LIPS

External Surface
The external surface is covered with thin skin and therefore possesses hair follicles,
sebaceous glands, and sweat glands.

Transitional Zone
The transitional zone (vermilion zone) is the pink area of the lip. Here, the connective tissue
papillae extend deep into the epidermis. Hair follicles and sweat glands are absent, whereas
sebaceous glands are occasionally present.

Mucous Membrane
The vestibular aspect of the lip is lined by stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium with
numerous minor salivary glands in the subepithelial connective tissue.

Core of the Lip The core of the lip contains skeletal muscle.
TONGUE
Skeletal muscle forms the core of the tongue, among which groups of minor salivary glands
are interspersed.

Oral Region (Anterior Two-Thirds)

• Filiform Papillae: are long and slender and are the most numerous. They form a
roughened surface and are covered by a parakeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium (but bear no taste buds).
• Fungiform Papillae: are mushroom-shaped, are scattered among the filiform papillae.
They contain taste buds along their dorsal aspect.
• Foliate Papillae: appear as longitudinal furrows along the side of the tongue near the
posterior aspect of the anterior two-thirds. Serous glands of von Ebner are associated
with these papillae.
• Circumvallate Papillae: are very large and form a V-shaped row at the border of the
oral and pharyngeal portions of the tongue. Circumvallate papillae are each
surrounded by a groove, the walls of which contain taste buds in their stratified
squamous nonkeratinized epithelium. Serous glands of von Ebner open into the base of
the furrow.

Taste buds.

Have three types of cells, short basal cells, sustentacular cells (light stain), and dark
neuroepithelial cells.

Pharyngeal Region (Posterior One-Third)

The mucosa of the posterior one-third of the tongue presents numerous lymphatic nodules
that constitute the lingual tonsils.
ESOPHAGUS
The esophagus, as well as the remainder of the digestive tract, is composed of four concentric
layers: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and adventitia.

Mucosa
• Epithelium: stratified squamous nonkeratinized.
• Lamina Propria: loose connective tissue that contains mucus-producing esophageal
cardiac glands.
• Muscularis Mucosae: single layer of longitudinally oriented smooth muscle.

Submucosa
Is composed of fibroelastic connective tissue, the esophageal glands proper that produce a
mucous secretion and the Meissner's submucosal plexus.

Muscularis Externa
Is composed of inner circular and outer longitudinal muscle layers. In the upper one-third of
the esophagus, these consist of skeletal muscle, in the middle one-third, they consist of
skeletal and smooth muscle, and in the lower one-third, they consist of smooth muscle.
Auerbach's myenteric plexus is located between the two layers of muscle.

Adventitia
The adventitia of the esophagus is composed of fibrous connective tissue. Inferior to the
diaphragm, the esophagus is covered by a serosa.
STOMACH
The stomach has three regions: cardiac, fundic, and pyloric. The mucosa and submucosa of the
empty stomach are thrown into folds, known as rugae, that disappear in the distended
stomach.

Mucosa
The mucosa presents gastric pits, the bases of which accept the openings of gastric glands.

• Epithelium: the simple columnar epithelium has no goblet cells. The cells composing
this epithelium are known as surface lining cells and extend into the gastric pits.
• Lamina Propria: houses numerous gastric glands, slender blood vessels, and
connective tissue. Gastric glands are composed of these cell types: parietal cells (that
secrete HCL and intrinsic factor), chief cells (that secrete pepsinogen and gastric
lipases), mucous neck cells, enteroendocrine cells (that secrete gastrin), and
regenerative cells. Glands of the cardiac and pyloric region have no chief and only a
few parietal cells. Glands of the fundic region possess all five cell types.
• Muscularis Mucosae: is composed of an inner circular and an outer longitudinal
smooth muscle layer.

Submucosa
The submucosa is composed of connective tissue and contains no glands. It also houses a
vascular plexus as well as Meissner's submucosal plexus.

Muscularis Externa
The muscularis externa is composed of three smooth muscle layers: the inner oblique, the
middle circular, and the outer longitudinal. The middle circular forms the pyloric sphincter.
Auerbach's myenteric plexus is located between the circular and longitudinal layers.

Serosa
The stomach is covered by a connective tissue coat enveloped in visceral peritoneum, the
serosa.
SMALL INTESTINE
The small intestine is composed of three regions: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The mucosa
of the small intestine presents folds, known as villi, that change their morphology and
decrease in height from the duodenum to the ileum. The submucosa forms folds called plicae
circulares.

Mucosa
• Epithelium: the simple columnar epithelium consists of goblet, surface absorptive,
and DNES cells (enteroendocrine cells).
• Lamina Propria: is composed of loose connective tissue, houses glands, known as the
crypts of Lieberkühn. The cells composing these glands are goblet cells, enterocytes,
and, especially at the base, Paneth cells (secrete defensis and other antimicrobial
peptides), DNES cells, and regenerative cells. A central lacteal (lymphatic vessel),
smooth muscle cells, blood vessels, solitary lymphatic nodules, and lymphoid cells are
also present. Lymphatic nodules, with M cell epithelial caps, are especially abundant as
Peyer's patches in the ileum.
• Muscularis Mucosae: consists of an inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer of
smooth muscle.

Submucosa
The submucosa is not unusual except in the duodenum, where it contains Brunner's glands.
Meissner's submucosal plexus is also present in all three regions of the small intestine.

Muscularis Externa
The muscularis externa is composed of the usual inner circular and outer longitudinal layers
of smooth muscle, with Auerbach's myenteric plexus intervening.

Serosa
The duodenum is covered by serosa and adventitia, whereas the jejunum and ileum are
covered by a serosa.
LARGE INTESTINE
The large intestine is composed of the appendix, the cecum, the colon (ascending, transverse,
and descending), the rectum, and the anal canal.

COLON

Mucosa
The mucosa presents no specialized folds. It is thicker than that of the small intestine.

• Epithelium: the simple columnar epithelium has goblet cells and surface absorptive
cells.
• Lamina Propria: it houses the crypts of Lieberkühn, composed of numerous goblet
cells. Lymphatic nodules are frequently present.
• Muscularis Mucosae: consists of inner circular and outer longitudinal smooth muscle
layers.

Submucosa
The submucosa resembles that of the jejunum.

Muscularis Externa
The muscularis externa is composed of inner circular and outer longitudinal smooth muscle
layers. The outer longitudinal muscle is modified into teniae coli, three flat ribbons of
longitudinally arranged smooth muscles. These are responsible for the formation of haustra
coli. Auerbach's plexus occupies its position between the two layers.

Serosa
The colon possesses both serosa and adventitia. The serosa presents small, fat-filled pouches,
the appendices epiploicae.
APPENDIX
The lumen of the appendix is usually stellate shaped. The simple columnar epithelium covers
a lamina propria rich in lymphatic nodules and some crypts of Lieberkühn. The muscularis
mucosae, submucosa, and muscularis externa conform to the general plan of the digestive
tract. It is covered by a serosa.
MAJOR SALIVARY GLANDS
Three major salivary glands are associated with the oral cavity. These are the parotid,
submandibular, and sublingual glands.

PAROTID GLAND
The parotid gland is a purely serous compound tubuloalveolar gland whose capsule sends
septa into the substance of the gland, dividing it into lobes and lobules. Serous acini,
surrounded by myoepithelial cells, deliver their secretions into intercalated ducts.
SUBMANDIBULAR GLAND
This compound tubuloalveolar gland is mostly serous, although it contains enough mucous
units, to manufacture a mixed secretion. Acini are surrounded by myoepithelial cells. The
capsule sends septa into the substance of the gland, subdividing it into lobes and lobules. The
duct system is extensive.
SUBLINGUAL GLAND
The sublingual gland is a compound tubuloalveolar gland whose capsule is not very definite.
The gland produces a mixed secretion, possessing mostly mucous acini capped by serous
demilunes and surrounded by myoepithelial cells. The intralobular duct system is not very
extensive.
PANCREAS
The exocrine pancreas is a compound tubuloalveolar serous gland whose connective tissue
capsule sends septa to divide the parenchyma into lobules.

Acini present centroacinar cells, the beginning of the ducts that empty into intercalated ducts,
which lead to intralobular, then interlobular ducts. The main duct receives secretory products
from the interlobular ducts. The endocrine pancreas with its islets of Langerhans are
scattered among the serous acini.
LIVER
Classical Lobule

Classical lobules are hexagonal with portal areas (triads) at the periphery and a central vein in
the center. Sinusoids are lined by sinusoidal lining cells and Kupffer cells (macrophages).
Within the space of Disse. Portal areas housing bile ducts, lymph vessels, and branches of the
hepatic artery and the portal vein are surrounded by terminal plates composed of
hepatocytes. Bile passes peripherally within bile canaliculi, intercellular spaces between liver
cells, to enter bile ductules, then canals of Hering, to be delivered to bile ducts at the portal
areas.

Portal Lobule

The apices of triangular cross sections of portal lobules are central veins. Thus, portal areas
form the centers of these lobules. The portal lobule is based on bile flow.

Portal Acinus

Is a diamond-shaped area of the liver whose long axis is the straight line between neighboring
central veins and whose short axis is the intersecting line between neighboring portal areas.
The liver acinus is based on blood flow.
GALLBLADDER
The gallbladder is connected to the liver via its cystic duct, which joins the common hepatic
duct.

Mucosa
• Epithelium: simple columnar epithelium.
• Lamina Propria: is thrown into intricate folds that disappear in the distended
gallbladder.

Muscularis mucosa and submucosa are not present

Muscularis Externa
Is made of obliquely oriented smooth muscle layer.

Serosa
Adventitia attaches the gallbladder to the capsule of the liver, whereas serosa covers the
remaining surface.
NASAL CAVITY
Respiratory Region: inferior 2/3 of the nasal cavity

The respiratory region is lined by respiratory (pseudostratified ciliated columnar) epithelium.

The subepithelial connective tissue is richly vascularized and possesses seromucous glands.

Olfactory Region: superior 1/3 of the nasal cavity

The epithelium of the olfactory region is thick, pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
composed of three cell types: basal cell, sustentacular cells, and olfactory cells. The lamina
propria is richly vascularized and possesses Bowman's glands, which produce a watery
secretion.
LARYNX
The larynx is lined by a respiratory epithelium except for certain regions that are lined by
stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium (on the vocal folds). From superior to
inferior, the lumen of the larynx presents three regions: the vestibule, the ventricle, and the
infraglottic cavity. The ventricular and vocal folds are the superior and inferior boundaries of
the ventricle, respectively. Cartilages, extrinsic and intrinsic muscles, as well as mucous and
seromucous glands are present in the larynx.
EPIGLOTTIS

Epithelium:
• Anterior (lingual) surface: stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium
• Transition zone: transition from stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium to
respiratory epithelium.
• Posterior (respiratory) surface: respiratory epithelium (pseudostratified
epithelium) with cilia and goblet cells.

Lamina propria: dense irregular connective tissue supports the epithelium, sero-mucous
glands are present.

Elastic cartilage: is located in the core of epiglottis and provides semi-rigid support.
TRACHEA
Mucosa

Is composed of a respiratory epithelium with numerous goblet cells, a lamina propria, and a
well-defined elastic lamina.

Submucosa

The submucosa houses mucous and seromucous glands.

Adventitia

The adventitia is the thickest portion of the tracheal wall. It houses the C-rings of hyaline
cartilage. Posteriorly, the trachealis muscle (smooth muscle) fills in the gap between the free
ends of the cartilage.
LUNGS

Extrapulmonary Bronchi
Extrapulmonary bronchi resemble the trachea in histologic structure.

Intrapulmonary Bronchi
These and subsequent passageways are completely surrounded by lung tissue.

Mucosa

Intrapulmonary bronchi are lined by respiratory epithelium with goblet cells. The
subepithelial connective tissue is no longer bordered by an elastic lamina.

Muscle

Two ribbons of smooth muscle are wound helically around the mucosa.

Cartilage

The C-rings are replaced by irregularly shaped hyaline cartilage plates that encircle the
smooth muscle layer. Dense collagenous connective tissue connects the perichondria of the
cartilage plates.

Glands

Seromucous glands occupy the connective tissue between the cartilage plates and smooth
muscle. Lymphatic nodules and branches of the pulmonary arteries are also present.

Bronchioles
Bronchioles are lined by ciliated simple columnar to simple cuboidal epithelium interspersed
with nonciliated Clara cells. Goblet cells are found only in larger bronchioles. The lamina
propria possesses no glands and is surrounded by smooth muscle. The walls of bronchioles
are not supported by cartilage. The largest bronchioles are about 1 mm in diameter.

Terminal Bronchioles
Terminal bronchioles are usually less than 0.5 mm in diameter. The lumen is lined by simple
cuboidal epithelium interspersed with Clara cells. The connective tissue and smooth muscle of
the wall of the terminal bronchioles are greatly reduced.
Respiratory Bronchiole
Respiratory bronchioles resemble terminal bronchioles, but they possess outpocketings of
alveoli in their walls. This is the first region where exchange of gases occurs.

Alveolar Ducts

Alveolar ducts possess no walls of their own. They are long, straight tubes lined by simple
squamous epithelium and display numerous outpocketings of alveoli. Alveolar ducts end in
alveolar sacs.

Alveolar Sacs

Alveolar sacs are composed of groups of alveoli clustered around a common airspace.

Alveolus

An alveolus is a small airspace partially surrounded by highly attenuated epithelium. Two

types of cells are present in the lining: type I pneumocytes (lining cells) and type II
pneumocytes (produce surfactant). The opening of the alveolus is controlled by elastic fibers.
Alveoli are separated from each other by richly vascularized walls known as interalveolar
septa, some of which present alveolar pores (communicating spaces between alveoli). Dust
cells (macrophages), fibroblasts, and other connective tissue elements may be noted in
interalveolar septa. The blood–air barrier is a part of the interalveolar septum, the thinnest of
which is composed of surfactant, continuous endothelial cells, type I pneumocyte, and their
intervening fused basal laminae.
AORTA
Tunica Intima

Lined by short, polygonal endothelial cells. The subendothelial connective tissue is fibroelastic
and houses some longitudinally disposed smooth muscle cells. Internal elastic lamina is not
clearly defined.

Tunica Media

Characterized by numerous fenestrated membranes. Enmeshed among the elastic material

are circularly disposed smooth muscle cells and associated collagenous, reticular, and elastic
fibers.

Tunica Adventitia

Thin, collagenous connective tissue containing some elastic fibers and a few longitudinally
oriented smooth muscle cells. Vasa vasorum are also present.
MUSCULAR ARTERY
Among these are the named arteries, with the exception of the elastic arteries.

Tunica Intima

These are lined by polygonal-shaped, flattened endothelial cells that bulge into the lumen
during vasoconstriction. The subendothelial connective tissue houses fine collagenous fibers
and few longitudinally disposed smooth muscle cells. The internal elastic lamina, clearly
evident, is frequently split into two membranes.

Tunica Media

Characterized by many layers of circularly disposed smooth muscle cells, with some elastic,
reticular, and collagenous fibers among the muscle cells. The external elastic lamina is well
defined.

Tunica Adventitia

Usually a very thick collagenous and elastic tissue, with some longitudinally oriented smooth
muscle fibers. Vasa vasorum are also present.

MEDIUM-SIZED VEINS

Tunica Intima

The endothelium and a scant amount of subendothelial connective tissue are always present.
Occasionally, a thin internal elastic lamina is observed. Valves may be evident.

Tunica Media

Much thinner than that of the corresponding artery but does possess a few layers of smooth
muscle cells. Occasionally, some of the muscle fibers, instead of being circularly disposed, are
longitudinally disposed. Bundles of collagen fibers interspersed with a few elastic fibers are
also present.

Tunica Adventitia

Composed of collagen and some elastic fibers, which constitute the bulk of the vessel wall.
Occasionally, longitudinally oriented smooth muscle cells may be present. Vasa vasorum is
noted to penetrate even the tunica media.
HEART
An extremely thick, muscular organ composed of three layers: endocardium, myocardium,
and epicardium. The presence of cardiac muscle is characteristic of this organ. Additional
structural parameters may include Purkinje fibers, thick valves, atrioventricular and
sinoatrial nodes, as well as the chordae tendineae and the thick, connective tissue cardiac
skeleton.