Pre-colonial Philippines' relations with India and China

Ray Allen N. Zafra

Prior to the arrival of the West upon the shores of the Orient, a dynamic and vibrant
relationship between the Philippine archipelago’s native inhabitants and the peoples of
neighboring Asian territories was already in place. Primarily rooted in the prospect of personal,
religious and political benefit, our nation’s centuries long sustained and frequent contact with
foreign entities have unequivocally contributed to cultivating the prevalent manifestation of our
heritage, a society that can be characterized as a varicolored weave that bears the intricate
qualities of diverse cultural amalgamations.

Indianization of the Philippines

During the First century AD, traders, colonizers, and religious proponents of Indian
ethnicity embarked on a diaspora to the nations that comprise Southeast Asia. Compelled by
the quest to seek providential opportunities in life, they traversed the vast seas, eventually
arriving to Burma, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, Java, and other islands of the Asian subregion. As
a consequence of Indian expansion overseas, kingdoms that bear vivid marks of Indian
influence emerged, which served as a conduit to further the Indianization of approximate
territories.
First of these domains was Funan situated at the southern coast of Indochina. It was founded
the initial years of the First Century AD by a Hindu prince named Kaundinya who was betrothed
to a local princess of the name Liu Yeh (Willow Leaf). As the years tread onward, the Kingdom
was stroked with prosperity, thus permitting it domination over the Indochinese Peninsula until
its ultimate collapse. Following the fall of Funan in the 6th century AD, the kingdom of Kambuja
was fashioned from its ruins and remaining vestiges, whose brilliant, ingenious and
exceptionally adroit Khmer people rose to historical prominence as the architects of majestic
temples, most notably, the proverbial Angkor Wat.
Included in the roster of Indianized hegemonies were Champa; Phong Tuk and Khorat in Siam,
Prome, Pagan and Thaton in Burma; Pahang Langkasuka, Kedah, Trambralinga and Trengganu in
the Malay Peninsula; Taruma, Mataram, Singharasi in Java; Palembang, Pasai, and Malayu in
Sumatra as well as Batu Pahat and Maura Kaman in Borneo.
Out of all the Indianized empires that came and went, two hold a salient bearing in the context
of Philippine History, the two Indo-Malayan maritime empires Sri Vijaya (683-1377) and
Majapahit (1293-1528). Recognized as Sin-fo-tsi in Chinese documents and Zabagin in Arabic
records, Sri Vijaya was diverse in nature as it was Malayan in core nationality, culture
predominantly affected by Indian implements and Mahayana Buddhist in religious subscription.
Its capital was Palembang, situated in the southeastern periphery of Sumatra. Succeeding it was
the Majapahit Empire which featured likewise cultural and nationalistic facets as its progenitor.
However, in the factor of religion, as opposed to Buddhism, it conformed to the tenets of
Brammanistic Hinduism.
In 1921, Professor Henry Otley Beyer postulated a theory that the Philippines was encapsulated
within the political spheres of both the Sri Vijaya and Majapahit empires. Evidently, this
theoretical supposition gained the fascination of historical writers, so much that it became a
widespread idea in Philippine Historiography. That being said, contrary to popular belief
rampant at the time in the scholastic community, it was found that the archipelago was never
supervised by the authority of these two great powers. Contemporary data available in
Malaysian archaeology and history have all debunked any speck of “validity” that Beyer’s
hypothesis asserted and exposed the writings as nothing more than the design of historical
fiction.
There exists an abundance of historical materials that detail about Sri Vijaya, especially in its
growth as a state that boasts considerable maritime capability as well as its relations with
China, in the annals of the T’ang Dynasty, Sung Dynasty, Yuan Dynasty and Ming Dynasty.
Chronicles penned by early Chinese authors, principally Chu Ku-fei (1178), Chau Ju-kua (1225),
and Wang Ta-yuan (1349), share a common feature, that the Philippines was not proclaimed a
vassal state.
Authorities in the field of Southeast Asian history shared this perspective as well, reinforcing
further the veracity of the fact that the Philippines was never a vassal state of the Sri Vijaya.
Acclaimed among these scholars are George Coedes, Grabriel Ferrard, and Paul Elliot who all
hail from France; the Dutch tandem of Nicholas J. Krom and Bernard H.M. Vlekke; the virtuosos
from India R.C. Majumdar and K.A. Nilakanta Sastri; D.G.E Hall, Brian Harrison, and O.W.
Wolters from Britain; and an American, John F. Cady.
Majapahit rule, in the same respect, did not extend to the soil of the Philippines. Mpu
Prapanca, in his eulogistic poem, claimed that Majapahit granted that status of dependency to
over ninety-four territories, including an island carrying the appellation of Solot (which was
actually mentioned twice). Alas, this long list of protectorates was dismissed as phantasmagoric
figment of Prapanca’s mind whose penchant for creative, fictional illustrations was habitual. A
distinguished Dutch Scholar, Professor C. Berg ventured into a critical research on the subject
and concluded that Prapanca’s list of vassal states as a “historical myth”, with little to no worth
to students of history. Although provoking intrigue, the two “Solots” mentioned in Prapanca’s
Nagarakertagama do not refer to Sulu in the Philippines. Most likely they are the tiny islands
lying in the Lesser Sundas which today still bears the Solot name and the northeastern portion
of Borneo which until recent times was referred to as Solot.
Noteworthy it is that some modern Indonesian leaders accept and erroneously espouse the
resplendent extent of the Majapahit Empire as advocated by the Nagarakertagama to bolster
the visage of Pan-Indonesia. Sukarno, the first president of Indonesia, nurtured a colossal
ambition to restore the grandeur of the aforementioned empire. On the wall of his office at
Jakarta hung an enormous map of Great Indonesia whose borders engulf the Republic of
Indonesia, West New Guinea, the Malay Peninsula and the Philippine islands When the Far
Eastern University conferred upon him the honorary title of Doctor of Laws in February of 1951,
he proudly declared to the vast assemblage of faculty members, students and guests of
eminence that the Philippines was once called Saludung and indeed fell in the Majapahit’s
administration. In all likelihood, he was under the enchanting effect of Prapanca’s manuscript
which did list Saludung as part of the Empire. Both Prapanca and His excellency are wrong in
the claim as Saludung was not the Philippines. It was, in fact, a place in northwest Borneo.
In light of recent research findings in Southeast Asia, we can conclude that the Philippines had
never been placed under Imperium. As a matter of fact, it is recorded in the Ming shih (Annals
of the Ming Dynasty), that in 1368, three years prior to Prapanca’s writing of his fantastic poem,
the bold Taosug warriors of Sulu invaded Borneo, an actual vassal state of Majapahit. They
captured Brunei and only evacuated when Majapahit reinforcements arrived from Java.
Despite the fact the Philippines was never dominated by the authoritative jurisdiction of either
Indianized empires, their influence on our culture was nonetheless keenly perceptible. Indian
cultural aspects were introduced by immigrants and merchants hailing from Indochina, Siam,
the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and numerous other islets that dot the Indonesian archipelago.
According to Sulu folklore, between AD 900 and 1200, foreign settlers from Champa founded a
trading colony in Sulu. Dubbed as Orang Dampuans, they were vassal denizens of the Sri Vijaya
empire. Responsible were they for promoting commerce between Sulu and Champa, and as a
result, transmitted their Indianized culture to the Buranuns (the natives of Sulu)
Years later, migrants who trace their origins from Bandjarmasin, Borneo, (another Sri Vijaya
dependency) took up residence in Sulu and engaged in the rich and active pearl trade of the
locality. Orang Bandjar is the term that served to identify them. Similar to the Dampuans, the
Orang Bandjar injected attributes of Indian culture in Sulu. To appease to the good will and
form a bond of trust with the Buranuns, they were accompanied by beautiful princess who was
later offered as a bride to a native chief. Captivated by her beauty decided to marry her.
Therefore, as an outcome of this, friendly intercourse and trade between Sulu and Borneo
blossomed into prosperity. So it came to pass that when the first Muslim missionaries arrived
in the area towards the end of the 14th century, they happened upon the Buranuns practicing
Hindu customs and displaying reverence and spiritual fealty to Vedic gods.
According to Visayan traditions, Panay was colonized by Bornean Malays around the middle of
the 13th century during the pinnacle of Sri Vijayan power. The story of these Indianized
Bornean colonizers, who were former vassals of Sri Vijaya and who would be ordained as free
men in the Philippines is narrated in the Maragtas, a traditional chronicle of ancient Panay.
In neighboring Cebu, a Rajahnate flourished. Visayan oral history speaks of a half-Tamil and
half-Malay Chola king named Sri Lumay from Sumatra, who settled in the Visayas, and had
several sons. Descendants include Rajah Humabon and Rajah Tupas amongst others.
Further Indianized territories that developed in the region were the Kedatuan of Mairete
(Leyte) and the Kedatuan of Dapitan.
Another concrete verification of Philippine correspondence with Indianized nations of
Southeast Asia was written in 1512-1515 by Tome Pires who resided in Malacca from 1512-
1517. The Pires Codex portrays the people of Luzon, otherwise known as Lucoes, as a thriving
society who would send annual trading expeditions to Borneo and Malacca. Bornean traders, in
reciprocation, sailed to Luzon to procure gold and viand ingredients which they would sell in
their homeland. Moreover, this rare and engrossing manuscript mentioned a Filipino trading
hub constituted of over 500 people at Minjam near Malacca. Showering these Filipino settlers
with regard and praise, Pires comments: “They are useful people; they are hard-working… some
of them were important people and good merchants.”
With regards to indigenous Luzon hegemonies that sport Indianized marks, most notable of
them is the mighty Kingdom of Lusong, popularly known as the Tondo Dynasty. A smaller polity
of relevance was also present, the Kingdom of Namayan.
Antiquated artifacts extracted from the sands of time promote further validation of Indian
cultural implements on the archipelago during the epochs of the Sri Vijaya and Majapahit
empires. These relics, aside from the ceramic wares from Annam, Cambodia and Siam, are as
follows:
 Agusan Golden Tara: A 2 kg, 21-karat gold statuette found in Philippines dating to the
9th–10th centuries. Excavated on the left bank of Wawa River near the town of
Esperanza, Agusan Province in 1917. Currently it is on display at the Gem Room of the
Chicago Museum of Natural History. H, Otley Beyer believed that the image was that of
a Hindu Sivaite goddess. While Dr. Juan R. Francisco opined that it is a Buddhist Tara
with Tantric connections, probably crafted in the 14th Century during the waning days
of Sri Vijaya.

 Avalokitesvara Icon: Found in the island of Mactan next to Cebu in 1843. According to
Beyer, it is a depiction of the Hindu God of Destruction, Shiva. However, Dr. Juan
Francisco claims it to be a Lokesvara image belonging to the Buddhist family of Siamese
art of the 12th or 13th century AD

 Copper Idol of Ganesha: A copper statue of Ganesha, the Elephant God, has been found
from the same site in Mactan, from where Avlokitesvara icon was found. Beyer posited
it to be from the Majapahit period. Lamentably, it perished in the Intramuros fires of
August 13, 1932.
  Calatagan Clay Medallion: Excavated at Calatagan Batangas Province in 1958. According
to Francisco “this artifact belongs to the 12th or 13th century AD Buddho-Siamese art.”

 Golden Garuda Pendant: Unearthed at Brooke’s Point, Palawan Province in 1961.

Francisco maintains that its origins can be traced to the Majapahit empire. The Garuda
is a mythical winged creature that the Hindu God Vishnu employed as a means of
transportation.

Centuries of indirect contact with India’s influences, left vivid traces of on Filipino life and
civilization. These marks were clearly discernible in the religious beliefs, language, writing
system and customs of our forefathers. As Dr. Alfred Kroeber remarks: “There is no tribe in the
Philippines, no matter how primitive and remote, in whose culture today elements of Indian
origin cannot be traced.”
Pre-Islamic inhabitants of Sulu adored Vedic deities such as Indra (God of the Sky), Agni (Fire
God), Surya (Sun God) and Vayu (God of the Winds). Bathala, the supreme being of Pre-
Christian Tagalogs is identified with the Hindu Indra “chief of the Vedic pantheon.” Pagan
Mandayas of Mindanao worshipped a trinity compose of Mansilatan, Badla, and Pudaugnon.
This is, without a doubt, a stark reflection of the preeminent Hindu triad of Brahma, Vishnu, and
Shiva respectively. Bukidnon gods of the four cardinal points- Domalondong of the North, Ongli
of the South, Tagolambong of the East, and Mabaya of the West originated from Hindu deities
Kubera, Yama, Indra and Varuna respectively. Also of Hindu origin was the belief of the
ancients that “the universe is alive with dewas and hantus, benevolent and nefarious spirits.”
Accordingly, they offered religious sacrifices and invocations to these supramundane entities to
obtain their favor in dire straits.
The Mythology and Folk literature of the Filipinos have a distinct Indian cast. Related to the
prior subject of religion, Bantugan, the mythical hero of the Maranaos and Lumawig, legendary
savior of the Bontok, are analogous to Indra. A myriad of native epics, including the Darangen
of Lanao, and the Lam-ang of Ilokandia, the Ibalon of Bicolandia, and the Ilim and the Hudhud
of the Mountain Province were inspired by the Mahabharata and other Hindu epics. Take for
instance, the armed struggle between the rulers of Bumbaran and Kadaran in the Darangan
resembles the fierce conflict between the Kauravas and the Pandavas in the Mahabharata. The
gallant intrepid forces of Bumbaran were Bantugan and his five brothers- Murug, Daranda,
Lumuday sa Barat, Ranga’ig, and Madali. Murug is directly analogous to Varuna, Daranda with
Suya, Lumunday sa Barat bears undeniably descriptive similarities with Vayu, Ranga’ig is
identical with Soma, while Madali carries the traits of Yama. Bantugan’s prepossessing sister,
Inalang, the princess of Bumbaran, represents the female consorts of Shiva.
The Agusan tale of Manubo Agno parallels the story of Ahalya in the Ramayana, wherein Ahalya
was turned into stone for committing adultery with Indra.
Lumawig and the Ifugao tale of Balituk are reminiscent of Arjuna’s exploits in the Mahabharata
in which he shot an arrow to the ground and successfully acquired water for the dying Bishma.
Numerous Filipino fables also boast Indian origins. Among them are the Tagalog story of the
monkey and turtle, the story of the race contended by the deer and snail, and the Visayan
anecdote of the hawk and the hen. Moreover, the hilarious adventure of Juan Tamad, an
esteemed hero in Tagalog Folklore, reveal traces of Hindu influences.
Customs and traditions which define our cultural identity are permeated as well with Indian
imprints. Among them are the following:
 The placing of a fresh flower garland around the neck of a visitor, an
emblematic gesture of hospitality and friendship.
 Prior to marriage, a groom offers a dowry to the bride’s parents and
renders personal services for his future in-laws.
 After the matrimonial ceremony, guests shower rice upon the newlyweds.
 The offering of buyo to guests as an expression of geniality.
 A childless couple embarks on a pilgrimage to a holy shrine to implore fertility.

As for superstitious beliefs:

 A maiden who sings merrily before a stove while in the act of cooking
will marry an old widower.
 Comets are forbidding omen, for they are harbingers of strife, famine and
calamity.
 Consumption of twin bananas by a pregnant woman will result in the
conception of twins.
 When a cat wipes off its face with its paws, a visitor is bound for a
house call.
 If one’s teeth fall in a dream, a dear relative or ally is sure to perish.
Filipino mode of fashion features Indian elements. Of Indian origin were the putong (turban) of
men and the sarong (lower garments) of women in pre-Spanish times. Until the present day,
the muslim men of Mindanao and Sulu wear tight-fitting trousers which resemble Indian putees
and their women use embroidered shawls, which are suggestive of Indian sari.
From India came certain industries, notably the quickliming method seen in Masbate, boat
building, weaving of cotton clothes and metal work; the decorative arts, as shown in the artistic
design of gold necklaces in the lotus design of bolo handles of pre-Spanish Filipinos.
Other contributions are in the scene of music, particularly the kudyapi, and in horticulture and
agriculture, especially sampaguitas and champaka; fruits such as mango, nangka, and sirisa;
vegetables like ampalaya, patola, and malunggay.
As postulated by paleographical virtuosos, the ancient Filipino writing system originated from
India. Most enduring of India’s contributions to the Filipino culture and national identity is the
Sanskrit language. Thus comments Dr. T.H. Pardo de Tavera, after a critical study of twelve
forms of pre-Hispanic PH alphabet, particularly early Tagalog: The characters of the PH alphabet
have a greater similarity with those of the Asoka than with any Indian or Oceanic islands. We
believe that they came directly from Asokan and that they have preserved very faithfully its
primitive form. The Indian origins of these alphabets cannot be denied.

According to Dr. T.H. Pardo de Tavera, there are more than 340 Sanskrit words in our language,
while Dr. Jose Villa Panganiban, Former director of the Institute of National Language, asserts a
greater count of 375. Dr. Najeeb C. Saleby conducted linguistic research among the muslims of
Mindanao and Sulu and found about 300 Sanskrit words in their Dialect.
Around 5% of Filipinos today possess Indian blood coursing through their system. These
Filipinos of Indian ancestry harbor traits such character traits as dignity of bearing, stoical
outlook in life, and serene resignation in episodes of misfortune and desolation.

Contacts with China

Sino-Philippine relations antedated Magellan by many centuries, as evidenced by old
Chinese written records and the wealth of pre-historic artifacts uncovered in many
archaeological sites in the archipelago.
Some scholars assume that Philippine impact with China commenced as far back as the Chou
Dynasty (1122-247 BC). Others surmise that such relations started during the 3rd century AD
when the Philippines “exported gold to China.” Some scholars claim that Sino-Philippine
exchange began in 226 AD when the ruler of the Kingdom of Wu, Sun Chuan (222-252) sent two
envoys, Chu Ying and Kand Tai, on diplomatic missions across Southeast Asia. The voyage of
these emissaries was recorded in the San Kuo Chi (History of the Three Kingdoms) penned and
published by Chen Shuo.
Historically speaking, Sino-Philippine intercourse began in the 10th century AD. During this era
the Sung Dynasty cast dominion over China and its citizens were beginning to amplify their
maritime odysseys in Nanyang (Southeast Asia). The earliest known authentic date of relations
was 982 AD when several traders from Ma-i arrived in Canton onboard an Arab seafaring vessel
and sold their commodities. These merchandise included exotic gifts like pearls, frankincense,
myrrh, colorful animals as gift to the Emperor and as acknowledgement of his primacy among
all rulers. The Ma-i delegation was treated as state guests and enlisted as feudatory princes of
the empire. They were bestowed with corresponding seals and patents of office. This incident
was documented by a Chinese chronicler, Ma-Tuan-lin, in his monumental work entitled Wen
Shiann Tung Kao (General Investigation on the Chinese Cultural Sources) written from 1317 to
1319.
After 982 AD, the Sino-Philippine trade expanded substantially, especially during the Southern
Sung (1127-1280), Yuan (1280-1368), and Ming (1368-1614) Dynasties. Annually, Chinese
marketeers aboard their sea-going junks, left Chuanchow, Canton and other ports in China and
visited Lingayen Gulf, Manila Bay, Mindoro and Sulu for purpose of trade. Filipinos made their
way to Chinese territory as well with an array of intent, that range from simple trading to
significant diplomatic summits.
The first Philippine tribute mission was organized by King Kiling of Butuan (P’u-tuan), on March
17, 1001. The goal of this first mission was to request equal status with Champa (Southern
Vietnam). It was only in 1007 when King Kiling made the formal request through a memorial
addressed to the Emperor:
“Your humble servant observes that the emperor has bestowed two caparisoned horses
and two large spirit flags on the Champa envoy, he wishes to be granted the same treatment
and to receive the same favors.”
King Kiling’s appeal was however denied. In 1011, when a new ruler made the same request
with a memorial engraved on a gold tablet, and with exorbitant gifts such as a “white dragon”
camphor, Moluccan cloves along with a South Sea slave, the petition was ultimately granted.
The emperor was so impressed that he even included flags, pennants and armor to “honor a
distant land.”
Not all Filipino visits to China were tribute or trade missions. Between 1171 and 1172, Visayan
(P’i-she-ya) pirates adorned with intimidating tattoos and sailing on terrorizing balangays from
the staging grounds of the Pescadores Islands off the coast of Formosa raided Ch’uan-chou Bay.
The raids forced Governor Wang Ta-yu to organize a coast guard detachment and to offer a
bounty for the raiders. Soon, more than 400 were captured and their leader put to death.
Despite earlier tribute and trade missions, China became aware of the other Philippine islands
only after the Visayan raids. According to one account in 1178, from the point of view of the
Chinese, the world came to an end just east of Java. By 1206, China was trading vibrantly with
Mindoro, Palawan, and Basilan. By 1225, trade expanded to Babuyanes Lingayen, Luzon and
Manila, and Lubang Island.
Of unique interest in Chau Ju-kua’s narrative was the honesty and friendliness of the Filipinos in
their business relations with Chinese contemporaries. This was confirmed by another Chinese
writer, Wang Ta-yuan, author of Tao-i-chih-lio (Description of the Barbarians of the Isles),
written in 1349. As a result of the flourishing Sino-Philippine trade, immigrants from China
came and settled in the Philippines, particularly in Manila and Jolo. According to Professor
Beyer, “they intermarried freely in the country, building good houses, and taught their families
better way of living.” When Spanish conquistadores, led by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, arrived in
Manila in 1571, they were amazed to witness 150 Chinese residents living peacefully and well in
the Islamic Kingdom of Raha Sulayman.
Chinese records of relations with Sulu date back to the Yuan Dynasty. Chinese documents
reveal contacts with the Islamic world as early as 651, and by the 8th century Muslim
ambassadors were received almost yearly. By 760, the Chinese were resolving disputes among
Muslims in China according to the provisions of Islamic Law.
Wang Ta-yuan, who travelled to various placed in Southeast Asia, wrote in his book a vivid
description of Sulu and its inhabitants in 1349
Between 1405 and 1435, the Ming emperor launched a series of naval ventures to Southeast
Asia and even as distant as Africa. Commanding these expeditions was a Chinese Muslim
eunuch, Cheng Ho who garnered the favor of Emperor Yung-lo. These missions resulted to an
incremental growth of trade and commerce.
Often would it be claimed that Cheng Ho’s initial trek, which consisted of 62 ships and 27,800
men, departed from the port of Liu-chia-chang, reaching the Philippines in December 1405. It
anchored in Lingayen Gulf, Manila Bay, and the coast of Jolo. While moored at Jolo, one of his
men named Pei-Pon-tao (Pun Tao King) met his demise and was buried in Jatti Tunggal, Jolo.
Today, every December 26, the Chinese of Jolo make their pilgrimage to the tomb of the
crewmate as a gesture of their renewal to their faith and as a symbolic act of reverence to the
forerunners of Sino-Philippine relations.
Aside from the untimely, tragic death of one of his subordinates, Cheng Ho is still remembered
in Taosug folklore. One of the Taosug tales explains why the durian, a fruit cherished
wholeheartedly by the Muslim Filipinos, exhibits a malodorous scent. According to the legend,
before egressing from Jolo, the venerable admiral happened to urinate behind a durian tree. It
is said that his urine affected the fruit because it acquired a sour odor, though despite the fact,
its taste is rather flavorful.
Inspired by Cheng Ho’s maritime exploits, Emperor Yung-lo imposed nominal suzerainty over
the countries of the Asian subregion, including the Philippines. He fancied himself as the
overlord and protector of the native denizens and their lands. In recognition of Ming China’s
sovereignty, native rulers of the Philippines, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula,
Indochina and several other territories sent constant and frequent tribute embassies to the
Imperial Court, in order to avoid affronting his grace.
However, following the death of the Emperor in 1424, Chinese titular protectorate authority
over the Philippines was culminated. As maintained by Ming Shih, the Annals of the Ming
Dynasty, Record of Luzon, Record of Sulu, and Record of Ca-mi-lig, the Philippines dispatched
eight of these missions to Beijing- in 1372, 1375, 1405, 1410, 1417, 1420, 1421, and 1424.
The largest Philippine representation to China was the fifth one in 1417. It was composed of
more than 340 men and women, and headed by the three Mindanao kings namely Paduka Pa
ha-la (Batara), the eastern king of Sulu; the western king of Sulu, Ma-hala-chi’h; and the
Mountain Ka-la-ba-ting called Paduka Prabu.
They arrived in Beijing in mid-August accompanied by throngs of wives and concubines, whose
flamboyant and eye-catching garments enticed the fascination of the Emperor. They presented
to the emperor a letter in gold, with native characters engraved on it and offered the customary
tribute composed of precious pearls, tortoise shells, and other auxiliary articles. Highly pleased
by their tribute, the emperor confirmed the noble titles of the three kings and presented to
each of them “a seal, a commission, a complete court dress, a cap, a girdle, a horse embellished
with trappings, and insignia of their ranks.
The members of the delegation lodged for 27 days at the emperor’s court in Peking. Shortly
before returning to Sulu, each of the three kings received from the emperor “silk with patterns,
three hundred pieces of plain silk, ten thousand taels in paper money, two thousand strings of
cash, one robe embroidered with golden snakes, one with dragons and one with killins.”
Regrettably, the Filipino eastern king fell ill and ultimately passed at Dezhou City, Shandong
Province, East China. He was honored with a state funeral by the emperor. His tomb can be
seen today inside a mosque situated north of Dezhou. His wife and concubines, with eighteen
followers remained to act as custodians of the king’s grave. After three years, of mourning, they
were sent back home by the Emperor. At the same time, an envoy was sent with a letter to the
eldest son of the deceased king, expressing sincere commiseration for his father’s death. Along
with this was an official recognition by Imperial China as the new ruler.
Centuries of contact with China inevitably led to the enrichment of Filipino life and culture. The
influences of China were mainly economic and social, for the Chinese came to the Philippines
not to conquer or to rule land, but to seek commercial profit and a better life.
From the Chinese, the Filipinos acquired the knowledge of manufacturing gunpowder; the
method of placer gold mining; the art of metallurgy; the utilization of porcelain, gongs, lead,
silver, tin and other materials. Certain occupations such as blacksmithing, truck gardening, and
goldsmithing; kite flying and other leisurely activities; as well as other forms of gambling
including juweteng, kuwaho, and pangginggi.
Filipino manner of dressing during the early periods showed the unmistakable marks of China.
The sleeved jackets (kangan) of pre-Spanish Filipino males, the loose trousers of the Muslim
women of Mindanao and Sulu, and the use of slippers, bakya (wooden shoes), fans and
umbrellas were of Chinese origins. Decidedly of Chinese introduction was the yellow garb of
native nobility, the blue dress of commoners and wearing of white clothes for mourning.
China refined the culinary art and diet of our people. From the Chinese, the Filipinos learned
the roasting of pigs for a delectable meal, the brewing of tea for drinking, and the cooking of
dishes such as lumpiya, pansit, mami, tsapoy and ukoy. The Chinese also imparted the use of
appetizers like tahuri, heko, and toyo, and cultivate certain edible vegetables including bataw,
petsay, and upo.
Many customs of early Filipinos were of Chinese source. Among them were the arrangement of
marriage by the parents of the male and female, the hiring of a go-between in marital
negotiations, the employment of professional mourners and the veneration of departed
ancestors.
Certain existing Filipino social norms which bears Chinese impress are as follows:
 Filial respect accorded by children to their older brothers and sisters,
parents and elders.
 Commemorating New Year’s Day and other similar festivities with firecrackers.
 Collection of tong (percentage fee) by owners of gambling joints.
 Haggling
 Beating of gongs to celebrate feasts.

Intermarriages between Filipinos and Chinese have invigorated the Filipino racial stock. As Sir
John Browning comments: “The mestizo descendants of Chinese fathers and Indian mothers
form incomparably the most promising portion of Filipino population.” Out of these interracial
crossings emerged a fine breed of Filipinos. By and large, the offsprings of Filipino-Chinese
ancestors possessed the sterling traits that can elevate a nation to a stature of magnificent
prestige- the courage of the Malay and the sagacity and frugality of the Chinese.
The linguistic influence of China on the Filipino language is profoundly extensive, surpassing
that of India and Arabia. About 1,500 Chinese words are included in the present vocabulary of
the Filipino people, and those words pertain to kinship and family relations, clothes and
ornaments, food and drinks, agriculture, commerce, tools, and occupations.
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