M16 Wolf57139 03 Se C16

TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
16
EXERCISES
Section 16.1 Heat, Temperature, and Thermodynamic Equilibrium
15. INTERPRET This problem involves converting a temperature difference from the Celsius scale to the Fahrenheit
scale.
DEVELOP Apply Equation 16.2 at the two different (and arbitrary) temperatures, then take the difference:
9
TF,2 = TC,2 + 32
5
9
TF,1 = TC,1 + 32
5
9
TF,2 − TF,1 ≡ ∆ TF = ∆ TC
5
EVALUATE ∆TC = 1.4°C gives ∆ TF = ( 9 5 )(1.4 °C ) = 2.52 °F ≈ 2.5 °F , and ∆TC = 3.1°C gives
∆ TF = ( 9 5 )( 3.1 °C ) = 5.58 °F ≈ 5.6 °F
ASSESS Note that a temperature difference and a temperature reading are not the same, even though both are
specified in the same units. The notation °F versus °F is an attempt to clarify this distinction, but is not universally
accepted or consistently applied.
16. INTERPRET This problem involves converting temperature from the Celsius scale to the Fahrenheit scale.
DEVELOP We assume that the U.S. meteorologist predicts the same temperature, but expresses it on the
Fahrenheit scale. Therefore, apply Equation 16.2
9
TF = TC + 32
5
to find the temperature TF in Fahrenheit.
EVALUATE Inserting TC = −15°C gives
9
TF = ( −15°C ) + 32 = 5.0°F
5
ASSESS This is a reasonable temperature for a cold winter day in the Midwest.
17. INTERPRET This problem involves converting temperature from the Fahrenheit scale to the Celsius scale.
DEVELOP The two temperature scales are related by Equation 16.2:
9
TF = TC + 32
5
EVALUATE Inserting TF = 68°F and solving the above equation for the Celsius temperature, we obtain
5 5
TC = (TF − 32 ) = ( 68°F − 32°F ) = 20°C
9 9
ASSESS This is a useful result to remember since 20°C or 68°F is a typical room temperature.
16-1
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16-2 Chapter 16
18. INTERPRET This problem involves converting a temperature difference from the Celsius scale to the Fahrenheit
scale.
DEVELOP Apply Equation 16.2 at the two different (and arbitrary) temperatures, then take the difference:
9
TF,2 = TC,2 + 32
5
9
TF,1 = TC,1 + 32
5
9
TF,2 − TF,1 ≡ ∆ TF = ∆ TC
5
EVALUATE ∆TC = 10°C gives ∆ TF = ( 9 5 )(10 °C ) = 18 F° .
ASSESS Note that a temperature difference and a temperature reading are not the same, even though both are
specified in the same units. The notation F° versus °F is an attempt to clarify this distinction, but is not universally
accepted or consistently applied.
19. INTERPRET Given both Fahrenheit and Celsius scales, we want to know when TF and TC are numerically
equivalent.
DEVELOP The two temperature scales are related by Equation 16.2:
9
TF = TC + 32
5
The condition that the readings are numerically equivalent is
9
TF = TC + 32 = TC
5
EVALUATE The above equation can be solved to give
5
TC = − ( 32 ) = −40 = TF
4
ASSESS This is the only temperature in which both scales yield the same reading: − 40 °F = − 40 °C.
20. INTERPRET This problem involves converting temperature from Kelvin to Celsius, and then converting from
Celsius to Fahrenheit.
DEVELOP To convert from Kelvin to Celsius, apply Equation 16.1 TC = T −273.15. To convert Celsius to
Fahrenheit, use Equation 16.2, TF = ( 9 5 ) TC + 32 .
EVALUATE The temperature 77.3 K in degrees Celsius is TC = 77.3 − 273.15 = − 196 °C, which in Fahrenheit is
TF = ( 9 5 )( − 196 ) + 32 = − 321 °F.
ASSESS As a benchmark, it can be useful to know that liquid nitrogen is at approximately −200°C.
21. INTERPRET This problem is about converting temperature from the Celsius scale to the Fahrenheit scale.
DEVELOP The two temperature scales are related by Equation 16.2: TF = ( 9 5 ) TC + 32
EVALUATE Solving the above equation for the Fahrenheit temperature, we obtain
9
TF = ( 39.1) + 32 = 102°F
5
ASSESS The temperature is way above the normal body temperature of 98.6°F (or 37°C). Call the doctor
immediately!
Section 16.2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat
22. INTERPRET We find the heat capacity of a large concrete block. We know the mass of the block and its specific heat.
DEVELOP The specific heat of concrete is given in Table 16.1 as c = 880 J/kg ⋅ K. To find the heat capacity, we
multiply this specific heat by the mass (recalling that 1 tonne = 1000 kg).
Temperature and Heat 16-3
EVALUATE The heat capacity of the block is

C = mc = ( 55,000 kg )( 880 J/kg ⋅ K ) = 4.8 × 107 J/K
ASSESS This is a large value, but then it takes a large amount of heat to change the temperature of a 55-tonne
block of concrete.
23. INTERPRET We are to find the energy necessary to change the temperature of an object by a given amount. This
involves the heat capacity of the object and the temperature change.
DEVELOP Apply Equation 16.3 Q = mc∆ T . The mass of the aluminum block is m =2.0 kg, the specific heat
(from Table 16.1) is c = 900 J/(kg·K), and the temperature change is ∆T = 18°C = 18 K (see Equation 16.1).
EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities gives
Q = ( 2.0 kg ) ⎡⎣90 × 101 J/ ( kg⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ (18 K ) = 32 kJ
ASSESS The same value would be the heat released by the aluminum if it cooled 18°C.
24. INTERPRET Given information about heat, mass, and temperature change of a material, we are asked to find the
specific heat of the material.
DEVELOP Apply Equation 16.3 Q = mc∆ T . The mass of the object is m = 1.0 kg, the heat required is Q =7500 J,
and the temperature change is ∆T =3.0°C = 3.0 K (see Equation 16.1), so we can solve for the specific heat c.
EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities gives
Q = mc∆ T
Q 7500 J
c= = = 2500 J/ ( kg ⋅ K )
m∆ T (1.0 kg )( 3.0 K )
ASSESS This is a very large value for c; higher than for most solids.
25. INTERPRET The problem involves calculating the average power output of the human body, given the
information about the energy acquired in a day from an average diet. Recall that power is energy per unit time.
DEVELOP In a single day, the energy gained from the diet is
( )
∆E = 2 × 106 cal ( 4.184 J/cal ) = 8.37 × 106 J
where we have used the conversion factor 1 cal = 4.184 J (see Appendix C). If the body expends all this energy
(and does not store any of it), then the energy expended must be this same value (by conservation of energy).
Therefore, the average power output of the body is P = ∆E ∆t , where ∆t = (1 day)(86,400 s/day) = 86,400 s.
EVALUATE The average power output is
∆E 8.37 × 106 J
P= = = 96.9 W = 100 W
∆t 86,400 s
to a single significant figure.
ASSESS The average power output by the human body at rest is about 80 W, the same as a bright light bulb, so
this result seems reasonable.
26. INTERPRET We want to know how far one has to walk to expend the energy contained in a hamburger.
DEVELOP energy expended is the power times the time, while the time required is the distance divided by the
speed. Therefore, E = P ⋅ d / v. Recall that 1 kcal = 4184 J.
EVALUATE The distance required to burn off 420 kcal is
Ev ( 420 kcal )( 3 km/h ) ⎡ 4184 J ⎤ ⎡ 1 h ⎤
d= = ⎢ 1 kcal ⎥ ⎢ 3600 = 7.3 km
P ( 200 W ) ⎣ ⎦⎣ s ⎥⎦
ASSESS This seems like a reasonable amount of exercise for burning off a hamburger.
27. INTERPRET Given the energy it takes to warm the wrench by the given temperature difference, we want to find
its heat capacity, as well as the specific heat of the metal from which it is made.
16-4 Chapter 16
DEVELOP The heat capacity of an object is given by C = ∆Q ∆ T , where ∆Q is the amount of heat transfer that
results in a temperature change ∆T = 15°C = 15 K. Comparing this expression with Equation 16.3, we see that the
specific heat of a material is c = C/m (i.e., the heat capacity per unit mass).
EVALUATE (a) Inserting the given quantities gives the average heat capacity as
∆Q 2.52 × 103 J
C= = = 170 J/K
∆T 15 K
to two significant figures.
(b) The average specific heat of the material is
C 168 J/K
c= = = 480 J/( kg ⋅ K )
m 0.350 kg
ASSESS The wrench is probably made of iron, which has a specific heat of 448 J/kg ⋅ K.
28. INTERPRET We are asked to find the heat (i.e., thermal energy) required to change the temperature of an object,
which we can solve using the specific heat and the mass of the object. We are also to find the time taken to heat
this object with the given power input.
DEVELOP The heat required to change the temperature of the skillet by the ∆T = 110°C = 110 K is Q = mc∆ T .
The mass of the skillet is m = 3.4 kg and the specific heat of iron is given in Table 16.1 as c = 447 J/ ( kg ⋅ K ) . To
find the time to heat the pan for part (b), recall that average power is the energy per unit time, or P = Q ∆t , which
we can solve given Q and P = 2.0 k W.
EVALUATE (a) Inserting the given quantities into Equation 16.3 gives
Q = mc∆T = ( 3.4 kg ) ⎡⎣ 447 J/ ( kg⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ (110 K ) = 1.7 × 105 J
(b) The time interval ∆t required to deliver this amount of thermal energy is
Q 1.67 × 105 J
∆t = = = 84 s
P 2.0 × 103 W
ASSESS This is a reasonable time to heat a small skillet.
Section 16.3 Heat Transfer
29. INTERPRET This problem is about converting heat loss expressed in Btu/h to SI units.
DEVELOP One Btu (British thermal unit) is equal to 1054 J (see Appendix C), which is the amount of heat that is
needed to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water from 63°F to 64°F.
EVALUATE The conversion to SI units is
=1 =1
⎛ Btu ⎞ ⎛ 1.00 Btu ⎞⎛ 1054 J ⎞⎛ 1.00 h ⎞

1.00 ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟⎜ Btu ⎟⎜ 3.60 × 103 s ⎟⎠
= 0.293 W
⎝ h ⎠ ⎝ h ⎠⎝ ⎠⎝
ASSESS Our result shows that 1 W is about 3.4 Btu/h. The power output of air conditioners is commonly given in
terms of Btu/h.
30. INTERPRET We’re asked to compare the heat loss rate through equal slabs of wood and Styrofoam.
DEVELOP The rate of heat-loss from conduction is given by Equation 16.5, H = −k A∆T /∆ x. The values of
thermal conductivity, k, come from Table 16.2: pine wood k = 0.11 W/m ⋅ K; Styrofoam k = 0.029 W/m ⋅ K. The
temperature difference is ∆ T = 20 °C = 20 K. Since we’re not given the area of the slabs, we’ll write the answers
as heat loss per unit area.
EVALUATE (a) The heat loss through the wood slab is
20 K
H / A = − ( 0.11 W/m ⋅ K ) = − 110 W/m 2
0.020 m
(b) The heat loss through the Styrofoam slab is

20 K
H / A = − ( 0.029 W/m ⋅ K ) = − 29 W/m 2
0.020 m
ASSESS The Styrofoam is a better insulator, since it lets less heat escape.
31. INTERPRET This involves calculating the rate of heat conduction through the stove top, given the stove’s
dimensions and the inside and outside temperatures.
DEVELOP Take the positive-x direction to be upward. We assume a steady flow of heat through the an area
A = 90 cm × 40 cm = 0.36 m 2 , with no flow through the edges. The rate of heat flow is given by Equation 16.5:
∆T
H = −k A
∆x
The temperature difference is ∆T = Toutside − Tinside = 295°C − 310°C = 15°C = −15 K (see Equation 16.1) and
∆x = xoutside − xinside = 0.0045 m.
EVALUATE From Table 16.2, we find the thermal conductivity of steel to be k = 46 W/(m·K). Thus, the rate of
heat conduction is
∆T ( −15 K ) = 55 kW
H = −k A
∆x
(
= − ⎡⎣ 46 W/ ( m ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ 0.36 m 2
0.0045 m
)
ASSESS The heat flow is positive, for x going from the inside of the stove to the outside, because the temperature
gradient, ∆ T /∆ x, is negative. This means that the thermal energy is flowing from the inside of the stove to the
outside of the stove.
32. INTERPRET You want to convince a client that Styrofoam is a very effective insulator.
DEVELOP You decide to compare the insulation of 2-inch Styrofoam to that of a concrete wall. Since the area
and temperature difference will be the same in both cases, you only need to consider the thermal resistance per unit
area, or R -factor of each wall, as defined in Equation 16.8: R = ∆x / k . From Table 16.2 the thermal conductivity
of Styrofoam and concrete are, respectively, kS = 0.029 W/m ⋅ K, and kc = 1 W/m ⋅ K.
EVALUATE In order for a concrete wall to have the same R -factor as 2-inch Styrofoam, its thickness must be:
k 1 W/m ⋅ K
∆ xc = c ∆ xS = ( 2 in ) = 69 in
kS 0.029 W/m ⋅ K
ASSESS One of the reasons Styrofoam is such a good insulator is that it is full of little air pockets, which have a
very low heat conductivity: kair = 0.026 W/m ⋅ K.
33. INTERPRET This problem involves calculating the rate of heat conduction through the concrete slab, given the
temperature difference between the two sides of the slab and the dimensions of the slab.
DEVELOP Take the downward direction as the positive-x direction. We assume a steady flow of heat through the
area A = 8.0 m × 12 m = 96 m 2 , with no flow through the edges. The rate of heat flow is given by Equation 16.5:
∆T
H = −k A
∆x
The temperature difference is ∆T = Toutside − Tinside = 10°C − 20°C = −10°C = −10 K (see Equation 16.1) and
∆x = xoutside − xinside = 0.23 m.
EVALUATE From Table 16.2, we find the thermal conductivity of concrete to be k = 1 W/(m·K). Thus, the rate of
heat conduction is
∆T ( −10K ) = 4 kW
H floor = − kA
∆x
(
= − ⎡⎣1 W/( m ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ 96 m 2
0.23 m
)
which is reported to a single significant figure because the thermal conductivity of concrete is given to one
significant figure.
16-6 Chapter 16
ASSESS The energy loss through the floor by conduction is substantial. That’s why carpeting can prevent heat
loss and keeps the house warm during winter season.
34. INTERPRET For this problem, we are to find the thermal resistance per unit area (the R factor) of a wall given
the temperature difference and the rate of heat flow.
DEVELOP Equation 16.5 for the rate of heat-flow per square foot through a slab, written in terms of the thermal
resistance of the slab (Equation 16.6), is H = −∆ T /R. Dividing each side by the area A and using Equation 16.8
( R = RA) gives
H ∆T ∆T
=− =−
A RA R
∆T
R=−
H A
Given that the heat flow per square meter is

2
H ⎛ 0.040 Btu ⎞ ⎛ 1 h ⎞⎛ 1 ft ⎞ ⎛ 1054 J ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 0.1261 W/m 2
A ⎜⎝ h ⋅ ft 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 3600 s ⎠⎝ 0.3048 m ⎠ ⎜⎝ Btu ⎟⎠
and
⎛5⎞ 5 5
∆ T = − 1 °F ⎜ ⎟ = − °C = − K
⎝9⎠ 9 9
where we have used ∆TF = 5∆TC/9 (see Problem 16.16), we can calculate R .
EVALUATE The R factor is
∆T 5K
R=− = = 4.4 m 2 ⋅ K/W
(
H A 9 0.1261 W/m 2 )
ASSESS There temperature difference is negative because the heat flow is in the direction of decreasing
temperature.
35. INTERPRET This problem is an exercise in calculating the R factors for various materials of 1-inch thickness.
DEVELOP The R-factor of a material is given by Equation 16.8:
∆x
R = RA =
k
where R is the thermal resistance and k is the thermal conductivity of a material having a thickness ∆x. We will
calculate the R factors in SI units, using ∆x = 1 in = 25.4 mm = 0.0254 m.
EVALUATE Using Table 16.2, with kair = 0. 026 W/ ( m ⋅ K ) for air, we have
0.0254 m
Rair = = 0.98 m 2 ⋅ K/W
0. 026 W/ ( m ⋅ K )
Similarly, with kconcrete = 1 , kfiberglass = 0. 042 kglass = 0.8 , kStyrofoam = 0. 029 and kpine = 0. 11 [all in units of
W/(m·K)], the R-factors are
0.0254 m
Rconcrete = = 0.03 m 2 ⋅ K/W
1 W/ ( m ⋅ K )
0.0254 m
Rfiberglass = = 0.60 m 2 ⋅ K/W
0.042 W/ ( m ⋅ K )
0.0254 m
Rglass = = 0.03 m 2 ⋅ K/W
0.8 W/ ( m ⋅ K )
0.0254 m
RStyrofoam = = 0.88 m 2 ⋅ K/W
0.029 W/ ( m ⋅ K )
0.0254 m
Rpine = = 0.23 m 2 ⋅ K/W
0.11 W/ ( m ⋅ K )
ASSESS The R-factor of a material is inversely proportional to the thermal conductivity. Good thermal insulators
such as Styrofoam or wood have large R-factors.
36. INTERPRET Given an object’s surface area and temperature, we are to find the rate of radiative heat loss. We will
use the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
DEVELOP The Stefan-Boltzmann law (Equation 16.9) for radiative power is P = eσ AT 4, where the Stefan-
( )
Boltzmann constant is σ = 5.67 × 10−8 W/ m 2 ⋅ K4 . The temperature of the horseshoe is T = 810°C = 1083 K
(see Equation 16.1) and the area is A = 50 cm 2 = 5.0 × 10−3 m 2 . We do not know the emissivity e, so we will
approximate it by e = 1.0.
EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities into the Stefan-Boltzmann law gives
( )( )
P = eσ AT 4 = (1.0 ) ⎡5.67 × 10−8 W/ m 2 ⋅ K 4 ⎤ 5.0 × 10−3 m 2 (1083 K ) = 390 W.
⎣ ⎦
4
ASSESS This is a bit more than a large indoor lamp. The radiative heat must be less than this because e ≤ 1, and
the heat loss would decrease linearly with e.
Section 16.4 Thermal-Energy Balance
37. INTERPRET This is an energy-balance problem involving a stove. We are given the energy loss per unit time per
degree temperature difference, and the temperature difference. Note that we are not given the heat-loss
mechanism(s), although we can assume it is primarily convection and radiation. We wish to find the rate of energy
loss, which by energy balance must be the power required to maintain the temperature.
DEVELOP The thermal energy leaving the oven is HT∆T, which must be balanced by the power P supplied to the
oven in order to maintain thermal-energy balance. We multiply the energy loss rate per degree by the temperature
difference in degrees. We can therefore write
P = HT∆T
EVALUATE Inserting HT = 14 W/°C and ∆T = (180°C − 20°C) = 160° C gives
P = (14 W/°C )(160°C ) = 2.2 kW
ASSESS 2 kW is a reasonable power requirement for an oven.
38. INTERPRET This is an energy-balance problem. You know the rate of energy loss per degree of temperature
difference between the inside and the outside of your house. You just need to calculate what the maximum loss
would be for the coldest winter days, and compare that to the power supplied by the heating system.
DEVELOP The coldest temperature difference will be ∆ T = 20 °C − ( −15 °C ) = 35 °C.
EVALUATE The heat loss rate in your house on the coldest days is
H = (1.3 kW/ °C )( 35 °C ) = 45.5 kW
No, you should not buy the 40kW heating system, since you need 5.5 kW more power.
ASSESS Instead of buying a more powerful heating system, it is often cost-effective to add more insulation to
reduce the heat-loss rate.
39. INTERPRET This problem involves radiative heat loss and the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
DEVELOP Apply the Stefan-Boltzmann law, Equation 16.9, which is P = eσ AT 4. The power is P = 100 W, the
temperature is T = 3000 K, and σ = 5.67 × 10−8 W/(m2·K4), so we can solve for the area A. We will assume that
the emissivity is e ≈ 1.
16-8 Chapter 16
EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities into the Stefan-Boltzmann law gives
P = eσ AT 4
P 100 W
A= = = 2 × 10−5 m 2
eσ T 4 − 8
( )
(1) ⎡⎣5.67 × 10 W/ m2 ⋅ K 4 ⎤⎦ ( 3000 K )
4
ASSESS This is about 20 square millimeters, which seems reasonable for the total area of a light bulb filament.
40. INTERPRET We want to find the net radiation from a human body.
DEVELOP The Stefan-Boltzmann law tells us the rate of radiation emitted by an object of area A and temperature
T: P = eσ AT 4 . But this is also the rate radiation is absorbed by this object from its surroundings at ambient
temperature, Tamb . These temperatures have to be expressed in Kelvin, so T = 33 °C+273 = 306 K, and
Tamb = 18°C+273 = 291 K.
EVALUATE Since the power emitted is a loss of heat, we’ll treat it as negative, whereas power absorbed is
positive. We’re told to treat the body as a perfect emitter/absorber ( e = 1) , so the body’s net radiation transfer is
(
Pnet = eσ A Tamb
4
−T4 )
( )(
⎣
4
)
= (1) 5.67 × 10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4 1.4m 2 ⎡( 291K ) − ( 306K ) ⎤ = −130 W
4
ASSESS Over the course of a day, this radiation loss corresponds to about 2600 kilocalories. This is an
overestimate since wearing clothes will affect the energy balance by keeping a warm air buffer next to the body.
PROBLEMS
41. INTERPRET This problem is about finding the pressure at different temperatures, given its pressure at a reference
temperature and that the volume is held constant.
DEVELOP For a constant-volume system, the pressure will be linear in temperature (see Figure 16.3). Therefore,
we can write
p pref ⎛ T ⎞
= ⇒ p=⎜ ⎟ pref
T Tref ⎝ Tref ⎠
If we use the given values at the normal melting point of ice, then the pressure-temperature relationship is
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ 101 kPa ⎞
p=⎜ ⎟ pref = T ⎜ ⎟
T
⎝ ref ⎠ ⎝ 273.15 K ⎠
EVALUATE (a) When the temperature is the normal boiling point of water T = 100°C = 373.15 K, the pressure is
⎛ 101 kPa ⎞
p = ( 373.15 K ) ⎜ ⎟ = 138 kPa
⎝ 273.15 K ⎠
(b) If the temperature is the normal boiling point of oxygen (90.2 K), then
⎛ 101 kPa ⎞
p = ( 90.2 K ) ⎜ ⎟ = 33.4 kPa
⎝ 273.15 K ⎠
(c) If the temperature is the normal boiling point of mercury (630 K), then
⎛ 101 kPa ⎞
p = ( 630 K ) ⎜ ⎟ = 233 kPa
⎝ 273.15 K ⎠
ASSESS These results hold only if the volume is held constant while the temperature varies.
42. INTERPRET This problem involves the change in pressure for a constant-volume system that changes in
temperature, given the initial pressure and temperature and the temperature change.
DEVELOP Because this is a constant-volume process, we known from Figure 16.3 that pressure and temperature
are linearly related, so we can write
dp
p = p0 + T
dT
where dp/dT is the slope of the curve. Because the pressure is zero when the temperature is zero, p0 = 0. The slope
of the curve is then just the ratio of pressure to temperature at any point, which is constant, which we can obtain
from the given pressure and temperature of the triple point of water:
ptriple
= constant
Ttriple
where ptriple = 55 kPa and Ttriple = 273.16 K. Thus, the change in pressure is
ptriple
p =T
Ttriple
EVALUATE For a one-Kelvin change in temperature (T = 1 K), the pressure will change by
55 kPa
p = (1 K ) = 2.0 × 102 Pa/K
273.16 K
ASSESS The result is reported to two significant figures to reflect the precision of the data.
43. INTERPRET In this problem, we are asked to calculate the boiling point of SO2, given the height difference
between the liquid levels in a constant-volume gas thermometer.
DEVELOP The thermometric equation for an ideal constant-volume gas thermometer is (see Problem 16.39)
⎛ T ⎞
p=⎜ ⎟ pref
⎝ Tref ⎠
where T is measured in the Kelvin scale. Since the pressure in the constant-volume gas thermometer shown is
proportional to h, the temperature of the boiling point of SO2 is
p h
T = T3 = T3
p3 h3
EVALUATE From the equation above, we find the boiling point of SO2 to be
⎛ 57.8 mm ⎞
T = ( 273.16 K ) ⎜ ⎟ = 263 K = − 10.0 °C
⎝ 60.0 mm ⎠
ASSESS For a constant-volume gas thermometer, p/T is constant. Since pressure can be measured in mm of
mercury ( p = ρ gh) , it is also true that h/T is constant.
44. INTERPRET This problem involves calculating the minimum work done climbing a mountain, which is work
done against gravity. We are then to convert this energy to kcal.
DEVELOP The work done against gravity is W = mgh (Equation 7.3), which gives the result in joules. To convert
this to kcal use the conversion factor 1 kcal = 4.184 kJ (Appendix C).
EVALUATE The minimum number of Calories Q burned off climbing the mountain is
⎛ 1 kcal ⎞
( )
Q = ( 60 kg ) 9.8 m/s 2 (1700 m ) ⎜ ⎟ = 240 kcal
⎝ 4.184 kJ ⎠
ASSESS Much more energy than this is required in reality due to the many loss mechanisms, such as friction,
slippage, etc.
45. INTERPRET This problem involves calculating the amount of energy a body uses to run a marathon and,
assuming that fat is converted to energy with 100% efficiency, converting this energy to an equivalent mass of fat.
DEVELOP The energy expended in running a marathon for a person with the given mass is
∆ Q = (125 kcal/mi )( 26.2 mi ) = 3.28 × 103 kcal
Knowing the amount of energy per gram of fat allows us to answer the question.
16-10 Chapter 16
EVALUATE Since typical fats contain about 9 kcal per gram, ∆Q is equivalent to the energy content of
3.28 × 103 kcal
= 364 g
9 kcal/g
or about 13 oz of fat.
ASSESS Running a marathon is a good way to burn the fat stored in the body.
46. INTERPRET This problem involves calculating the temperature rise in the lake due to the given power input from
the Sun. We are to assume that all the Sun’s power is absorbed by the lake water, so the energy absorbed will go to
raising the temperature via Equation 16.3.
DEVELOP The energy absorbed by the lake water is Q = PT∆t, so ∆t = Q/PT (where the total power PT = PA, with
P = 200 W/m2 and A = πr2). From Equation 16.3, a rise in the temperature of the lake water from 10°C to 20°C
requires an energy Q = mc∆T, where ∆T = 10°C, c = 4184 J/kg, and m = πAd with ρ = 1.0 × 103 kg/m3 and
d = 10 m.
EVALUATE Inserting the expression for Q and PT into the expression for ∆t gives
Q mc∆T ρ dAc∆ T ρ dc∆ T
∆t = = = =
PT PA PA P
=
(1.0 × 10 3
)
kg/m3 (10 m )( 4184 J/ kg⋅ K )(10 C° )
= 2.09 × 106 s = 24.2 d
200 W/m 2
ASSESS Checking the units of this expression, we find that they work out to be units of time (i.e., s), as expected.
47. INTERPRET We are interested in the energy needed to raise the temperature of a system. We can solve this
problem using the specific heat of the given substances.
DEVELOP The energy Q required to increase the temperature by ∆T is given by Equation 16.3: Q = mc∆ T ,
where c is the specific heat and m is the mass of the material. The specific heats of some common materials can be
found in Table 16.1.
EVALUATE (a) When just the pan is heated, with cCu = 386 J/( kg ⋅ K ) , the energy required is
∆ Q = mCu cCu ∆ T = ( 0.8 kg ) ⎡⎣386 J/( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ ( 90 K − 15 K ) = 23.2 kJ
(b) If the pan contains water and both are heated between the same temperatures, we then have
( )
∆ Q = mCu cCu + mH2 OcH2 O ∆T = 23.2 kJ + (1.0 kg ) ⎡⎣ 4184 J/( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ ( 75 K ) = 337 kJ
(c) With mHg = 4 kg of mercury replacing the water,

( )
∆ Q = mCu cCu + mHg cHg ∆T = 23.2 kJ + ( 4.0 kg ) ⎡⎣140 J/( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ ( 75 K ) = 65.2 kJ
ASSESS The energy required is proportional to the specific heat c. In this problem,
cHg ⎡⎣140 J/ ( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ < cCu ⎡⎣386 J/( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ < cH2 O ⎡⎣ 4184 J/( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦
48. INTERPRET This problem involves finding the specific heat of an unknown substance.
DEVELOP Because the heat energy transferred to both substances is the same, ∆ Q = mw cw ∆Tw = mx cx ∆ Tx , or
⎛ m ⎞⎛∆T ⎞ ⎛∆ T ⎞
cx = cw ⎜ w ⎟⎜ w ⎟ = cw ⎜ w ⎟
m ∆ T
⎝ x ⎠⎝ x ⎠ ⎝∆Tx ⎠
where the final equality comes from the fact that we are considering equal masses of water and unknown
substance.
EVALUATE (a) Inserting the given quantities in the expression above gives
⎛ 32 °C − 20 °C ⎞
cx = ⎣⎡ 4184 J/ ( kg⋅ K ) ⎦⎤ ⎜ ⎟ = 900 J/ ( kg⋅ K )
⎝ 76 °C − 20°C ⎠
which is the value listed in Table 16.1 for aluminum.
(b) The rate of heating is ∆ Q ∆ t = mw cw ∆Tw ∆ t = ( 0.10 kg ) ⎡⎣ 4184 J/ ( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ (12 K ) ( 60 s ) = 84 W .

ASSESS Notice that, for part (a), the difference in degrees Celsius is the same as Kelvin (see Equation 16.1).
49. INTERPRET You wish to know how long it will take a microwave to heat a cup of water to the boiling
temperature.
DEVELOP The heat needed to bring the water to the point of boiling can be found with Equation 16.3:
Q = mc∆ T , where c = 4184 J/kg ⋅ K from Table 16.1. The mass of 330 mL of water can be found from the density:
ρ = 1 g/cm3 = 1 g/mL. The temperature change is ∆ T = 100 °C − 10 °C = 90 °C. Note: We don’t have to convert to
Kelvin, since the change in degrees Celsius is the same as the change in Kelvin. The time it takes the water to
absorb this much heat comes from the energy divided by the power.
EVALUATE The time to heat the water to the boiling temperature is
Q ρVc∆ T (1 g/mL )( 330 mL )( 4184 J/kg ⋅ K )( 90 K )
t= = = = 138 s
P P ( 900 W )
ASSESS A little over two minutes to bring the water to boil sounds about right.
50. INTERPRET This problem involves calculating the time it takes to heat an object given its specific heat, its mass,
and the power supplied.
DEVELOP Apply Equation 16.3, Q = mc∆T to find the energy required to heat each house. The time it will take
for the furnace to supply this energy is ∆t = Q/P = mc∆T/P.
EVALUATE The time required to heat the stone house is
mc∆ T ( 75 tons × 2000 lb/ton )( 0.20 Btu/lb ⋅ °F )( 30°F )
∆t = = = 9.0 h
P 1.0 × 105 Btu/h
The time required to heat the wood house is
mc∆T (15 tons × 2000 lb/ton )( 0.33 Btu/lb ⋅ °F )( 30°F )
∆t = = = 3.0 h
P 1.0 × 105 Btu/h
ASSESS Although the English units involve weight instead of mass, the units cancel to give units of time, as
expected.
51. INTERPRET You want to compare the rate at which water is heated by a microwave in a paper cup to on a
stovetop in a pan. The hitch is that the stovetop has to heat the pan too.
DEVELOP The temperature rise per second is equal to the heat absorbed per second divided by the heat capacity:
∆T Q / Ctot P
= =
∆t ∆t Ctot
where P is the average power supplied, and Ctot = CH2 O + Ccnt is the total heat capacity from both the water and the
container. This assumes that the water and container both have the same instantaneous temperature. The water’s
heat capacity is CH2 O = mc, where c = 4184 J/kg ⋅ K from Table 16.1. For the paper cup used in the microwave oven,
Ccnt ≈ 0, whereas for the pan used on the stove burner, Ccnt = 1.4 kJ/K.
EVALUATE If you equate the rates at which the temperatures rise,
Pmicro Pstove
=
mc mc + Ccnt
16-12 Chapter 16
You can then solve for the mass:
m=
Ccnt / c
=
(1.4 kJ/K ) / ( 4.184 kJ/kg ⋅ K ) = 0.56 kg
Pstove / Pmicro − 1 (1000W ) / ( 625W ) − 1
ASSESS This is a little over half a liter. Your own experience may confirm this. For heating a cup of tea, the
microwave oven seems to work faster. But for heating a big bowl of soup, the stove will take less time.
52. INTERPRET This problem involves calculating the time it takes a raise the temperature of a given mass of water a
given amount, knowing the power input. We can use the specific heat of water to solve this problem.
DEVELOP The rate at which heat is supplied (i.e., the power) to the water by the shut-down reactor is
P = Q/∆t = 10% × 3 GW = 300 MW. The energy Q needed to raise a mass m of water from 20°C to 100°C is
given by Equation 16.3, Q = mc∆T. Combining these expressions, we can solve for ∆t.
( )(
EVALUATE For ∆ T = 100 °C − 20 °C = 80 K and mc = 420 m3 1.0 × 103 kg/m3 = 4.2 × 105 kg, one finds )
Q mc∆T
∆t = =
P P
=
( 4.2 ×10 5
)
kg ⎡⎣ 4184 J/( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ (80 K )
= 469 s = 7.8 min
300 MW
ASSESS This does not give you much time!

53. INTERPRET Given the power output of the stove and the amount of time it takes to heat up the water, we want to
know how much water is in the kettle. This problem involves specific heat.
DEVELOP The energy supplied by the stove burner heats the kettle and the water in it from 20°C to 100°C, so ∆T
= 80 K. If we neglect any heat losses and the heat capacity of the burner, this energy is just the burner’s power
output times the time:
∆ Q = P ∆ t = ( mw cw + mK cK )∆ T
This equation can be used to solve for mw.

EVALUATE Since all of these quantities are given except for the mass of the water, we can solve for mw:
1 ⎛ P∆t ⎞ 1 ⎛ ( 2.0 kW )( 5.4 × 60 s ) ⎞
mw = ⎜ − mK cK ⎟ = ⎜⎜ − (1.2 kg ) ⎡⎣ 447 J/ ( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ ⎟
⎠ 4184 J/ ( kg ⋅ K ) ⎝
⎟
cw ⎝ ∆T 80 K ⎠
= 1.8 kg
ASSESS We find that mw is proportional to ∆t. This makes sense because the more water in the kettle, the more
time we would expect it takes to heat up the water.
54. INTERPRET We’re asked to calculate the time it takes for an ear thermometer to collect enough energy from the
radiative heat coming from a small area on the ear drum.
DEVELOP The eardrum will radiate heat according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law from Equation 16.9:
P = eσ AT 4 , where it’s important to remember that the temperature must be in Kelvin:
T = 37 °C + 273 = 310 K. The time it takes the thermometer to collect enough energy for a reading will be
t = E / P.
EVALUATE We’ll assume the ear drum is a perfect emitter with e = 1.
100 μJ
t= = 0.19 s
(
(1) 5.67 × 10 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4 1mm 2 ( 310K )
−8
)(4
)
ASSESS How much faster would the reading be for someone with a fever of 40 °C? In fact, only one hundredth of
a second faster.
55. INTERPRET The objects of interest are the steel disks of the disk brakes. The problem deals with transformation
of energy from the kinetic energy of the car to the thermal energy of the brake disks, which we can calculate
knowing the specific heat of the disk-brake material.
DEVELOP By energy conservation, the loss of kinetic energy of the car is equal to the thermal energy gained by
the four brakes:
1
Q = ∆K ⇒ 4mbrakec ∆T = mcar v 2
2
EVALUATE From the equation above, with v = 40 km/h = 11.1 m/s, the change of temperature is
(1500 kg )(11.1 m/s ) = 9.2 K

2
mcar v 2/2
∆T = =
4mbrakec 8 (5 .0 kg ) ⎡⎣502 J/ (kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦
ASSESS This is a big increase in temperature. The brakes can get very hot depending on how fast the car was
moving initially.
56. INTERPRET This problem involves the specific heat of a liquid, which we can use to calculate the equilibrium
temperature of the child’s cocoa after adding the given quantity of milk at the given temperature.
DEVELOP If the specific heats are the same, Equation 16.4 reduces to mc (T − Tc ) + mm (T − Tm ) = 0, where
Tm = 3°C and Tc = 90°C are the original temperatures of the cocoa and milk, respectively. Solving for T, we find
⎡m T + mmTm ⎦⎤
T =⎣ c c
mc + mm
EVALUATE If “ounce” means avoir du pois, the masses of milk and cocoa are proportional to the weights given,
and
6 × 90 °C + 2 × 3 °C
T= = 70 °C
6+2
to a single significant figure.
ASSESS More commonly, “ounce” means fluid ounce, a volume, but the assumption of equal densities for cocoa
and milk gives us the same result.
57. INTERPRET Our system consists of two materials, water and copper, which are initially at different temperatures.
They are brought together and reach a thermal equilibrium. We want to find the mass of the copper, for which we
can use the specific heat of copper.
DEVELOP Let us assume that all the heat lost by the copper is gained by the water, with no heat transfer to the
container or its surroundings. Then −QCu = Qw (as in Example 16.2). Expressing each side of this equation using
Equation 16.3, we find
− mCu cCu (T − TCu ) = mw cw (T − Tw )
The specific heats of copper and water can be found in Table 16.1.
EVALUATE Expressing all the temperatures in the Kelvin scale and solving for mCu, one finds
mw cw (T − Tw ) (1.0 kg ) ⎣⎡ 4184 J/( kg ⋅ K ) ⎦⎤ ( 298 K − 293 K )
mCu = = = 0.20 kg
cCu (TCu − T ) ⎡⎣386 J/( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ ( 573 K − 298 K )
ASSESS Since the water has much greater mass and higher specific heat, its temperature change is less compared
to copper.
58. INTERPRET You want to know how long it will take your camping stove to bring water to a boil, given the
formula for the heat flowing into the water as a function of time.
DEVELOP You can integrate the given power, P, to find the total heat that the water has absorbed. You can then
equate that to the amount of energy needed to bring the water up to 100°C using Equation 16.3: Q = mc∆ T , where
c = 4184 J/kg ⋅ K for water. From this, you can solve for the boiling time.
16-14 Chapter 16
EVALUATE The heat absorbed by the water over a given time is:
Q = ∫ P ( t ′ ) dt ′ = at + 12 bt 2 = (1.1kW ) t + (1.15W/s ) t 2
t
You want to know how long until this absorbed heat changes the water temperature by
∆ T = 100 °C − 10 °C = 90 °C.
Q = mc∆ T = ( 2.5 kg )( 4184 J/kg ⋅ K )( 90 K ) = 941 kJ
This requires solving a quadratic equation with the quadratic formula from Appendix A:
− (1100 W ) + (1100 W ) + 4 (1.15W/s )( 941 kJ )
2
t= = 545 s ≈ 9 min
2 (1.15W/s )
ASSESS There’s 2.5 L of water to boil, so 9 minutes sounds about right.

59. INTERPRET This problem involves the thermal resistance of a material, which we can use to calculate the rate of
heat lost through the material given the temperature difference between the different sides of the material.
DEVELOP The total surface area (sides, top, and bottom) of the cooler is
A = 2 ( 3.0 × 2.0 + 3.0 × 2.3 + 2.0 × 2.3) m 2 = 35 m 2 . A thickness of 8 cm of Styrofoam of this area has a thermal
resistance of R = Dx/(kA) (Equation 16.6), and the heat-flow Equation 16.7 gives
∆T ∆T
P=H = = kA
R ∆x
EVALUATE Using k = 0.029 W/(m·K) from Table 16.2 gives
∆T ( 0.029 ) ( 35 m 2 ) ( 20°C − 4.0°C )
P = kA = = 2.0 × 102 W
∆x 0.080 m
ASSESS The power requires is equivalent to about three 60-W light bulbs.
60. INTERPRET This problem is about conductive heat flow. We want to find the heat flow rate along an iron rod.
Note that the rod is insulated so no heat is lost out through the sides of the rod, only through the ends of the rod.
DEVELOP We assume a uniform variation of temperature along the length of the rod and no heat-flow through its
sides. The heat flow rate is given by Equation 16.5:
∆T
H = −kA
∆x
If we let the origin of our coordinates system be at the hot-water end of the rod, we have ∆x = xcold − xhot = 0.40 m
and ∆T = Tcold − Thot = 0°C − 100°C = −100 K.
EVALUATE Entering the numerical values, we get
∆T 2 ⎛ −100 K ⎞
H = −kA = − ⎡⎣80.4 W/ (m ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦π (0.015 m ) ⎜ ⎟ = 14 W
∆x ⎝ 0.4 0 m ⎠
to two significant figures. Here, the minus sign signifies a heat-flow from the hot to the cold.
ASSESS The flow rate H increases with the temperature gradient, ∆T/∆x. With our choice of coordinate system,
the fact that H > 0 signifies that the heat flows from the hot water to the cold water, as expected.
61. INTERPRET You want to see if the power output from the party guests can compensate for the heat-loss from the house.
DEVELOP Combined, the 36 people will generate 3600 W of heat. The house will be in energy balance when the
inside temperature results in a heat loss that matches what the people produce:
Ploss = ( 320 W/ °C )(Tinside − 8 °C ) = Ppeople = 3600 W
EVALUATE Solving for the inside temperature

3600 W
Tinside = 8 °C + = 19 °C
320 W/ °C
This is equal to about 66°F, which means the house will remain at a comfortable temperature.
ASSESS If you wanted the house even a little warmer, you could ask some of the people to do a little light
exercise to generate more than a 100 W of heat.
62. INTERPRET This problem involves thermal energy balance. The heat source is the electric stove and the main
heat loss mechanism is radiation (we ignore convection).
DEVELOP From the Stefan-Boltzmann law (Equation 16.9), the net power radiated (emitted at T1, absorbed at T2) is
(
P = eσ A T 14 − T 24 )
EVALUATE Inserting the given quantities in the expression above, we find
(
P = eσ A T 14 − T 24 )
( )( )
= (1.0 ) ⎡5.67 × 10−8 W/ m 2 ⋅ K 4 ⎤ 3.25 × 10−2 m 2 ( 300 K ) 34 − 1 = 1200 W
⎣ ⎦
4
( )
which is 80% of the input power of 1500 W.
ASSESS The actual power loss will be greater than this because of heat loss due to convection.
63. INTERPRET This problem involves thermal energy balance. The source of power is the electric current that heats
the wire, and the loss mechanism is by radiation for part (a), and by thermal energy conduction for part (b).
DEVELOP The strip is in energy balance between the input power and the net power radiated [the only transfer
mechanism available for part (a)]. Thus, according to Equation 16.9,
(
Pin = Prad = eσ A T 14 − T 24 )
where Pin = 50 W and
(
A = 2 ⎡⎣( 0.50 )( 5.0 ) + ( 0.010 )( 5.5) + ( 0.50 )( 0.010 ) ⎤⎦ cm3 = 5.12 × 10−4 m 2 . )
This equation allows us to determine the temperature of the strip, T1. For part (b)
, the input power is the same, but the output heat loss is only through thermal conduction, so
T2 − T1
Pin = H = −
R
EVALUATE (a) Inserting the given quantities into the energy-balance equation above gives
1/ 4
⎛1/ 4 ⎞
⎛ P ⎞ 50 W
T1 = ⎜ in + T 24 ⎟ =⎜ + (300 K) 4 ⎟ = 1147 K ≈ 1.1 × 103 K to
⎝ eσ A ⎠
⎝ ⎦ (
⎜⎜ 1.0 ⎡5.67 × 10−8 W/ m 2 ⋅ K 4 ⎤ 5.12 × 10−4 m 2
( )⎣ )( ⎟⎟
⎠ )
two significant figures.
(b) Solving the equation above for part (b) for the temperature T1 gives
T1 = T2 + RPin = 300 K + ( 8.0 K/W )( 50 W ) = 700 K
ASSESS We get a higher temperature of the strip when heat transfer is caused by radiation than by conduction. At
these temperatures, conduction transfers more thermal energy than radiation. However, radiation dominates at
higher temperatures because of its T4 dependence.
64. INTERPRET A sleeping bag is like the insulation in the walls of a house. It doesn’t generate heat, but it slows the
rate at which heat leaves your body. You want to check if a certain sleeping bag really can keep you warm at the
minimum temperature that its manufacture specifies.
DEVELOP If the outside temperature is –10°F (or –23°C) , there will be a temperature difference of 60°C between the
inside and outside of the sleeping bag. We can find the conductive heat flow using Equation 16.5: H = −kA∆ T / ∆ x, where
16-16 Chapter 16
the thermal conductivity of goose down is given in Table 16.2: k = 0.043 W/m 2 ⋅ K. If this heat loss is greater than
the 100 W that your body produces, then you will feel cold.
EVALUATE Assuming the sleeping bag conforms to your body, it will have essentially the same surface area as
you. The heat flow through the bag is then
∆T 60 °C
H = −kA
∆x
(
= − 0.043 W/m 2 ⋅ K 1.5 m 2
0.040 m
= 97 W)( )
The heat loss is less than what your body produces, so you will be able to maintain normal body temperature when
the outside temperature drops to –10°F.
ASSESS The heat loss is actually 3W less than what your body produces, so you may start to feel a little too warm
in the bag. In actuality, though, your body can regulate how much heat it makes.
65. INTERPRET Our system consists of two materials, water and an iron horseshoe, which are initially at different
temperatures. They are brought together and reach a thermal equilibrium. We want to find the equilibrium
temperature.
DEVELOP Let us assume that all the heat lost by the horseshoe is gained by the water, with no heat transfer to the
container or its surroundings. In this case, −QFe = Qw (as in Example 16.2). Using Equation 16.4 gives
− mFecFe (T − TFe ) = mw cw (T − Tw )
The specific heats of copper and water can be found in Table 16.1.
EVALUATE Solving for T, one finds
mFecFeTFe + mw cwTw
T=
mFecFe + mw cw
(1.1 kg ) ⎡⎣0.107 kcal/ ( kg ⋅ °C )⎤⎦ ( 550 °C ) + (15 kg ) ⎡⎣1.0 kcal/ ( kg ⋅ °C )⎤⎦ ( 20°C )
= = 24 °C
(1.1 kg ) ⎡⎣0.107 kcal/ ( kg ⋅ °C )⎤⎦ + (15 kg ) ⎡⎣(1.0 kcal/kg ⋅ °C )⎤⎦
ASSESS The change of water temperature is ∆ Tw = T − Tw = 24.1 °C − 20°C = 4.1 °C, while the change of
temperature of the iron horseshoe is |∆TFe| = 525.9 °C. Because there is more water (by mass) and it has a much
higher specific heat, its temperature changes less compared to the horseshoe.
66. INTERPRET The problem asks for the power output of a microwave given the time it takes to boil a certain
quantity of water.
DEVELOP If we assume microwave is 100% efficient, then all the energy it produced in the given time, P∆ t , will
be used heat the water: Q = mc∆ T .
EVALUATE Solving for the power gives
mc∆ T ( 0.43 kg )( 4184 J/kg ⋅ K )(100 °C − 20 °C )
P= = = 960 W
∆t 2.5 ⋅ 60 s
ASSESS This is about the typical power for a microwave oven. But in reality some of the power is lost, heating
the container or the oven walls.
67. INTERPRET This problem is about the radiation emitted by a burning log. Given its emissivity and its radiating
power, we are to calculate its temperature.
DEVELOP If we neglect the radiation absorbed by the log from its environment (which should be negligible
because the temperature of the log is much, much greater than room temperature), then the net power radiated by
the log is just that given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law (Equation 16.9): P = eσ AT 4 . Knowing the surface area of
the log allows us to determine T.
EVALUATE The surface area of the log is
A = π dL + πd 2 2 = π d (L + d 2 ) = π (0.15 m )(0.65 m + 0.075 m ) = 0.342 m 2
Solving for T, we find

1/ 4
1/ 4 ⎛ ⎞
⎛ P ⎞ 34 × 103 W
T =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 1. 2 × 103 K
⎝ eσ A ⎠
⎝⎣ ⎦( ) (
⎜⎜ ⎡5.67 × 10−8 W/ m 2 ⋅ K 4 ⎤ 0.342 m 2
) ⎟⎟
⎠
ASSESS When a burning log is glowing red hot, its temperature is above 1000°C. If the temperature continues to
rise, its color will turn orange, then yellow, then white when it emits over a broad range of visible wavelengths.
68. INTERPRET This problem involves blackbody radiation. Given a star’s surface temperature and its radiating
power, we are asked to calculate the radius of the star.
DEVELOP Apply the Stefan-Boltzmann law, Equation 16.9, P = eσAT4. The surface area of the star is A = 4πr2,
so we can solve for its radius r. If the star behaves as a blackbody, its emissivity is e = 1.0.
EVALUATE Solving the Stefan-Boltzmann law for the radius gives
1 P 1 3.4 × 1030 W
r=± = = 4.1 × 109 m.
T2 4π eσ (
2.3 × 104 K )
2
⎣ (
4 π (1.0 ) ⎡5.67 × 10−8 W/ m 2 ⋅ K 4 ⎤
⎦ )
ASSESS The two signs for the radius indicate that the radius may be measured in either the positive or the
negative direction.
69. INTERPRET This problem is about the heat loss through various structural parts of the house via conduction.
DEVELOP Follow the approach outlined in Example 16.4. By Equation 16.8, 16.6, and 16.5, the heat-flow rate is
related to the R-factor as
∆T ∆T ∆T
H = −kA = −A = −A
∆x ∆ x/k R
The window area here is Awindow = 10 (2.5 ft × 5.0 ft ) = 125 ft 2 , and the wall area is 125-ft2 less than in Example
16.4, or Awalls = 1506 ft 2 −125 ft 2 = 1381 ft 2 . Thus, the heat lost through these structural parts are:
⎛ 1 Btu ⎞
H walls = ⎜
12.37 h ⋅ ft 2
⋅ °F
2
( )
⎟ 1381 ft ( 50°F ) = 5583 Btu/h
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 1 Btu ⎞
H roof = ⎜
31.37 h ⋅ ft 2
⋅ °F
2
( )
⎟ 1164 ft ( 50 °F ) = 1855 Btu/h
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 1 Btu ⎞ ⎛ Btu ⎞
H windows = ⎜ (
⎟ 125 ft ( 50°F ) − 4 ⎜ 30
3
)
h ⋅ ft 2 ⎠⎟
(
12.5 ft 2 = 5444 Btu/h )
⎝ 0.90 h ⋅ ft ⋅ °F ⎠
2
⎝
where we have included the heat gain by solar energy (= 1500 Btu/h) in Hwindows. Thus, the rate of thermal energy
loss from the entire house is
H total = (5583 + 1855 + 5444 ) Btu/h = 12.88 × 103 Btu/h
EVALUATE (a) The monthly fuel bill is

(12.88 ×10 3
) ( )
Btu/h ( 24 × 30 h/mo ) 1 gal/105 Btu ( $3.48/gal ) = $319/mo

(b) The solar gain from the south windows is worth
(1500 Btu/h )( 24 × 30 h/mo ) (1 gal/105 Btu ) ( $3.48/gal ) = $37.58/ mo
ASSESS This is an expensive fuel bill. You probably would want to improve the insulation.
70. INTERPRET This problem involves heat transfer by conduction through the wall of the stove, and heat transfer by
radiation for the stove radiating heat into the environment. We are asked to find the rate of heat conduction through
the walls of the stove, the rate of heat loss by radiation from the stove, and the total rate of heat loss into the
environment by the combination of conduction and convection.
16-18 Chapter 16
DEVELOP If we assume steady one-dimensional heat-flow across the thickness of the stove, Equation 16.5 gives
∆T
H = − kA = Pstove
∆x
which is the heat transfer by conduction through the wall of the stove. For part (b), if we ignore the power
absorbed by the stove from its surroundings and assume its emissivity is e = 1, the Stefan-Boltzmann law
(Equation 16.9) gives Prad = σ AT 4 which is the heat transfer by radiation from the stove to its environment. Finally,
for part (c) we apply the concepts of thermal energy balance. The source of power is the stove, whose power is
found in part (a). The two loss mechanisms are the loss by radiation, which we find in part (b), and the loss by
convection. Equating the sources and the losses of power (by the demands of thermal energy balance), we find
Pstove = Prad + Pconv
which we can solve for Pconv.
EVALUATE (a) Inserting the given quantities into the expression for heat transfer by conduction gives
∆T ⎛ 647°C − 650 °C ⎞
Pstove = −k A
∆x
(
= − ⎡⎣ 80.4 W/( m ⋅ K) ⎤⎦ 4.6 m 2 ⎜ ) −3
⎝ 4.0 × 10 m ⎠
⎟ = 277.38 kW = 280 kW

(b) The power lost by radiation is
( )( )
Prad = σ AT 4 = ⎡5.67 × 10−8 W/ m 2 ⋅ K 4 ⎤ 4.6 m 2 ( 647 + 273) K 4 = 186.85 kW = 190 kW
⎣ ⎦
4
(c) The power lost by convection is

Pconv = Pstove − Prad = 277.38 kW − 186.85 kW = 91 kW
ASSESS Notice that we use the intermediate results to calculate part (c). Had we used the final results, we would
have obtained an incorrect result.
71. INTERPRET This problem is about radiation received by Pluto from the Sun. Treating Pluto as a blackbody, we
want to find its average surface temperature.
DEVELOP Pluto receives energy from the Sun at a rate of I S = 0.876W/m 2 . If we assume that Pluto absorbs the
( )
fraction of radiation falling on its cross-sectional area Acs = π RP2 , then Pluto’s heat input from the Sun is
Pin = I S (π R ). It will be radiating away this heat, according to Stefan Boltzmann’s law: Pout = eσ AT 4 , where the
2
P
area in this case is the total surface area, A = 4π RP2 . The surface temperature, T, will settle to a value where the
outgoing radiation matches the incoming radiation.
EVALUATE Equating the two powers gives the following for the surface temperature:
1/ 4
⎛ I ⎞
1/ 4 ⎛ 0.876W/m 2 ⎞
T =⎜ S ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 44 K
⎝ 4σ ⎠ (
⎜ 4 5.67 × 10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4
⎝ ) ⎟
⎠
ASSESS Astronomers have recently estimated the temperature on Pluto to be about 43 K, so this answer is in
agreement with that. One effect that we didn’t account for is Pluto’s albedo, that is, how much of the incoming
sunlight gets reflected away instead of absorbed.
72. INTERPRET In this problem you are asked to analyze the data of the temperature of a sample of water as a
function of time heated in a microwave oven, and deduce the power of the oven.
DEVELOP Let the energy output of the microwave oven be U = P∆t. The heat absorbed by water is given by
Equation 16.3 Q = mc∆ T , where m = 0.500 kg is the mass of the water sample, c = 4184 J/(kg·K) is the specific
heat of water (from Table 16.1), and ∆T is the temperature change. Assuming that all the microwave energy goes
into heating the water, we have Q = U , or mc∆T = P∆ t. This implies
∆T P
=
∆ t mc
The slope of ∆T versus time is P/mc, which can then be used to determine P.
EVALUATE The plot is shown below.
The slope is P/mc = 0.436, so the power of the microwave oven is

P = ( 0.436 K/s )( 0.500 kg )( 4184 J/kg ⋅ K ) = 912 J/s = 912 W
ASSESS This is about the typical power for a microwave oven. But in reality some of the power is lost, heating
the container or the oven walls.
73. INTERPRET This is a heat-capacity problem, but with a heat capacity that changes with temperature. We can
solve for the heat Q by integrating over T.
DEVELOP The mass is given as m = 1.00 kg and, from Equation 16.3, we have dQ = mcdT. The specific heat is c
2
= c0 + aT + bT . We can thus integrate from T1 = 0 °C to T2 = 100°C to find Q.
EVALUATE (a) Performing the integration gives
T T 100
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
( )
2
Q = ∫ mc (T )dT = m ∫ c0 + aT + bT 2 dT = m ⎢c0T + aT 2 + bT 3 ⎥
T1 T ⎣ 2 3 ⎦0
b
= 100c0 + 5000a + 106 = 418.76 kJ
3
(b) With constant specific heat c = 4184 J/kg ⋅ K, the heat required would be
Q0 = mc∆ T = (1.00 kg )( 4184 J/kg ⋅ K ) (100 K) = 418.4 kJ
The difference is ∆ Q = Q − Q0 = 0.36 kJ, or about (0.36 kJ)/(418.4 kJ) ≈ 0.09% higher than that using a constant
specific heat.
ASSESS The fact that specific heat tends to increase with temperature is due to the increasing number of excited
degrees of freedom (see Chapter 18) that require more energy to cause the same temperature increase.
74. INTERPRET This is a heat-capacity problem, but with a heat capacity that changes with temperature. We can
solve for the heat Q by integrating over T.
DEVELOP The mass is given as m = 40 g and, from Equation 16.3, we have dQ = mcdT. The specific heat is
c = 31(T/343 K)3 J/(g·K). We can thus integrate from T1 = 10 K to T2 = 25 K to find Q.
EVALUATE Performing the integration gives
T 3 3 T 3 T
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ 31 J ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 31 J ⎞ 3 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 31 J ⎞ ⎡ 1 4 ⎤
2 2
Q = ∫ m⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ dT = m ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ∫ T dT = m ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎢ T ⎥
T1 ⎝ 343 K ⎠ ⎝ g K ⎠ ⎝ 343 K ⎠ ⎝ g K ⎠ T ⎝ 343 K ⎠ ⎝ g K ⎠ ⎣ 4 ⎦ T1
3 3
m ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 31 J ⎞ 4 40 g ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 31 J ⎞⎡
= ⎜ ⎟ ⎜
4 ⎝ 343 K ⎠ ⎝ g K ⎠
(
⎟ T 2 − T1 =
4
) ⎜
4 ⎜⎝ 343 K ⎟⎠ ⎝ g K
⎟ ⎣( 25 K ) − (10 K ) ⎤⎦ = 2 .9 J
4 4
⎠
ASSESS At more normal temperatures, the specific heat of copper is c = 386 J/kgK, so the heat required to
change the temperature of 40 grams of copper by 15°C would be Q = 232 J. This is substantially greater than that
at extremely low temperatures.
16-20 Chapter 16
75. INTERPRET In this problem we explore the greenhouse effect on Mars and Venus. We treat the planets as
blackbody to find their average surface temperatures.
DEVELOP The average rate at which the solar energy reaches Earth is S0 = 960 W/m 2 . Since the rate varies as
2
1/r , the rates of the solar energy reaching Mars and Venus are given by
2 2
⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 150 × 109 m ⎞
S Venus = S0 ⎜ SE ⎟ = 960 W/m 2 ⎜
r
(108 × 10 9
m
)
⎟ = 1850 W/m
2
⎝ SV ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 2
⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 150 × 109 m ⎞
S Mars = S0 ⎜ SE ⎟ = 960 W/m 2 ⎜ ( )
⎟ = 416 W/m
2
⎝ 228 × 10 m ⎠
9
⎝ rSM ⎠
where rSV = 108 × 109 m is the mean distance between Venus and the Sun, and rSM = 228 × 109 m the mean distance
between Mars and the Sun (from Appendix E). If we assume that the planets absorb the fraction of radiation falling
( )
on its cross-sectional area Acs = π R 2 , then the heat input from the Sun is Pin = S (π R 2 ). The planets will be
radiating away this heat, according to Stefan Boltzmann’s law: Pout = eσ AT 4 , where the area in this case is the total
surface area, A = 4π R 2 . The surface temperature, T, will settle to a value where the outgoing radiation matches the
incoming radiation.
EVALUATE Equating the two powers gives the following surface temperatures:
1/ 4
⎛S ⎞
1/ 4 ⎛ 1850 W/m 2 ⎞
TVenus = ⎜ Venus ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 301 K
⎝ 4σ ⎠ (
⎜ 4 5.67 × 10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4
⎝ ) ⎟
⎠
1/ 4
⎛S ⎞
1/ 4 ⎛ 416 W/m 2 ⎞
TMars = ⎜ Mars ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 207 K
⎝ 4σ ⎠ ⎝ (
⎜ 4 5.67 × 10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4 ) ⎟
⎠
ASSESS The measured values are 740 K for Venus and 210 K for Mars. Our results suggest that Mars has very
little greenhouse effect, while Venus exhibits a “runaway” greenhouse effect resulting in a very high surface
temperature.
76. INTERPRET We are to show that the equation for conductive heat loss through a cylindrical surface is as given.
To do this, we consider the differential form of Equation 16.5 and integrate the heat loss through thin cylindrical
shells.
DEVELOP The rate of heat flow is given by H = −kA ( dT dr ) . Consider the heat loss through thin cylindrical
shell of thickness dr and length L, which is
dT dT
H = − kA = − k (2π rL)
dr dr
H
dr = − 2π kLdT
r
We can integrate this expression to find an expression for the heat loss through the macroscopic cylinder.
EVALUATE Performing the integration gives
R2 T
1 2
H ∫R r dr = −2π kL T∫ dT
1 1
⎛R ⎞
H ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ = −2π kL(T2 − T1 )
⎝ R1 ⎠
2π kL(T1 − T2 )
H=
ln( R2 /R1 )
ASSESS We have shown what was required.
77. INTERPRET You want to check whether the Sun’s recent increase in power output can explain the rise in the
global average temperature. This is your friend’s argument against human-induced global warming.
DEVELOP From the Application “The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming,” you were told that the Earth
currently absorbs energy from the Sun at a rate of S = 960 W/m 2 , averaged over the cross-sectional area of the
planet, π RE2 . Using energy balance arguments and a assuming the Earth’s emissivity is 1, a formula was derived
for the Earth’s average temperature:
1/ 4
⎛ S ⎞
1/ 4 ⎛ 960 W/m 2 ⎞
T =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 255 K = − 18 °C
⎝ 4eσ ⎠ ⎝ (
⎜ 4 (1) 5.67 × 10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4 ) ⎟
⎠
This is too cold. The global average temperature is actually about 15°C, due to the greenhouse effect. Effectively,
the greenhouse effect reduces the Earth’s emissivity to about 0.61. Let’s assume that the emissivity has been
constant since the start of the industrial era. Then T ∝ S 1/ 4 , and we can verify if the change in the solar flux can
account for the measured temperature change since the start of the industrial era.
EVALUATE The solar flux has increased by 0.05% since pre-industrial time, which can be expressed as
S = (1.0005 ) S pre . The temperature should correspondingly be higher due to this change:
1/ 4
⎛ S ⎞
T = Tpre ⎜
⎜ S pre
⎝
⎟
⎟
⎠
(
→ ∆ T = T − Tpre = 1 − (1.0005 )
−1/ 4
)T = 1.2496 ×10 −4
T
In Kelvin, the current global average temperature is T = 288 K, so the temperature change from the solar flux
increase is ∆ T = 0.036o C. This only accounts for about 4% of the measured temperature increase (0.85°C), so
your friend is wrong.
ASSESS The argument for human-induced global warming is that the temperature increase is due to a decrease in
the effective emissivity. Rising levels of greenhouse gases since the beginning of the industrial era allow less of the
infrared radiation from the Earth’s surface to be emitted into space.
78. INTERPRET This problem involves converting units from SI to English. Specifically, we are to convert from
m2K/W to R-factor.
DEVELOP The units of R are ft 2 ⋅ °F ⋅ h/Btu. Use the conversion factors 1 = 3.28 ft/m, 1= 1.8°F/K, and 1054
J/Btu from Appendix C.
EVALUATE Inserting these conversion factors gives
=1 =1 =1 =1 =1
2
mK ⎛
2
m K ⎞ ⎛ 3.28 ft ⎞ ⎛ 1.8 °F ⎞⎛ 1 W ⋅ s ⎞⎛ 1054 J ⎞⎛ 1 h ⎞
2
ft 2 ⋅ °F ⋅ h
3.5 = ⎜ 3.5 ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 20 = 20 R
W ⎝ W ⎠ ⎝ 1 m ⎠ ⎝ K ⎠⎝ J ⎠⎝ Btu ⎠⎝ 3600 s ⎠ Btu
so the insulation will be sufficient.
ASSESS Notice that the units in the above expression cancel to give the correct result.
79. INTERPRET This is an energy balance problem. The rabbit hutch loses energy at a given rate. In equilibrium, the
heat lamp provides energy at the same rate that the hutch loses energy. You will find the equilibrium temperature
difference to see if the interior temperature can stay above freezing.
DEVELOP The thermal resistance is given as R = 0.25 K/W, which means the hutch loses heat at a rate of
H = −∆ T / R. The power of the heater is P = 50 W, so in equilibrium the temperature difference is ∆ T = PR.
EVALUATE Since the outside temperature is –15°C, the interior temperature of the hutch is
Tin = Tout + PR = −15 °C + ( 50W )( 0.25 K/W ) = −2.5°C
16-22 Chapter 16
The rabbit’s water will freeze.

ASSESS You need to get a bigger heater, or insulate the cage better, otherwise your niece’s rabbit will not fare
very well.
80. INTERPRET We are to show that the equation for conductive heat transfer through a conical solid is as given. To
do this, we will integrate the conductive heat transfer through thin circular disks normal to the cone axis.
DEVELOP We will integrate the heat flow through the cone, treating the cone as a stack of circular disks. The
radius of any disk depends on x as
R − R1
r ( x ) = R1 + 2 x
L
so the area of a disk is
2
⎛ R + R2 ⎞
A ( x ) = π r ( x ) = π ⎜ R1 + 1
2
x⎟
⎝ L ⎠
The heat transfer rate is given by the differential form of Equation 16.3, which is H = −kA(dT/dx). Inserting the
expression for area gives
2
⎛ R + R2 ⎞
Hdx = − kA ( x ) dT = − kπ ⎜ R1 + 1 x ⎟ dT
⎝ L ⎠
Hdx
= − kπ dT
⎡⎣ R1 + x ( R1 + R2 ) L ⎤⎦
2
which we can integrate to find the heat transfer rate H.

EVALUATE Integrating both sides gives
L T2
dx
H∫ = −kπ ∫ dT
(R + )
2
R2 − R1
0
1 L x T1
⎡ L L ⎤
H⎢ − ⎥ = −kπ (T2 − T1 )
⎣⎢ R2 ( R1 − R2 ) R1 ( R1 − R2 ) ⎦⎥
⎡ L ( R1 − R2 ) ⎤
H⎢ ⎥ = −kπ (T2 − T1 )
⎢⎣ R1R2 ( R1 − R2 ) ⎥⎦
⎛RR ⎞
H = −kπ (T2 − T1 ) ⎜ 1 2 ⎟
⎝ L ⎠
ASSESS We have shown what was required.
81. INTERPRET We derive Newton’s law of cooling, and apply it to the time it takes a house to freeze.
DEVELOP We start with the differential forms of the heat capacity, dQ = CdT , and the heat loss,
dQ / dt = −∆ T / R. Here, ∆ T = (T − Tout ), where Tout = −15 °C is the outdoor temperature, and T is the indoor
temperature that is dropping due to the loss of an internal heat source. Equating the differential heat changes,
dQ, in both equations we have:
dT − 1
= (T − Tout )
dt CR
This is Newton’s law of cooling. It says that the rate of temperature change of an object is proportional to the
temperature difference between the object and its surroundings. We’ll separate the time and the temperature and
then integrate to find how long it takes for the indoor temperature to drop from Ti = 20 °C to Tf = 0 °C.
EVALUATE Integrating the above equation gives

dT ⎛ T −T ⎞
= − CR ln (T − Tout ) = CR ln ⎜ i out ⎟
Tf Tf
t = ∫ dt = − ∫ CR
Ti T − Tout Ti
⎝ Tf − Tout ⎠
⎛ 20 °C + 15 °C ⎞
= ( 6.5 MJ/K )( 6.67 mK/W ) ln ⎜ ⎟ = 3.67 × 10 s = 10 h
4
⎝ 0 ° C + 15 ° C ⎠
ASSESS This answer seems reasonable for the situation described.

82. INTERPRET We’re asked to compute the temperature inside a greenhouse given a time-varying solar input.
DEVELOP We’ll assume the Sun’s energy only enters through the windows Aw = 250ft 2 , in which case the ( )
rate of heat gain from the Sun is
(
Pin = SAw = 40 Btu/h/ft 2 ⋅ sin 2 ( t )) ( 250 ft ) = 1.0 ×10 Btu/h ⋅ sin ( t )
π
24
2 4 2 π
24
The rate of heat loss was computed in Example 16.7:

Pout = H tot = (149 Btu/h/ °F )(T − Tout )
where T is the indoor temperature, and we assume that the outdoor temperature remains constant throughout the
day: Tout = 15°F. The net heat exchange will cause the indoor temperature to change according to
dQ dT dT
Pin − Pout = =C = (1500 Btu/°F )
dt dt dt
This is a linear first-order differential equation. We set y = T − Tout , such that:

dy
+ Ay = B sin 2 (ωt )
dt
where A = 0.0993 h −1 , B = 6.67°F/h, and ω = π / 24h.

EVALUATE One can solve the differential equation with a computer program or a calculator. We will solve it
analytically. If we multiply both sides of the equation by e At , then the solution for y ( t ) has the form
y ( t ) = e− At ⎡ ∫ e At ⋅ B sin 2 (ωt ) dt + D ⎤
⎣ ⎦
where D is an integration constant. One can find the integral in a table:

BA ⎡ 2 2ω 2ω 2 ⎤
y (t ) = 2 2 ⎢
sin (ωt ) − sin (ωt ) cos (ωt ) + 2 ⎥ + De − At
A + 4ω ⎣ A A ⎦
We will neglect the exponential term because it will decay away, so we are left with
B ⎡ A2 cos ωt + 2 Aω sin ωt ⎤
y (t ) = ⎢1 − ⎥
2A ⎣ A2 + 4ω 2 ⎦
To find the maximum and minimum of y ( t ) , we take the derivative and set it to zero. The extrema occur when
tan ωt = 2ω / A, which corresponds to ωt = 1.21 and ωt = 4.35. Substituting these values back into the original
equation, we find the minimum and maximum values of y ( t ) are 22 °F and 45°F, respectively. Adding these
values to the outdoor temperature, the minimum and maximum indoor temperatures are 37°F and 60°F.
ASSESS The average temperature in the greenhouse is 48.5°F, which is 33.5 °F above the outdoor temperature.
Notice that this is exactly half the temperature difference found in Example 16.7 ( ∆ T = 67 °F ) . This makes sense,
since the average solar input in this problem is half of what it was in Example 16.7:
S = 40 Btu/h/ft 2 ⋅ sin 2 ( t)
π
24
= 20 Btu/h/ft 2
Here, we’ve used the fact that the average of sin 2 is ½.
16-24 Chapter 16
83. INTERPRET We consider the physical properties of fiberglass insulation.

DEVELOP The thermal resistance, which measures the level of insulation, is proportional to the inverse of the
thermal conductivity. So a low thermal conductivity implies a high level of insulation.
EVALUATE From Table 16.1, glass has a thermal conductivity of around k = 0.8 W/m ⋅ K, whereas air trapped
between the fibers has k = 0.026 W/m ⋅ K. So the air seems to be the more important element as far as the
insulating quality is concerned.
The answer is (c).
ASSESS The logic here also applies to double pane (and even triple pane) windows. Having a thin layer of air
between thin sheets of glass provides much better insulation than having a thick solid sheet of glass.
DEVELOP Aluminum foil has a very high thermal conductivity, k = 237 W/m ⋅ K, so its definitely not being used
to reduce heat loss by conduction. It will help prevent air from flowing through the fiberglass, but that’s usually
not a problem in an attic or a wall, where the air is pretty still.
EVALUATE Aluminum is a good reflector of radiation, so it will reflect back radiation emitted from the
fiberglass. This will help to reduce heat loss from radiation.
The answer is (c).
ASSESS The reflectivity is a measure of how good a material is at reflecting radiation. It is equal to 1 − e, where e
is the emissivity. Since e is a measure of absorption as well as emission, we can understand that a good reflector is
a bad absorber. Aluminum foil has an emissivity of 0.03, which is why it is a good reflector.
DEVELOP We’re told that 6-inch fiberglass has an R -factor of 19.
EVALUATE As defined in Equation 16.8: R = ∆x / k . So doubling the thickness to 12 inches should double
the R -factor to 38.
The answer is (a).
ASSESS For the most part, two sheets of 6-inch fiberglass should provide the same insulation (i.e., equal
R -factor) as one sheet of 12-inch fiberglass.
DEVELOP Squeezing a fiberglass sheet will reduce the amount of air trapped between the glass fibers. By
cramming two sheets into the space of one, we would essentially be replacing trapped air with glass fibers.
EVALUATE As we argued in Problem 16.78, the trapped air is providing a large part of the insulation thanks to its
low thermal conductivity. Therefore, squeezing the air out will reduce the overall R -factor.
The answer is (c).
ASSESS One might imagine that the best insulation would be a layer of air, with only a thin shell to keep it in
place. In fact, that’s the logic behind double-pane windows. However, if the air layer is too thick, you start to have
convection, which vastly reduces the insulation quality.

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TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

EVALUATE The heat capacity of the block is

⎛ Btu ⎞ ⎛ 1.00 Btu ⎞⎛ 1054 J ⎞⎛ 1.00 h ⎞

(b) The heat loss through the Styrofoam slab is

Given that the heat flow per square meter is

(c) With mHg = 4 kg of mercury replacing the water,

(b) The rate of heating is ∆ Q ∆ t = mw cw ∆Tw ∆ t = ( 0.10 kg ) ⎡⎣ 4184 J/ ( kg ⋅ K ) ⎤⎦ (12 K ) ( 60 s ) = 84 W .

You can then solve for the mass:

ASSESS This does not give you much time!

This equation can be used to solve for mw.

(1500 kg )(11.1 m/s ) = 9.2 K

ASSESS There’s 2.5 L of water to boil, so 9 minutes sounds about right.

EVALUATE Solving for the inside temperature

Solving for T, we find

EVALUATE (a) The monthly fuel bill is

to two significant figures.

to two significant figures.

(c) The power lost by convection is

The slope is P/mc = 0.436, so the power of the microwave oven is

Q0 = mc∆ T = (1.00 kg )( 4184 J/kg ⋅ K ) (100 K) = 418.4 kJ

The rabbit’s water will freeze.

which we can integrate to find the heat transfer rate H.

EVALUATE Integrating the above equation gives

ASSESS This answer seems reasonable for the situation described.

The rate of heat loss was computed in Example 16.7:

This is a linear first-order differential equation. We set y = T − Tout , such that:

where A = 0.0993 h −1 , B = 6.67°F/h, and ω = π / 24h.

where D is an integration constant. One can find the integral in a table:

Here, we’ve used the fact that the average of sin 2 is ½.

83. INTERPRET We consider the physical properties of fiberglass insulation.

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