-carrying capacity of the member.
5. Grouting: Grouting involves injecting a fluid grout material into the spaces between the
existing member and adjacent surfaces. The grout material provides additional support
and stability to the member.
6. Post-tensioning: Post-tensioning involves adding tensioned steel cables or rods to the
existing member to increase its load-carrying capacity. The cables or rods are anchored
at the ends and tightened to induce compressive stresses in the member.
 7. Reinforcing with steel bars: Reinforcing with steel bars involves adding additional steel
reinforcement to the existing member to increase its load-carrying capacity. This is
commonly achieved by drilling holes in the member and inserting steel bars into them.

4. List out the repairing methods of excessive deflection of beams.

Excessive deflection of beams can occur due to various reasons such as overloading, poor
design, or structural damage. The following are some of the commonly used repairing methods
for excessive deflection of beams:

1. Reducing the load: If the excessive deflection is due to overloading, the first step is to
reduce the load on the beam. This can be achieved by removing some of the load or
redistributing it to other members of the structure.
2. Strengthening the beam: Strengthening the beam can be achieved through various
methods such as adding additional reinforcement, installing post-tensioning cables or
rods, or applying fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) wrapping.
3. Adding a new beam: Adding a new beam adjacent to the existing one can help to
distribute the load and reduce the deflection. The new beam can be attached to the
existing beam with bolts or welds.
4. Applying external supports: External supports such as props or jacks can be used to
temporarily support the beam while the repair work is carried out. This can help to
prevent further deflection and damage.
5. Structural repair: If the excessive deflection is due to structural damage, such as cracks or
corrosion, the damaged area will need to be repaired before any strengthening work is
carried out. This can be achieved through various methods such as patching, grouting,
or replacing damaged sections of the beam.

5. Explain about plate bonding and RCC jacketing technique for strengthening of structures.

Plate bonding and RCC jacketing are two commonly used techniques for strengthening
reinforced concrete structures that have suffered damage or degradation over time.

Plate bonding involves bonding a steel plate to the surface of the existing concrete member
using an adhesive. The steel plate provides additional strength and stiffness to the member,
improving its load-carrying capacity. This technique is often used for strengthening beams and
slabs that have suffered damage or are too thin to carry the required loads.

The steps involved in plate bonding are as follows:

 1. Surface preparation: The surface of the existing concrete member is cleaned and
roughened to provide a good bonding surface for the adhesive.
2. Installation of steel plate: A steel plate is cut to the required size and shape and placed
on the surface of the member. The plate is then bonded to the member using an
adhesive.
3. Post-installation treatment: After the adhesive has cured, the plate is typically anchored
to the member using bolts or welds. Any excess adhesive is removed, and the surface is
finished to match the surrounding area.

RCC jacketing, on the other hand, involves adding a new layer of reinforced concrete around
the existing member to increase its load-carrying capacity. This technique is often used for
strengthening columns and other vertical members that have suffered damage or are too weak
to carry the required loads.

The steps involved in RCC jacketing are as follows:

1. Surface preparation: The surface of the existing member is cleaned and roughened to
provide a good bonding surface for the new concrete.
2. Installation of reinforcement: Additional reinforcement is installed around the member,
usually in the form of steel bars or mesh, to provide additional strength and stiffness.
3. Placement of concrete: Fresh concrete is placed around the existing member, usually in
the form of a thin layer or jacket, and allowed to cure.
4. Post-installation treatment: After the new concrete has cured, any excess material is
removed, and the surface is finished to match the surrounding area.

Both plate bonding and RCC jacketing are effective techniques for strengthening concrete
structures that have suffered damage or degradation over time. The choice of technique will
depend on various factors such as the extent of damage, the intended use of the structure, and
the available resources. It is recommended to consult with a professional engineer or contractor
before deciding on a repair and strengthening strategy.

6. Explain in detail about propping and supporting members used in repair and retrofitting.

Propping and supporting members are often used during repair and retrofitting of existing
structures to provide temporary support and stability to the members while repair or
strengthening work is carried out. Propping and supporting members can help to prevent
further damage to the structure and ensure the safety of workers during the repair process.

There are various types of propping and supporting members that can be used, depending on
the specific needs of the project. These include:
 1. Steel Props: Steel props are commonly used for temporary support of beams and slabs.
They consist of adjustable steel tubes that can be extended to the required length and
locked in place with pins or wedges. Steel props can be used to support the entire beam
or slab or just a portion of it.
2. Timber Props: Timber props are similar to steel props but are made of wood. They are
commonly used for smaller beams or for supporting formwork during concrete
placement.
3. Scaffolding: Scaffolding is a temporary structure that is used to support workers and
materials during construction or repair work. Scaffolding can be used to support beams,
slabs, and columns, as well as to provide access to high areas of the structure.
4. Shoring: Shoring is a temporary support system that is used to support walls, floors, and
other vertical members during repair work. Shoring can be used to support the entire
height of the member or just a portion of it.
5. Tensioned Cable: Tensioned cables can be used to provide temporary support for beams
or slabs that are undergoing repair work. The cables are anchored at both ends and
tightened to provide the required level of support.
6. Hydraulic Jacks: Hydraulic jacks can be used to lift and support members during repair
work. They can also be used to apply pressure to the member to help align it with
adjacent members.

7. Explain in detail Ferro-cement technique used in rehabilitation of structures?

Ferro-cement is a composite material that is made by embedding closely spaced wire mesh
layers within a cement mortar matrix. The resulting material is lightweight, durable, and has
excellent structural properties. Ferro-cement has been used extensively in the rehabilitation of
existing structures due to its ability to provide additional strength and stiffness to the structure
without significantly increasing its weight.

The ferro-cement technique involves the following steps:

1. Surface Preparation: The surface of the existing structure is cleaned and roughened to
provide a good bonding surface for the ferro-cement layer.
2. Fabrication of Wire Mesh: The wire mesh is fabricated using high-tensile steel wire,
usually with a diameter of 1.6 mm to 2.0 mm. The wire mesh is formed into the desired
shape and size using molds or other tools.
3. Application of Mortar: The mortar is applied to the wire mesh using trowels or spray
equipment. The mortar should be applied in thin layers, with each layer allowed to dry
before the next one is applied. The thickness of the ferro-cement layer can range from
10 mm to 40 mm depending on the structural requirements.
4. Curing: The ferro-cement layer is allowed to cure for several days, depending on the
environmental conditions.
 5. Finishing: After curing, the ferro-cement layer is typically finished with a smooth or
textured surface to match the surrounding area.

The ferro-cement technique has several advantages over traditional rehabilitation methods.
These include:

1. Lightweight: Ferro-cement is lightweight compared to traditional concrete, which makes

it easier to handle and transport.
2. High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: Ferro-cement has a high strength-to-weight ratio, which
means that it can provide significant additional strength to the structure without adding
a significant amount of weight.
3. Durable: Ferro-cement is highly durable and resistant to cracking, corrosion, and other
types of damage.
4. Versatile: Ferro-cement can be used to repair and strengthen a wide range of structures,
including walls, floors, roofs, and columns.

8. Explain flexural strengthening methods used in rehabilitation of structures?

Flexural strengthening is a type of structural rehabilitation method that is used to increase the
bending capacity of a member, such as a beam or a slab. This is often required when the
existing member is experiencing excessive deflection or cracking due to overloading or aging.
There are several flexural strengthening methods that can be used in the rehabilitation of
structures, including the following:

1. FRP Strengthening: Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) is a composite material that consists
of high-strength fibers, such as carbon or glass, embedded in a polymer matrix. FRP
sheets or strips can be bonded to the surface of the member using epoxy or other
adhesive materials. The FRP provides additional tensile strength to the member,
increasing its bending capacity.
2. Steel Plate Bonding: Steel plates can be bonded to the surface of the member using
epoxy or other adhesive materials. The steel plates provide additional tensile strength to
the member, increasing its bending capacity.
3. Shotcrete: Shotcrete is a sprayable concrete that is applied to the surface of the member
using a pneumatic nozzle. The shotcrete is typically reinforced with steel fibers to
increase its strength. Shotcrete can be used to increase the thickness and strength of the
member, thereby increasing its bending capacity.
4. Concrete Jacketing: Concrete jacketing involves applying a layer of new concrete to the
surface of the member. The new concrete is typically reinforced with steel bars or fibers
to increase its strength. The jacket provides additional compressive strength to the
member, increasing its bending capacity.
 5. Steel Jacketing: Steel jacketing involves placing steel plates or angles around the
member to increase its strength and stiffness. The steel jacket is typically welded or
bolted to the existing member to provide additional support.
6. Externally Prestressed Tendons: Externally prestressed tendons consist of high-strength
steel cables or rods that are tensioned and anchored to the ends of the member. The
tendons provide additional compressive force to the member, increasing its bending
capacity.

9. Explain the procedure for repairing the cracks in masonry structures?

The procedure for repairing cracks in masonry structures generally involves the following steps:

1. Preparation: The first step is to prepare the surface of the crack by cleaning it of any dirt,
debris, or loose material. This is typically done using a wire brush or a chisel and
hammer.
2. Identification: The next step is to identify the cause of the crack. This could be due to
factors such as foundation settlement, moisture infiltration, or structural movement. The
cause of the crack will determine the appropriate repair method.
3. Crack Sealing: The crack is then sealed using a suitable sealant material. This can be
done using a variety of materials, including epoxy, polyurethane, or silicone sealants. The
sealant is applied using a caulking gun and smoothed out using a putty knife.
4. Grouting: If the crack is wider than 3mm, grouting is used to fill the crack. A cement-
based grout mixture is prepared, which is typically a mix of cement, sand, and water. The
mixture is then poured into the crack using a funnel or a grout pump until it is
completely filled.
5. Finishing: Once the sealant or grout has dried, the surface is finished to match the
surrounding masonry. This can be done using a trowel or a brush to apply a coating of
cement mortar or a matching paint.

10. Explain about the process of guniting with a neat sketch.

Guniting, also known as dry-mix shotcrete, is a process of applying a layer of concrete or
mortar to a surface using a high-velocity jet of dry-mix material. It is commonly used in the
rehabilitation of structures to repair damaged or deteriorated concrete or masonry surfaces.
Here is the process of guniting with a neat sketch:

1. Surface Preparation: The surface to be guniting is first cleaned and prepared by

removing any loose material, debris, or contaminants. The surface should be free from
any grease, oil, or other contaminants that could interfere with the adhesion of the
guniting material.
2. Material Preparation: The dry-mix material is prepared by mixing cement, sand, and
other additives, such as accelerators or plasticizers. The mixture is then fed into a
hopper, where it is transported to the nozzle through a hose.
3. Application: The dry-mix material is then applied to the surface using a high-velocity jet
of air. The nozzle is held at a distance of 0.5 to 2 meters from the surface, and the
material is applied in thin layers. The velocity of the air jet is typically between 20 to 30
m/s.
4. Compaction: As the dry-mix material is applied, it is compacted using a trowel or other
tools. The compaction helps to ensure that the material adheres well to the surface and
achieves the desired thickness and strength.
5. Finishing: Once the guniting layer has been applied and compacted, it can be finished to
match the surrounding surface. This may involve smoothing or texturing the surface, or
applying a coating of paint or other finish.