Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00437

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Short communication

Use of reinforced ceramics for slabs in an autarchy period.

Pathology and intervention strategies
Begoña Serrrano-Lanzarotea , Vicente Cerdán-Castillob ,
Leticia Ortega-Madrigalb , Ana Almerich-Chuliaa,*
a
Department Continuum Mechanics and Theory of Structures, Universitat Politecnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
b
Instituto Valenciano de la Edificación, Valencia, Spain

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: This article highlights the possibilities offered by reinforced ceramics during three decades
Received 3 August 2020 of the last century to shape horizontal structures of buildings in Spain. A historical context
Accepted 17 September 2020 of lack of basic building materials, the ability to assemble forged with cseramic pieces was
successfully exploited. Without limiting the number of buildings that needed to be
Keywords: rehabilitated and built, this shortage led the authorities to restrict the use of iron, reserving
Reinforced ceramics the small quantities available for those parts of the construction where its role could hardly
Ceramic joists
be replaced. The authorities promoted its use by standardising it, together with other
Autarchy
Forgings slabs
construction techniques. The current commitment of the authorities to the rehabilitation of
Reinforced brick the obsolete residential park makes it necessary to know how the buildings were
constructed in the past in order to propose efficient intervention strategies. In this sense,
the construction system presented here arises from the current inspections of building
structures in the Community of Valencia, Spain. In addition, the article presents the most
frequent pathology detected in this type of slabs and proposes reinforcement strategies
considering the products and systems currently available with the final objective of
guaranteeing their recovery and prolonging their useful life.
© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

The professionals who have to carry out the technical inspections of the buildings, evaluating their state of conservation
and, if necessary, intervening on them, must have sufficient information on the constructive solutions typical of the time of
construction of the buildings. Among the different construction typologies of slabs that can be found, there is that which
used ceramic pieces, steel bars and cement or concrete mortar (Fig. 1).
In periods of self-sufficiency, this construction system was used with some frequency, and might not be recognized and
identified in a first inspection. Knowing how this technique arose and was created can help in its better recovery. It is
advisable that the inspectors know the fundamentals and the execution techniques used; and recognize the injuries that can
usually be detected. In this way, they will propose the most appropriate modes of action according to the various situations
that arise.
From 2007 to 2011, in the Community of Valencia, Spain, building conservation inspections were carried out, generating a
database. This has given rise to a reference procedure for technicians, where they have criteria to evaluate their state of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: analchu@mes.upv.es (A. Almerich-Chulia).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2020.e00437
2214-5095/© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
B. Serrrano-Lanzarote et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00437

Fig. 1. Slab with reinforced brick joists and ceramic blocks [1].

conservation, intervene and adapt them, proposing rehabilitation strategies. Especially those that are more efficient and not
only effective.

1.1. Historical and regulatory framework

The economic difficulties of the post-war period in Spain affected all areas, including building. This context meant that
progress was not made with new construction techniques, but even regression in those used. The shortage of building
materials and essential means, as well as the regulatory imposition of a subsistence economy, without sufficient resources,
were determining factors in its development [2].
The 1940s and 1950s are described as an era of policy self-sufficiency, autarchy. The only available resources were to be
used efficiently and regulated accordingly.
In particular, the shortage of iron for building purposes led to lower quality constructions, carried out in a traditional way,
by unskilled labour and without adequate quality control.
The situation of precariousness led the technicians to save up to the limit in basic materials, making their consumption as
efficient as possible; and, on the other hand, to sharpen their ingenuity to optimise the resistant sections, by means of a
studied design of special ceramic pieces for frameworks and slabs.
In contrast to the latter, there was the scarce specialization of the labour force and the maintenance of artisan techniques,
and a minimum implantation of prefabrication. It was com-mon practice, due to its ease of assembly on site, to use hollow
bricks with a groove in one of their alveoli, once aligned in the opposite position, to place an iron rod and fill with cement
mortar which, when it sets, would join the whole set. In this way, a lightweight beam was built, with or without formwork for
the floor. Subsequently, ceramic filler pieces were placed on the slab, which were strongly joined together with mortar or
concrete to form a monolithic slab of reduced weight and thickness
The subsequent use of prefabricated concrete beams, reinforced or pre-stressed, finally man-aged to displace this
reinforced ceramic construction system.
After the Civil War, it was a time when it was necessary to satisfy the expectations of reconstruction and construction of
new houses. However, the shortage of basic materials such as steel, cement, wood, etc., which in many cases were of low
quality, affected the production, distribution and availability of products. Faced with this situation, the Government
established rationing in the use of those materials that were most scarce, and restrictive measures were approved to directly
affect the way in which construction was carried out. On the other hand, the use of traditional construction techniques was
promoted, which encouraged the employment of labour that needed to be employed, although not specialized. These
measures were reinforced with the intervention and regulation of the prices of materials such as cement, or the freezing of
the price of ceramics.
This situation began to change in the 1950s, when a slow economic recovery made it possible to open up trade and
remove restrictions on the use of iron in construction [3]. In the middle of this decade, the first changes were seen: the take-
off of residential construction, new urban development policies and the creation of more industries. Moreover, at the
beginning of the 1960s, the liberalization of the cement factories took place [4].
Through successive Housing Plans, the Government sought to increase the rates of housing production, although these
did not have the expected result, and continued to seek ways to in-crease the rates of construction with the means available.
To this end, policies were implemented to respond to several coinciding needs. On the one hand, to limit the use of some
construction materials; on the other hand, to publish rules for the good use of those constructive solutions that supported
the strategy initially proposed.
The policy of autarchy was applied by means of a regulation to restrict the use of iron in construction. In order to make the
most of it, several regulations were published, which promoted the use of the most economical systems. It was reached the
point that it was necessary to justify that a limited quota of iron was not going to be exceeded in the work.

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With the standardisation, care was taken to ensure the correct implementation of each sys-tem, as well as to homogenise
criteria among the different technicians. For example, a methodology was provided to be followed to estimate the real
overloads or the filling in of the necessary data to be taken into account in the calculation or sizing.
At the end of the 1950s, once the conditioning factors that led to this situation had disappeared, the restrictions on the use
of iron were eliminated.

1.2. Regulatory provisions and rules for their implementation

The Decree of 11 March 1941 on restrictions on the use of iron in building [5] was the trigger for the greater use of the
reinforced ceramic technique. Moreover, in application of the Decree of 22 July 1941 [6], the rules for the calculation and
execution of metallic structures, reinforced concrete and reinforced brick slabs were published. In 1942, he published the
book "Sistemas especiales de forjados para edificación" [7], with the technical specifications for each of the 23 slab systems.
In this way, the standards for their application were developed [8], as well as several related technical publications [9], which
offered professionals sufficient support in the form of catalogues with models or construction typologies.
According to this, the calculation of reinforced brick slabs, in which ceramics played an active role (Fig. 2), had to conform
to the standards strictly. For example, in the case of concrete compression layers, these should not exceed 5 cm in thickness.
In another case, they were considered ribbed reinforced concrete floors. Also out of the scope of application were slabs that
might be subject to strong vibrations or point loads exceeding 750 kg.
At this time, studies were commissioned on construction procedures that would allow for the elimination or minimum
use of iron. Since 1941, the slab systems and their prefabricated components were the subject of attention from the General
Directorate of Architecture, which be-longed to the Ministry of the Interior. From that year onwards, in order to obtain the
corresponding Authorisation for use, manufacturers submitted their construction systems to examination, generating a
technical sheet containing: a description of the forging system, the calculation method and economic data.
This led to the creation of special ceramic pieces to form the girders on site, (Fig. 3). In Valencia, Spain, these pieces were
known as violin girders.
The regulation had to be applied inexcusably by the technicians, and the restrictions were complied with:

- For official works, the maximum amount of iron that could be used in the structure was limited to 7 kg iron per m [3] of
building volume
- In private construction, the use of iron was even prohibited in vertical structures and the maximum possible reduction in
horizontal ones was advocated.

The restrictions on the use of iron were not lifted until January 1956, although this restriction remained active and
effective well after that [2,11].

1.3. Classification

Despite the large number of models that, in principle, might seem to exist, these grouped according to the arrangement of
the reinforcement and how the ceramic is used to form the joists or frameworks. Depending on the type selected, it may or
may not have been possible to have a formwork, either on the entire surface or in a localized manner [12,13].
In 1959, a CEAC monograph [14] presented a logical and practical classification of floor slabs and decking, from a greater to
a lesser degree of prefabrication. From greater to lesser industrialization of the process, they classify in:

i Fully precast elements to assemble on site without formwork;

ii Elements prefabricate on site to assemble without formwork;
iii Part prefabricated elements, rest make on site;
iv Floors make on site on partial and total formwork.

At present, following this classification, there are elements marketed that would belong to the first group. These are
prefabricated panels or plates for frameworks in the construction of slabs, attached to each other lengthwise. They are made
up of ceramic pieces and longitudinal concrete ribs, reinforced or prestressed (Fig. 4), including or not part of the concrete
compression layer with distribution reinforcement, and may even incorporate negative or shear reinforcement.
The autarkic slabs described above, which used ceramics as their primary material, would belong to the other groups
proposed in the CEAC monograph.
The architect Víctor Seguí i Santana [16] carried out a codification to understand the functioning of the different variants
of this construction technique.
When inspecting reinforced ceramic slabs, the technician may come across a patented system such as LADRIHIERO
(Fig. 5). However, it is also common to find one whose construction was carried out with ceramic hollow bricks for
partitioning (Figs. 6 and 7).
Nowadays, it is possible to add to the types and formats of ceramic vaults the resistant ones. Classified by their function,
the UNE-EN 15037-3 standard distinguishes by type: semi-resistant (SR) and resistant (RR) arches. These overhangs

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Fig. 2. Examples of a self-sufficient floor-slab system [10].

Fig. 3. Special ceramic piece for forming ceramic beams [10].

participate in the transmission of loads to the joists. However, lightweight and non-resistant (LNR and NR) vaults are the only
ones currently manufactured in Spain [17].

2. Experience in inspection of slabs in the Valencian Community (Spain)

The competences in building inspection are autonomous. In the Valencian Community, the sectorial legislation on
housing, since 2004, has advanced the issue of periodic inspections of buildings, and since 2006 it has regulated the
knowledge of the state of conservation of the existing housing stock through the Building Conservation Report.

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Fig. 4. Pre-stressed ceramic plates [15].

Fig. 5. Autarkic floor slab system patented as LADRIHIERRO [18].

Fig. 6. Example of lightened slab with ceramic brick of the standard for the design and execution of reinforced brick slabs. General Direction of Architecture.

The Valencian Administration has promoted the dissemination of experiences, as well as the training of inspectors to
obtain a continuous improvement in the procedures. Accessibility of this information to professionals has been sought. The
General Directorate of the Autonomous Ad-ministration, companies, entities and various organizations have been involved
in this.
At the end of the 1990s, a systematic study of the presence of aluminium cement and injuries to the floor slabs was begun.
A damage investigation methodology was proposed, prior to the elaboration of the projects for the repair works.
Because of problems arising from damage detected in slabs with beams made of aluminium cement, inspectors also found
injuries in slabs, which in some cases turned out to be reinforced ceramic [19]. A significant presence of these slabs should be
noted, although their presence in the Community of Valencia has not been quantitatively estimated, although it is considered
irregular.
In any case, it has been possible to verify their use over a given period, their relative success, and that many of them
continue to perform their function. However, a high percentage of steel presents a more or less advanced state of corrosion.

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Fig. 7. Example of a slab with hollow ceramic brick beams.

These slabs, while retaining sufficient resistance, usually show significant deflections, which are not very compatible
with their proper use, and have transmitted unforeseen deformations to partitions, enclosures or flooring.
It should be noted that 37.04 % of the ceramic slabs inspected were in good condition, 31.36 % showed only specific defects,
and 9.14 % general defects. Finally, out of 14.32 %, no further inspection was determined.
Once the tasting of these slabs was completed, the existence of damage and deterioration was frequently verified, and it
is therefore to be expected that they will lose their resistance capacity. The ceramic pieces have not only acted as
lightening pieces in the beam, but they have also been able to withstand greater loads or loads that were not initially
foreseen.
In general, the critical point of the system has been the scarce or deficient coating of the steel and its advanced
corrosion.
The state of conservation has been acceptable until the appearance of the pathology of humidity. In particular, next to
damp premises, under roofs, or next to deteriorated drainage or plumbing installations. This situation, together with the
porosity of the ceramics, mortar and concrete, has led to an acceleration in the corrosion process and an increase in volume,
which has produced cracking and detachment of the mortar or concrete covering.
In addition, on some occasions the mortar used turned out to be of low quality, or not with sufficient cement content for
adequate durability.
In addition, the maximum separation between reinforcements (> 25 cm) has not always been maintained, and
sometimes-smooth steel rods with an insufficient section (< 5 mm) have been found, with mortar coatings that are lower
than recommended.
Many of the inspections have led to major interventions, since the slab is in very poor condition.
By way of summary, it presents some aspects of the inspections in the Valencian Community [20], which for some
situations it has been possible to compare with other studies of interest.
The following percentages of the presence of cracks in reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, and ceramic
beams can be observed: 6.9 %; 4.0 %; and 7.2 %, respectively. As regards corrosion, it found in 70 % of the inspections
carried out. The rate of corrosion, in the case of ceramic beams, is three times the percentage value of reinforced
concrete beams and twice that of pre-stressed beams. Compared to other sources, there are slight differences,
although in any case, higher corrosion values are found in ceramic beams than in prestressed beams and, in the latter,
higher than in reinforced beams.
The origin of the most important problems is moisture, as it appears in about 57 % of the files. The deterioration
corresponds systematically to their continuous presence, when not of precipitation water, due to leaks from the installations
or the existence of saturated environments.
In summary, the one-way slabs inspected in the Community of Valencia from 2007 to 2011 correspond to 8.42 %
reinforced ceramic, 59.33 % concrete beams and 29.77 % wooden beams. In other studies carried out in Catalonia in the early
1990s [17], the reinforced ceramic slabs that appear are in the order of 15 % of the inspections. This is almost twice as much in
Catalonia as in the Community of Valencia.

3. Criteria for repair, reinforcement and improvement

Once the slab has been inspected, and any injuries have been assessed, a system for its rehabilitation must be proposed.
The technician must determine which system and construction solution should be adopted for each case, in order to
optimise its repair, reinforcement, or replacement. He must analyse, evaluate and compare the different alternatives
available for intervention, taking into account all the requirements of the construction works, and obtain the best solution
among all the possible ones. The aim is to consider basic aspects, such as those related to safety and useful life, and others
related to functionality or health.
In Valencian Community (Spain), there is a procedure recognized by the Administration, to intervention in concrete
structures in existing buildings [21].
By simplifying as much as possible, the possible situations that a technician would have to face, as well as the solutions
that he could propose, the following three intervention techniques are presented.

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3.1. Repair for recovery of carrying capacity

In this first situation, the inspected slab only requires repair. This is the case when the mortar or concrete covering has
been removed, or is easily removed by hitting it, leaving the steel bars ex-posed.
Initially, it may be necessary to carry out demolition work, opening of the false ceiling that hides the slab, or pitting of the
plaster coating. As well as shoring up the joists. Then, the ceramic tiles and the covering mortar must be chiselled out to clean
the parts affected by corrosion, until the reinforcement is free in all the areas where it can be seen.
If the reinforcements do not show any loss of cross-section, the rust must be brushed away until they are shiny. In the
worst case, if there is a loss of section in the reinforcement, it must be supplemented with new steel bars. These should have a
length corresponding to the affected area plus an extension at each end of the anchorage length. If possible, they should be
welded to a load-bearing profile arranged under the heads of the beams. The new bars must be spaced about 10 mm from the
original bars, so in some cases it will be necessary to increase the rib.
Specific products must be selected for this use, because they have proven to be the most suit-able: concrete repair mortar,
corrosion inhibitor, bonding bridge, etc. In any case, they must be applied according to the manufacturer's instructions.
For the reconstruction of the rib section (Fig. 8), a passive technical mortar for structural concrete repair, without
shrinkage or with limited or controlled shrinkage, must be used.
It is advisable to have identified the most significant properties of the mortar (resistance, adherence, workability, water
absorption, durability, etc.), in order to know, in addition to its mechanical capabilities, the conditions for its adequate
application.
The general advantages of this first intervention system are its lower economic cost, that only the strictly necessary
repairs are made, and that the execution is relatively quick and easy for rehabilitation workers. As disadvantages, they
emphasize that it is advisable to unload previously the elements to reinforce, and that the resistance of calculation is not
reached until the concrete hardens, at least to the 28 days.
In the Construction Price Base published by the Instituto Valenciano de la Edificación [22], the cost of construction
solutions to repair ceramic slabs, as indicated for this first technique, would be close to 125 s/m2.

3.2. Repair and reinforcement of carrying capacity

A second situation is that, in addition to repairing, reinforcing or improving the load-bearing capacity of the ceramic slab
is required.
An appropriate intervention, if possible, is to introduce an inverted T-section rolled steel pro-file, as a replacement or
reinforcement of the tensile reinforcement, in the lower part of the slab, in a groove made in the concrete rib over its entire
length. A resin mortar compatible with the original mortar can be used for adhesion. The new profile must be supported at
each end by a profile, screwed to the wall. In this way, the edge of the slab is practically not increased. On the other hand, if a
metal U-profile is installed at the bottom of each rib, a slight in-crease is produced when the ribs are thickened with steel bar
covering mortar (Fig. 9).
In addition to reducing the height from floor to ceiling, the lower thickening poses considerably greater problems of
execution, given the need to make the shoring of the slab to be reinforced compatible with the execution of the
reinforcement itself. For this reason, the possibility has also been considered of reinforcing the upper part of the slab with a
compression layer of reinforced concrete with electro-welded mesh and connectors.
According to the price base, for this second situation, repairing and reinforcing by rebuilding the ribs with a steel profile,
the cost would increase by about 40 s/m [2] with respect to the first case.

3.3. Functional substitution

The third situation that could arise is that, assessed the residual capacity in the slab, as well as the new
requirements, the reinforcement as such is not feasible. The new resistant elements will then have to perform the
load-bearing capacity themselves. This is known as functional substitution of the slab. At the bottom of each rib or
beam, a profile is arranged to absorb all the stresses of the slab. Without removing the existing girders, the profiles
form a network of new metal girders at the bottom of the existing floor. The girders can be loaded, supporting the
weight of the original slab and the overloads, when the former have lost, or are insufficient, their load-bearing
capacity. A controlled expansion mortar is used to join the profile to the residual part of the rib, standing out in the
space between the two (Fig. 10).
This system restores the load-bearing capacity of the slab and makes it more secure.
For this type of intervention, metal profiles, protected against corrosion (galvanised steel with zinc, stainless steel, etc.),
market within patented systems, which are guaranteed by a document of suitability for use. In Spain, technical information
on some of these systems can consulted with the Technical Suitability Document (DIT in Spain). This is a set of pieces
specially designed for forming profiles. These are coupled in length once aligned and provisionally fixed, until a beam is
formed (for example, in the form of a u or an omega). The connecting pieces and the end support or recessing supports at the
ends of the wall are welded or bolted together. Using bolting and fixing systems (mechanical, or chemical, using special
resins or mortars); they are attached to the structure.

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Fig. 8. Reconstruction of ribs in a ceramic slab [1].

Fig. 9. Repair and reinforcement of ribs in a ceramic slab with a T-profile (a), with steel plate + mortar.

Fig. 10. Reinforcement of floor with steel profiles protected by MECANOVIGA [23].

In these cases, it is advisable to check whether the type of slab allows the ceramic pieces, or lightweight vaults, to be
partially demolished because of their lower section, and to place the metal profiles in this space.
As a disadvantage, there is often a drop in the joists. This is only possible in buildings of sufficient height.
According to the Price Basis, in order to carry out the functional replacement of the floor slab, considering one of the most
economical ITD systems, the refurbishment would reach a cost of about 400 euros/m2. This amount is more than three times
that of the first of the situations, and more than twice that of the second.
Finally, whatever the intervention proposal may be, once the structural adaptation of the lower part of the slab has been
carried out, protection against fire must be provided, especially of the metal elements. In addition, the finishes must be done
with plaster cladding or the installation of a false ceiling.

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4. Conclusions

Even if the armed ceramic slabs are not the most frequent solution detected in building inspections, they have been
appearing in those that were built in the 400 s, 500 s and 600 s of the last century. In their inspection, technical reports usually
indicate the presence of injuries, either specific or general, in more than half of the files. While the rest are in good condition,
or have not been determined by the technician a complementary inspection.
In the case of construction solutions, they are framed within a specific stage in the history of construction in Spain, in a
context of scarce and precarious means in construction, or they have fulfilled their purpose by presenting an approximate
durability of about 50 years. Most of them have served adequately until a few years ago, but they are close to exhausting their
useful life and now it is time to rehabilitate them.
There are sufficiently proven intervention procedures, applying one of the various systems of repair, reinforcement, or
replacement. The intervention chosen must be well adjusted to their needs and conditions, such as the state of conservation,
the use of the building, and economic availability.
Nowadays, the rehabilitation of slabs goes beyond their repair and strengthening of their resistant capacity, taking into
account other improvements as far as possible. Among them, the acoustic, energetic, or fire protection conditions, beyond
the aesthetic conditions of coatings or finishes.
Reinforced ceramic slabs have not been used for decades, although the possibilities of ceramics as a material for
horizontal structures in prefabricated units, together with concrete and steel, have not been totally abandoned. The door is
therefore open for the use of ceramics in new systems which, taking advantage of its availability; exploit its potential and
capacity as a building material.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors report no declarations of interest.

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