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CNS summarised - Lecture notes all CNS

Anatomy (Medical University-Pleven)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS IN THE CNS

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SENSORY
PATHWAY

• Consist of receptors, neurones

and cortex representation in
the brain
• 1st neuron has its cell body in
the dorsal root ganglion
• 2nd neuron has its cell body in
the spinal cord or brainstem
• 3rd neuron has its cell body in
the thalamus
• All conscious pathways involve
the cortex and the thalamus
• All somatosensory pathways
decussate below the thalamus
to give contralateral fibres
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GENERAL SOMATOSENSORY

• Three types
• Touch and pressure
• Pain and temperature
• Proprioception
• Body uses spinal nerves to convey the information through
• DCML pathway for touch and proprioception
• AL pathway for pain and temperature
• Face uses trigeminal nerves to convey information through
• Main part for the touch and proprioception
• Spinal part for pain and temperature

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DCML PATHWAY

• This pathway is used for the touch and

proprioception of the body
• 1st neuron – the DRG of the spinal cord
• 2nd neuron – travels the cuneatus (from
the arms) and gracilis tracts (from the
feet) in the spine to the medulla where
it decussates at the nuclei and travels
contralaterally as the medial lemniscus
• 3rd neuron – travels to the thalamus
where it goes to the VPLN which then
goes to the somatosensory cortex

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AL PATHWAY

• Gives pain and temperature detection from the body

• 1st neuron – DRG which then enters the spinal cord
• 2nd neuron – in the spinal cord they become the posteromarginal nuclei or the
nucleus proprius of the grey medulla.
• From here they split to be either
• neospinothalamic tract for sharp fast pain (lateral spinothalamic tract) passing through the
VPLN and internal capsule to the Somatosensory cortex (CONTRALATERAL)
• Palaeospinothalamic tract for slow, dull and diffuse pain (anterior spinothalamic tract)
passing through the reticular formation and periaqueductal grey matter. Through the
intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus it then passes to the cingulate gyrus and insula.
(BILATERAL)

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ANTEROLATERAL
PATHWAY

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TO U C H A N D
P RO P RI O C EPTIO N F RO M TH E
FAC E

• Carried by main sensory trigeminal

pathway
• 1st neuron – receptors to trigeminal
ganglion in Meckel's cave
• 2nd neuron – the main sensory trigeminal
nucleus in the pons, crosses ipsilateral then
forms the trigeminal lemniscus
• 3rd neuron – trigeminal lemniscus reaches
VPMN which then goes to post limb of
internal capsule

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PAIN AND TEMPERATURE FROM THE

FACE

• Acts in the same way as the AL pathway

• 1st neuron – trigeminal ganglion
• 2nd neuron – spinal trigeminal nucleus in the medulla. Also forms the trigeminal
lemniscus
• From here they split to be either
• fast pain passing through the VPMN and internal capsule to the Somatosensory cortex
(CONTRALATERAL)
• slow, dull and diffuse pain passing through the reticular formation and periaqueductal grey
matter. Through the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus it then passes to the cingulate gyrus
and insula. (BILATERAL)

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PROPRIOCEPTION
PATHWAY

• From the muscle spindles and Golgi tendons

• For the lower limb (SPINOCEREBELLAR TRACT)
• 1st neuron – DRG
• 2nd neuron posterior spinocerebellar tract (ipsilateral)/
anterior spinocerebellar tract (contralateral)
• 3rd neuron – nucleus dorsalis in the spinal cord (T1-L3).
They enter the cerebellum via inferior peduncle/
superior spinocerebellar tract
• Upper limb uses the Cuneocerebellar tract
• 1st neuron – DRG
• 2nd neuron – accessory cuneate nucleus – enters
cerebellum via inf. peduncle

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UPPER AND LOWER

MOTOR NEURONS

• Present in the anterior grey horn of the spinal cord

are the LMNs
• Present in the motor cortex and the brain stem is
the UMNs
• Two parts to the motor system
• Pyramidal – corticospinal and corticobulbar
• Extrapyramidal – basal ganglia, substantia nigra,
subthalamic nucleus and cerebellar circuit

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CORTICOSPINAL

• Output directly onto muscles

• Starts at motor cortex, descends onto the posterior
limb of the internal capsule
• Travels down into the medulla where the pyramids
are produced
• At the inferior medulla the corticospinal tract splits
to the lateral corticospinal tract (decussates and
becomes contralateral) or anterior corticospinal
tract (ipsilateral)
• Lateral corticospinal deals with distal
muscles(fingers)
• Anterior corticospinal deals with proximal muscles

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CORTICOBULBAR
TRACT

• Starts at the motor cortex

again
• Moves down to internal capsule
where it passes through the
GENU (middle)
• Most fibres stay ipsilateral and
terminate on CRANIAL NERVE
MOTOR NUCLEI

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OCULOMOTOR
SYSTEM

• LR6
• SO4
• Rest by 3
• eye movement dealt with by gaze
centres but descends through
reticular formation
• Horizontal gaze centres in the
paramedian pontine reticular
formation
• Vertical gaze centres in the
rostral interstitial nucleus in
midbrain reticular formation

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EX TRAPYRAMIDAL
S YS TEM

• Unlike the pyramidal system it is

multineuronal and multisynaptic
• Terminates on either UMNs or LMNs so
is indirectly linked to the pyramidal
system
• Consists of
• Basal ganglia
• Subthalamic nucleus
• Substantia nigra
• Red nucleus
• Vestibular nucleus
• cerebellum

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EPMS ACTING ON THE

UMN

• Basal ganglia
• Cortex-striatum-pallidum-VAN-motor cortex
• Substantia nigra (S.N)
• Cortex-striatum-S.N-VAN-motor cortex
• Subthalamic nuclei
• Cortex-striatum-pallidum-VAN-motor cortex
• Cerebellar circuit
• Cortex-pontine nuclei-contralateral
cerebellum-dentate nucleus-contralateral red
nucleus/VLN-motor cortex

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EPMS ACTING
ON THE LMN

• Rubrospinal tract starts at red nucleus

and crosses to the other side. It terminates
at LMNs. Its function is to excite flexor
muscles and inhibit extensor muscles. Has
input from cortex and cerebellum
• Reticulospinal tract starts at the reticular
formation with input from the cortex.There
are two main types
• Pontine reticulospinal tract is for exciting the
flexor muscles
• Medullary reticulospinal tract is for inhibiting
the flexor muscles
• Vestibulospinal tract of two types both
originating from vestibular nuclei
• Lateral – for postural changes (ipsilateral)
• Medial – for neck muscles (bilateral)
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MENINGES AND CSF

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MENINGES

• Formed from 3 layers present

in both the cranium and the
spinal cord
• Dura mater
• Arachnoid mater
• Pia mater

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DURA MATER

• Has two layers

• The endosteal layer attached to the
cranium at mostly the sulci in the skull
(not in spine)
• The meningeal layer
• Falx cerebri – separates two cerebral
hemispheres
• Falx cerebelli – separates two cerebellar
hemispheres
• Tentorium cerebelli separates the cerebellum
from the cerebrum
• Diaphragm sellae – covers the hypophysial
fossa and has an opening for the infundibulum
• The dura mater has nerve supply so Is the
region where headaches will be felt

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ARACHNOID
MATER

• Separated from dura mater by subdural

space with fluid
• Below the arachnoid mater is the
subarachnoid space which contains
CSF
• The subarachnoid spaces sometimes
expand creating cisterns
• Cerebellomedullary
• Interpeduncular
• Pontine
• Chiasmatic

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PIA MATER

• Innermost meninges containing the

vascular part.
• Enters the sulci and fissures of the
brain
• Contains certain regions (broken blood
brain barrier) which allows the blood
to pass through to the brain- these are
around the ventricles and are hence
called circumventricular organs. Can
allow brain to detect substances
• Below fornix
• Below commissure
• Area postrema
• Pineal gland

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CIRCULATION OF THE
CSF

• CSF travels in the 4 ventricles and the

subarachnoid space
• CSF is produced by the choroid plexus
of the ventricles
• The CSF can move from the ventricles
to the subarachnoid space via the 2
foramina in the 4th ventricle (magendie
and luschka)
• There are arachnoid granulations
where the CSF can enter the Dural
sinuses due to the invagination
• 4th ventricle – 3rd ventricle via the
cerebral aqueduct
• 3rd ventricle – lateral ventricles via the
foramina of Monroe
• Eventually the CSF drains into the
sinuses and fuses with the blood

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SPINAL CORD, FORM, POSITION

ENVELOPES AND BLOOD SUPPLY

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FORM

• Roughly cylindrical
• Slightly flat anteroposterior
• Has two enlargements
• Cervical for upper limb (C5-T1)
• Lumbar for lower limb (T11-S2)
• Has tapered end (conus medullaris)
• Filum terminale is a fibre attaching to the post. Surface of
the coccyx

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NUMBER OF
SPINAL
SEGMENTS

• 31 total
• 8 cervical
• 12 thoracic
• 5 lumbar
• 5 sacral
• 1 coccygeal
• Each spinal segment has a pair
of spinal nerves that emerge

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POS ITION AND S HAPE

• The spinal cord itself does not fully fill the vertebrae to
prevent damage
• Runs from foramen magnum to L1 and L2 and roughly 45cm
long
• attached at the top to the brain stem
• And to the coccyx via filum terminale

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SPINAL
CORD FORM
TRANSVERSE

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ENVELOPES

• The spine has an extra layer of

protection known as the
meninges
• Dura mater
• Arachnoid mater (sub arachnoid
space has the CSF)
• Pia mater

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BLOOD SUPPLY

• Three main spinal arteries supplying the spine

• 2 posterior spinal arteries
• 1 anterior spinal artery
• All the arteries anastomose around the cord and
send branches into the substance
• The spinal arteries arise from the
• vertebral aa.
• subclavian aa.
• Radicular aa.
• Medullary segmental aa.

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GREY MATTER OF THE SPINAL

CORD

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LAMINAE OF
REXED

• Within the laminae are many

nuclei
• The numbers of the layers go
from posterior to anterior
• Posterior contains sensory
nuclei
• Anterior contains motor nuclei

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GREY MATTER
NUCLEI

• Posteromarginal nuclei
• Substantia gelatinosa
• Sensory info for pain and temp
• Nucleus proprius
• Sensory info for discriminative
touch and proprioception
• Nucleus dorsalis (C8 – L4)
• Proprioception info from tendon
spindles and muscle spindles to
ascend to cerebellum
(spinocerebellar tract)

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GREY MATTER
NUCLEI

• Intermediolateral nuclei
• Visceral motor nucleus of two
parts
• Thoracolumbar (T1 – L2)
gives rise to SYMPATHETIC
preganglionic nuclei
• Sacral part (S2 – S4) gives rise
to PARASYMPATHETIC
preganglionic nuclei

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GREY MATTER
NUCLEI

• Intermediomedial nuclei
• Visceral sensory nuclei from T1 –
L3
• Anterior motor nuclei are of
three groups; lateral, central and
medial
• Ventromedial nuclei
• For axial muscles and proximal
part of the limbs
• Ventrolateral nuclei
• For distal part of the limbs

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GREY MATTER
NUCLEI

• Central group nuclei are made

up of the phrenic and accessory
nuclei
• Accessory = anterior
• Sternocleidomastoid and
trapezius muscles
• Phrenic = posterior
• diaphragm

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TWO TYPES OF AFFERENT

MOTOR NEU RONS

• ALPHA afferents supply EXTRAFUSAL

muscle fibres for regular skeletal muscle
movement
• GAMMA afferents supply INTRAFUSAL
muscle fibres for proprioceptive movement
• AEGI

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TRACTS OF THE WHITE MATTER OF

THE SPINAL CORD

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DIFFERENT
TYPES OF
TRACTS

• Ascending tracts – general

somatosensory from the body to upper
CNS
• Arises from nuclei of the posterior
horn of the spinal cord (AMPS)
• Descending tracts – from supraspinal
levels of the CNS to the lower motor
neurons
• The tracts are in three different sections
of the white matter of the spinal cord
• Posterior
• Lateral
• Anterior

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P O ST E R IO R
WHIT E C O LU M N
(D C M L)

• Fasciculus gracilis
• Discriminative touch and
proprioception for the lower
body and limbs
• Fasciculus cuneatus
• Discriminative touch and
proprioception for the upper
body and limbs

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LAT E R AL WHIT E
C O LU M N
SE N SO RY

• Post. Spinocerebellar tract – gets

input from NUCLEUS
DORSALIS. Unconscious
proprioception from the lower
body. At the inferior cerebellar
peduncle it moves from the
medulla to the cerebellum
• Ant. spinocerebellar tract – gets
input from CONTROLATERAL
POST. GREY HORN. For
proprioception of limbs. Enters
the cerebellum via sup. Cerebellar
peduncle near via the midbrain

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LAT E R AL WHIT E
C O LU M N
SE N SO RY

• Spinotectal tract – gets input

from the CONTROLATERAL
NUCLEUS PROPRIUS and
terminates at the nucleus of the
superior colliculus of the
midbrain for spinovisual reflexes
• Spinoolivary tract – gets input
from CONTROLATERAL POST.
GREY HORN and terminates at
the inferior olivary nuclei of the
medulla for proprioception

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LAT E R AL WHIT E
C O LU M N
SE N SO RY

• Spinoreticular tract – gets input

from the POST. GREY HORN
and terminates at the reticular
nuclei at the brainstem. This then
controls the reticular fibres to
control consciousness
• Spinothalamic tract – gets input
from CONTROLATERAL
NUCLEUS PROPRIUS (part of AL
pathway) transmitting general info
for pain and temp to the
thalamus.

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LAT E R AL WHIT E
C O LU M N M OTO R

• Lateral corticospinal tract – gets input

from motor cortex. Crosses genu of the
internal capsule and decussates at the
pyramid of the medulla. Used in
voluntary fine movement especially
those of distal parts of the limbs.
• Rubrospinal tract – input from red
nucleus in the midbrain. Crosses the
midline and stimulates flexors whilst
inhibiting extensors
• Reticulospinal tract from reticular
formation regulate muscle tone, reflexes
and voluntary movement and control of
autonomic system
• Pontine = excitatory
• Medullary = inhibitory

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ANTERIOR
WHITE C OL U MN

• Anterior corticospinal tract –

part of the pyramidal system and
very similar to the lateral
corticospinal tract. Only
difference is that it doesn’t cross
at the pyramid decussation
• Tectospinal tract – from
SUPERIOR COLLICULUS of the
midbrain for the spinovisual
reflexes. Crosses over and then
terminates at the cervical
segments

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ANTERIOR
WHITE C OL U MN

• Vestibulospinal tract – input from

the VESTIBULAR NUCLEUS OF
THE PONS and with input from
the cerebellum helps with balance
via the control of tone of the
extensor muscles

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MEDULLA OBLONGATA

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LOC ATION

• In between the spinal cord and

the pons
• Lies on the inferior half of the
clivus within the skull

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A N TE RI O R
SU RFAC E
M O RP H O L OG Y

• Bulbopontine sulcus
separates the pons and the
medulla
• Pyramids = corticospinal
tracts
• Olives = inf. Olivary
complex

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POSTERIOR
SURFACE
MORPHOLOGY
• Striae medullaris separates the pons and the
medulla
• Gracile and cuneate tubercle contains the
gracile and cuneate fasciculi separated by post
intermediate sulcus
• Lateral most is the trigeminal tubercle made of
spinal trigeminal nucleus
• Rhomboid fossa is above the obex which
makes it part of the floor of the 4th ventricle
and has two triangles SMIL
• Superomedial hypoglossal
• Inferolateral vagus
• Lateral to the rhomboid fossa is the vestibular
area
• Posterolateral part of the medulla has the
inferior cerebellar peduncles

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RETICULAR
FORMATION

• Reticular formation sends info to

the interthalamic nuclei in the
thalamus this controls activity of
the brain and receives input from
the Spinoreticular tract.
Reticulospinal tract then controls
activity of the body in
accordance to the following
• Pontine reticulospinal –
excitatory
• Medullary reticulospinal –
inhibitory

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ASCENDING SYSTEMS

• Fasciculus gracilis and cuneatus decussate at

the lower medulla and then form the
DCML which ascends to the thalamus
VPLN
• Anterior and lateral spinothalamic tract
joins with the Spinotectal tract to form the
spinal lemniscus (AL pathway)

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DESCENDING
PATHWAYS

• Corticospinal tract from the

cerebral cortex
• Some cross at pyramid levels
and then descend as lateral
corticospinal tract
• Others don’t cross and descend
as anterior corticospinal tract

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CEREBELLAR CONNECTIONS

• The medulla is connected to the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle
• Cuneocerebellar fibres – from the accessory cuneate nucleus from upper limbs
• Dorsal spinocerebellar tract – from the lower limb
• Ventral spinocerebellar – crosses at the medulla from the lower limb then enters
the cerebellum via the SUPERIOR CEREBELLAR PEDUNCLE
• Olivocerebellar tract – cross from the olivary nucleus to the contralateral side
where it enters the cerebellum
• Arcuatocerebellar tract – inferiorly displaced pontine nuclei that get input from
cerebral cortex

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LE VE L OF THE
DE CUSSATION
OF THE
PYRAMIDS

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LE V E L O F
D E C U SSAT IO N
O F T HE M E D IAL
LE M N ISC U S

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LEVEL OF THE
OLIVES

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CRANIAL
NERVES

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PONS

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ANTERIOR
SURFACE

• Anterior surface is also known

as the basilar surface
• Has a basilar groove between
two bulges which are caused by
the pyramidal tracts
• The lateral part of the pons
continues to the cerebellum via
the middle cerebellar peduncles

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POSTERIOR
SURFACE
• Posterior surface also known as
the tegmentum
• Separated from the medulla by the
Striae medullares
• Median sulcus centrally running
vertically with the facial colliculi
elevations either side. Superiorly
the colliculi become the medial
eminence which is restricted
laterally by the sulcus limitans
• Sulcus limitans continues to form
the locus coeruleus (blue)
• Most laterally is the vestibular area
and the acoustic tubercle just
superior to the corner of the
rhomboid fossa

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TRIG EMINAL
S YS TEM NU C L EI
WITHIN THE
BRAINS TEM

• Main sensory nuclei for touch is

present in the pons lateral to the
sulcus limitans
• Spinal nucleus for pain and
temperature is present in the medulla
• Mesencephalic nucleus for
proprioception is present in the
midbrain
• Motor nucleus of the trigeminal also
in the pons just lateral to the main
sensory for muscles of mastication
and the muscles of the palate and
eardrum

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FAC I A L
C O L L I C U LU S

• Abducens nuclei just below the

facial colliculus gives the
abducens nerve which
innervates the lateral rectus of
the eye
• Facial nuclei present in the
facial colliculus innervates
muscles of the facial expression
receiving corticonuclear fibres
from the cortex
• The colliculus itself is made by
the facial nerve looping around
the abducens nuclei

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OTH E R N U C L E I O F
TH E FAC I A L N E RVE

• Superior salivatory and lacrimal

nuclei for lacrimal gland
• Nucleus tractus solitarius for
taste

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COCHLEAR NUCLEI

• Ventral and dorsal nuclei that produce the acoustic

tubercle on each side(fibres from the dorsal part
forms the Striae medullares
• They meet medially at the trapezoid body of 3
nuclei ant., mid. and post.
• They then cross and become the lateral lemniscus
(some fibres don’t cross)- impulses from both ears
• Terminates at the inferior colliculus of midbrain
• The posterior nucleus also known as the superior
olivary nucleus sends fibres back to the ear hairs as
an inhibitor
•

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VESTIBULAR NUCLEI

• In the vestibular area of rhomboid fossa

• 4; medial superior inferior and lateral
• Some fibres of vestibular nerve relay at the nuclei and enter the
cerebellum by the inf. Peduncle. Others don’t relay and go straight to
the cerebellum via the VESTIBULOCEREBELLAR tract
• Some of the fibres from the nuclei form the MEDIAL
LONGITUDINAL FASCICULUS and that gives vestibulocochlear
reflexes, which innervate the muscles of the eyes

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OTHER PARTS
OF THE DORSAL
PONS

• Reticular formation
• Efferent pathways
• Rubrospinal tract
• Tectospinal tract
• Afferent pathway
• Medial lemniscus
• Spinotectal tract
• Anterior spinocerebellar tract

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L O C U S C O E RU L E US

• Largest accumulation of
adrenergic neurones in the
brain
• Connects with many structures
having excitatory function

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CEREBELLUM

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ROLES

• Regulation of muscle tone (proprioception)

• Maintaining equilibrium and balance
• Coordination of voluntary movement
• Motor learning and planning
• Connected to the brainstem using peduncles- inf, mid, and sup

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E X TE RN AL
M O RP H O L OG Y SU P.

• To cerebellar hemispheres with separating vermis

• Lingula
• Central lobe – ala
• Culmen – quadrangular lobe
• Decive – quadrangular lobe
• Folium – semilunar
• Tuber – semilunar
• Pyramid – biventral
• Uvula – tonsil
• Nodulus – flocculus
• Primary fissure between culmen and declive
• Horizontal fissure between folium and tuber
• Posterolateral fissure between uvula and the
flocculus

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INTERNAL STRUCTURE

• Grey matter
• Dentate nucleus – largest nucleus in the cerebellum resembling
the inferior olivary complex for motor precision, motor learning
and motor memory
• Emboliform, globose and fastigial nuclei- medial to the dentate
nucleus for the posture and muscle tone
• Nodulus and flocculus on inferior aspect for the equilibrium
• Cerebellar Cortex
• White matter
• Arbor vitae (tree like structure)
• fibres

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CEREBELLAR
CORTEX

• External molecular layer (inhibitor

neurons)
• Stellate cells
• Basket cells
• Middle purkinje layer
• Single layer purkinje cell bodies
• Inner granular layer
• Golgi cells
• Granule cells (axon reaches the
molecular level but then splits and
forms 2 parallel fibres travelling along
the foliae)

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EXCITATORY FIBRES
OF THE CORTEX

• Both of the types end up stimulating the

purkinje cells
• Mossy fibres join the granule cells which then
end up at the parallel fibres which stimulate
the purkinje cells fibres
• Climbing fibres climb from the inferior olivary
complex and directly stimulate the fibres of
the purkinje cells

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AFFERENT FIBRES (INPUT)

• Inferior cerebellar peduncle

• Post. Spinocerebellar tract
• Olivocerebellar tract
• Middle cerebellar peduncle
• Pontocerebellar tract
• Superior cerebellar peduncle
• Anterior cerebellar tract
• Reticulocerebellar tract
• Locus coeruleus of pontine tegmentum

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EFFERENT FIBRES

• Superior cerebellar peduncle

• Cerebellorubral
• Cerebellothalamic
• Cerebelloreticular
• Inferior cerebellar peduncle
• Cerebelloolivary
• Cerebellovestibular

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4 TH VENTRICLE

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LOC ATION

• Posterior to the pons and the pons and

the superior medulla and anterior to
the cerebellum
• Below is the central canal of the
medulla
• Above is the cerebral aqueduct which
links it to the 3rd ventricle
• Lined centrally of ependymal cells
• Contains CSF

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BORDERS

• Floor – rhomboid fossa of the medulla

• Roof – superior and inferior medullary
velum

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FORAMENS

• Three total foramina

• 2 lateral apertures (luschka
foramina)
• 1 median aperture (foramen
magendie)
• These foramen allow for the
CSF to pass from the
ventricles to the
subarachnoid space

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CHOROID
PLEXUS

• The choroid plexus is on the

inferior half of the 4th ventricle
• Allows for the production of
CSF fluid.
• Covered by a layer of
ependymal cells
• Supplied by the posterior
inferior cerebellar arteries

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MIDBRAIN

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LOC ATION

• It lies in-between the

diencephalon superiorly and
the pons inferiorly
• It contains the cerebral
aqueduct which connects
the 4th ventricle inferiorly to
the 3rd ventricle superiorly
• Connects posteriorly to the
cerebellum via the superior
cerebellar peduncles

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ANTERIOR
SURFACE
ANATOMY

• Ventral portion of the midbrain shows

us the cerebral peduncle mainly which
includes the crus cerebri and the
tegmentum
• We can see the oculomotor nerve
emerging from the interpeduncular
fossa
• The trochlear nerve travels laterally
from the back of the midbrain (level of
inf. Colliculus of the tectum) and is the
only cranial nerve emerging from the
post aspect of the body
• The floor of the interpeduncular fossa
has the posterior perforated substance
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P O STE RI OR
SU RFAC E A N ATO M Y

• The posterior surface has

two 4 main structures
• The inferior and superior
colliculi for spinoauditory
spinovisual reflexes
• The medial and lateral
geniculate bodies which are
lateral to the colliculi

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INTERNAL
MORPHOLOGY

• Made up of two main parts

• Cerebral peduncle
• Crus cerebri
• Contains pyramidal tract fibres
• Tegmentum
• Contains the periaqueductal
grey matter
• Substantia nigra
• Red nucleus
• Tectum
• Contains the colliculi

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CRUS CEREBRI

• Through the medial part

travels the frontopontine
fibres
• Through the middle part
travels the corticospinal
tracts and the corticonuclear
tracts
• Through the lateral part
travels 3 main tracts
parietopontine,
temporopontine and
occipitopontine tracts

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TEGMENTUM AT
LEVEL OF SUP
COLLICULUS

• Oculomotor nuclei of 2 parts

• Motor part – conscious movement of
eye muscles
• Parasympathetic part – for sphincter of
the pupil and ciliary muscles
• Red nucleus – throughout the midbrain,
deals with modulation of voluntary
movements. Input from the cerebellum
and the cortex. Output to inf. Olivary
nucleus, to the Rubrospinal tract and the
reticular formation. Decussation of the
fibres from the red nucleus occurs at this
level
• All the three previously talked about
lemniscus
• Superior colliculus is used for spinovisual
reflexes
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TEGMENTUM AT
LEVEL OF INF
COLLICULUS

• Trochlear nucleus in the anterior

periaqueductal grey matter for muscles
of the eye
• Superior cerebellar peduncle at this
level decussation occurs for this tract
at this level also
• All the lemniscuses medial, lateral and
trigeminal

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SUBSTANTIA NIGRA

• Regulates muscle tone and lies just posterior to the crus cerebri
• 2 main parts
• Compact – posterior part which is neuromelanin rich, projects to the basal ganglia
• Reticular – anterior part which connects to the thalamus, sup colliculus and reticular
formation

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TECTUM

• Dorsal most part with 4 elevations 2 sup and inf colliculi

• Sup colliculi – vision reflex centre with input from the
optic nerve, the spinal cord, and inferior colliculi which
then transmits to motor nuclei of the cranial nerves 3,4
and 6.
• Also transmits to; lateral geniculate bodies (via the
sup. Colliculus brachium), the medulla via tectospinal
tract, the pontine nuclei, reticular nuclei
• Inferior colliculi – for the nucleus of the inferior colliculi
which is the auditory reflex centre. It receives input
from the lateral lemniscus and then transmits the info to
the medial geniculate bodies via the inf colliculus
brachium

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DIENCEPHALON

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PARTS OF THE
DIENCEPHALON

• Part of the forebrain

• Made up of 5 parts
• Thalamus
• Metathalamus (geniculate
bodies)
• Epithalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Subthalamus
• Has the third ventricle in
between the right and left
diencephalon

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THALAMUS

• Has anterior tubercle and posterior pulvinar (rounded

back)
• Left and right connected by the interthalamic
adhesion
• Covered superiorly with the lamina affixia and above
it is the choroid tela of the 3rd ventricle
• Lateral to the thalamus is the internal capsule, and
laterally to that is the lentiform nucleus
• Separated to 3 groups of nuclei by thin white matter
• Lateral
• Medial
• anterior

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THALAMIC
NUCLEI

• The medial anterior and lateral

thalamic nuclei are separated
by an internal medullary lamina
(Y shaped)
• The lateral nuclei is separated
from the reticular nuclei by the
external medullary lamina

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ANTERIOR
GROUP

• Associated with the limbic

system with functions of
emotional tone and recent
memory
• They have connections with
the mamillary bodies, the
cingulate gyrus and the
hypothalamus

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MEDIAL
GROUP

• Dorsomedial nucleus is the

main nucleus
• Used for converting sensory
info to emotions
• Linked with the lateral
thalamic nuclei and the
hypothalamus
• Also has a bidirectional link
to the prefrontal cortex

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LATERAL
GROUP
• Dorsal tier (towards internal medullary
lamina) for association cortex for general
senses and connections to other thalamic
nuclei
• Lateral dorsal
• Lateral posterior
• Pulvinar
• Ventral tier (outer side)
• Ventral anterior with input from Globus
pallidus and substantia nigra and output to the
motor cortex
• Ventral lateral similar connections to anterior
but has red nucleus and cerebellum input
• Ventral posterior
• VPMN input from trigeminal lemniscus and
output to post central gyrus through
internal capsule
• VPLN input from DCML and output to
primary sensory cortex

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METATHALAMUS

• Pair of geniculate bodies

• Medial deals with sound which gets input from
the inferior colliculus via the inferior brachium
• Lateral deals with vision which gets input from
the superior colliculus via the superior
brachium

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EPITHALAMUS

• Above the thalamus

• Habenular nucleus which is
linked to the limbic system
• Pineal gland at the end of the
pineal stalk releasing melatonin
and serotonin for the circadian
rhythm i.e. sleeping

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H YP OTH A LA MU S
L O C ATI O N

• Below the thalamus but anterior on the

medial surface of the diencephalon
• Extends from the optic chiasm to the
mamillary bodies
• Hypothalamus includes
• Optic chiasm
• Mamillary bodies (limbic system, memory)
• Tuber cinerum (eminence behind optic
chiasm which continues to pituitary stalk)
• The hypothalamus divided into medial
and lateral parts by the pars tecta and
the mammillothalamic tract

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ME DIAL GROUP
NUCLE I

• Anterior nuclei – thirst perception

• Paraventricular nucleus – releases
oxytocin
• Dorsomedial and ventromedial nuclei –
used for the control of release of
hormones.
• Arcuate nucleus – food promoting i.e.
makes food seem appetizing
• Posterior nucleus – for controlling the
sympathetic nervous system and
thermal regulation

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LATE RAL
GROUP NUCLE I

• Supraoptic nuclei – synthesises

ADH for water reabsorption
• Lateral nuclei
• Tuberomammillary nucleus
• Tuberal nucleus

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AFFERENT AND
EFFERENT
C O N N E C T I ON S

• The efferent connections

mainly control autonomic
systems e.g.
• Pain modulation via
periaqueductal grey matter
• Medulla to control heart rate,
blood pressure and respiration
• Also send to the limbic
system e.g. mammillothalamic
tract for the

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MAIN HYPOTHALAMUS USE

Mainly the hypothalamus is used to regulate the autonomic

nervous system and to control homeostasis

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SUBTHALAMIC
REGION

• Lateral and inferior to the

hypothalamus and medial to the
internal capsule
• Binded to the thalamus using 2
nerve bundles both of which
link the thalamus to the
internal Globus pallidus
• Ansa lenticularis
• Fasciculus lenticularis

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SUBTHALAMIC
NUCLEI

• Subthalamic nuclei (STN) –

superior to substantia nigra, has
double concave structure for
movement
• Zona incerta – is a continuation
of the mesencephalic reticular
formation for control of
voluntary movement

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THIRD VENTRICLE

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FUNCTION

• Allows for the circulation of

the from the 4th ventricle to
the lateral ventricles

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LOC ATION

• Between the two

diencephalons
• Connects anteriorly to the
lateral ventricle through the
intraventricular foramina of
Monroe
• Connects inferiorly with 4th
ventricle via cerebral aqueduct

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BORDERS

• Anterior – lamina terminalis

where the anterior
commissure of the two
temporal lobes are
• Posterior – pineal gland,
opening of cerebral aqueduct,
habenular commissure, and
the posterior commissure
• Floor – hypothalamus
• Roof – choroid telae of the
3rd ventricle

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TELENCEPHALON

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INTRO
• The telencephalon is the largest part of
the brain
• Separated medially by the longitudinal
cerebral fissure which contains the falx
cerebri
• Transverse cerebral hemisphere
separates the cerebrum from the
cerebellum and contains the tentorium
cerebelli
• Hemispheres connected via white
matter corpus callosum
• Each hemisphere has a lateral ventricle
• Each hemisphere has grey matter – basal
ganglia which forms the corpus striatum
due to them having integrated white
matter
• The cortex is more white matter also
known as the pallium

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SULCI AND GYRI SUPEROLATERAL

SURFACE

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SULCI AND GYRI MEDIAL SURFACE

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MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF THE

CEREBRAL CORTEX

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF
CELLS

• Pyramid cells
• Granule cells – 1/3rd of the cortical layer,
many in the granular layer
• Fusiform cells – mainly in deepest layer
• Horizontal cells (cajal) – in superficial layer
running parallel to surface
• Maritonotti cells – reach the granular layer

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L AYERS OF THE C EREBRAL C ORTEX

• Layers of cortex
• 1 – MOLECULAR layer. Mainly dendrites, glial cells, some horizontal cells.
Input from thalamus
• 2 – EXTERNAL GRANULAR layer. Small pyramid cells and granule cells.
• 3 – EXTERNAL PYRAMID layer. Has vertical neurons; pyramid neurons,
granule, fusiform and Maritonotti cells.
• 4 – INTERNAL GRANULAR layer. Many horizontal fibre as well as pyramid
and granular cells. Input from thalamus and the other parts of the cortex
• 5 – INTERNAL PYRAMID layer – varies in depending on localisation in brain
and function. Contains pyramid cells and granular and Maritonotti cells. In
primary motor cortex this layer has the giant pyramid cells of BETZ. Output
to the basal ganglia, brainstem and spinal cord
• 6 – POLYMORPHIC layer – many spindle like pyramid and multiform neurons.
Many cells of Maritonotti. Has many fibres running through this region to
allow it to reach the cortex. Output to the thalamus(precise)

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ARRANGEMENT OF NERVE FIBRES IN

THE CORTEX

• Radial fibres – bundles at layer 3 which thickens at deeper levels

• Tangential fibres – collateral and terminal fibres which form inner and outer
bands of BAILARGER at layer 4 and 5 (well developed in sensory cortices).
Can see on the calcarine sulcus (primary visual cortex) giving it the name
striate cortex.

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3 F U N C TI ON AL
L AYE RS O F TH E
C O RTE X

• Supragranular – 1-3 is the

interthalamic
• Internal granular – 4 has
thalamocortical connections
• Infragranular – 5 + 6 gives
cortical outputs

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DIFFERENT PROPORTIONS OF LAYERS

OF NEOCORTEX(ALL LAYERS)

• Granular type – mainly in sensory areas with poorly developed internal

pyramid layer but very prominent granular layers
• Agranular type – mainly in motor area – poor granular layers but a thick
internal pyramidal layer
• Homotypic type – mainly in association areas where all layers are represented
randomly

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ASYMMETRY OF
THE CORTEX
(DOMINANCE)

• Dominant hemisphere is the

one which deals with
handedness, perception of
language and speech
• Non dominant hemisphere
deals with spatial perception,
recognition of faces and music
• Dominance develops in the first
decade in life

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FUN CTION AL
L O C A L I S AT I O N O F T H E
C E R E B R A L C O RT E X

• The brain is mapped by

Broadmanns areas which are
associated with different
functions. There are 47
discrete areas.

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MOTOR CORTEX

• Precentral gyrus
• Primary motor = Broadmanns area 4
• Motor homunculus shows the proportionality of
motor function within the motor cortex
• Functions for the contralateral part of the body

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PREMOTOR
AREA

• In the frontal lobe just

anterior to the primary
motor
• Broadmanns areas 6, 8, 44
and 45
• Programmes initiates and
designs activity for the
primary motor area

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ASSOCIATION
MOTOR AREA
• Consist of the frontal eye field 6, 8 and
9
• Superior frontal gyrus and half of middle
frontal gyrus
• Connected with visual cortex and the
gaze centres in the reticular formation
• Consist of the motor area of speech
(Broca) 44 and 45
• Half of the inferior frontal gyrus
• Only in the DOMINANT HEMISPHERE

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PRIMARY SOMATOSENSORY
CORTEX

• Primary sensory cortex – Broadmanns area 1,2 and

3
• Present in the post central gyrus (and paracentral
lobule on the medial side)
• For pain, temperature touch and proprioception of
contralateral part of the body
• Also has a homunculus to show proportion

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SO M ATO SE N SORY
A SSO C I ATI ON A REA

• Broadmanns areas 5 and 7

• Uses the senses which are
received in the primary
somatosensory and is
recognised by past
experiences

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PRIMARY VIS UAL

C ORTEX

• Also known as V1
• Broadmanns area 17
• In the calcarine sulcus
• Called the striate cortex due
to presence of Striae visible
with the eye
• Optic chiasm crosses to
contralateral geniculate body.
This then passes to ipsilateral
visual cortex. So overall
connection is contralateral

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S EC ONDARY
VIS UAL C ORTEX

• Also known as V2
• Broadmanns areas 18 and 19
• Lacks Striae like the primary visual
cortex
• Receive input from V1 and
processes info
• Sends info to other areas for spatial
awareness and recognition

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AUDITORY
CORTEX

• In the temporal lobe

• Primary is the floor of the lateral
sulcus of Broadmanns areas 41
and 42
• The function is to detect
frequency, volume and
direction of sound
• Secondary is in the Broadmanns
area 21 posteriorly and inferiorly
to the primary
• Use is for detecting harmony
or rhythm

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SPEECH AREA
(WERNICKE)

• Only found in DOMINANT hemisphere in

the Broadmanns area 39(angular gyrus),
40(supramarginal gyrus) and 22 (superior
temporal gyrus)
• 39 – reading
• 40 – writing
• 22 – listening to speech

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OLFACTORY
CORTEX

• The primary olfactory cortex

takes input from the mitral and
tufted cells of the olfactory
bulb
• Secondary olfactory cortex lies
just anterior to posterior and
takes the information and
identifies odours

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TASTE
CORTEX

• In Broadmanns area 43
within the insula and the
superior wall of the lateral
sulcus
• Receives input from the
VPMN

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PREFRONTAL CORTEX

• Anterior to the primary motor cortex

• Broadmanns areas 9-12 + 44-47 + 24 + 32
• For complex behaviour, expression of
personality and appropriate social
behaviour.

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CEREBRAL
WHITE MATTER

• Made up of myelinated
axons below the cortex of
the cerebrum
• Three main types of fibres
• Association
• Commissure
• Projection
• All three sets of fibres mix
under the cortex at a place
called the centrum
semiovale

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ASSOCIATION FIBRES

• Made up of long fibres and short (arcuate) fibres

• Sup. Longitudinal connects frontal to occipital
• Contains the arcuate fasciculus which connects the Broca
area to the Wernicke for speech

• Inf. Longitudinal connects temporal to occipital

• Uncinate connects frontal to frontal with temporal
• Cingulum connects the cingulate gyrus (above corpus
callosum) to the entorhinal cortex (where the uncus is)

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COMMISSURAL FIBRES

• Connects SYMMETRICAL regions of the two separate

hemispheres
• The anterior commissure connects the two olfactory bulbs
and connect the temporal lobes
• The commissure of the fornix connects the 2 crura of the
fornix just under the splenium of the corpus callosum
• The corpus callosum has 4 parts rostrum, genu, body and
splenium which connects a large amount of the two lobes. Genu
forms the forceps minor. Splenium forms the forceps major
• Some fibres of the corpus callosum enter the lateral ventricle
called the tapetum
• Some fibres of the corpus callosum enter the cingulate gyrus
called the indusium griseum

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FORNIX

• Linked with the hippocampus

and with the limbic system
• Just below the corpus callosum
• Anterior part meets the
mamillary bodies of the
hypothalamus
• Body splits into two crura
posteriorly

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PROJECTION
FIBRES

• Ascending and descending

projection fibres link the
cortex to the lower CNS
• The descending fibres gather at
the corona radiata and then the
internal capsule

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INTERNAL C APSULE

• The thalamus and the caudate nucleus lies

medially whilst the lentiform
nucleus(Globus pallidus and putamen) lies
laterally
• Allows for projection fibres to pass
• Thalamocortical (ascending) tracts pass on
the anterior limb
• Genu(middle) has the corticospinal tract
for the FACE
• Corticospinal for the ARMS, TRUNK AND
LEGS pass through anterior limb in that
order

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B ASAL
GANGLIA

• Group of grey matter

• Relay station before the
cortex
• Made up of the caudate
nucleus, the lentiform
nucleus (putamen and
Globus pallidus)
• The substantia nigra
(midbrain) and the
subthalamic nucleus also
belong here functionally.

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C AUDATE
NUCLEUS

• Borders the thalamus with the

thalamostriate vein and slightly
enters the lateral ventricle
• Has a head body and a tail
• forms the striatum with the
putamen

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LENTIFORM
NUCLEUS

• Wedge shaped, separated from the

caudate by the internal capsule
• Darker lateral putamen
• Lighter medial Globus pallidus
• Putamen and the caudate is
known as the striatum
• The striatum receives input from
many brain areas but then sends
output only to other components
of the basal ganglia
• Pallidus is older so is known as
the pallidum

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RHINENCEPHALON AND LIMBIC

SYSTEM

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RHINENCEPHALON

• The apparatus and tracts which are for smelling

• On the basal surface of the anterior lobe and the
anterior part of the temporal lobe
• Starts at olfactory bulb – olfactory tract – olfactory
surface
• 3 Striae formed at the surface. (tracts)
• Medial crosses through the anterior commissure to the
opposite hemisphere
• Intermediate enters anterior perforated substance
• Lateral goes to the limen insula and ends up at the temporal
lobe

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CORTICAL
REPRESENTATION

• 4 regions
• Piriform around the limen
insulae
• Periamygdamloid area
(anterior)
• Entorhinal area (anterior to the
hippocampal gyrus)
• Olfactory tubercle deep to
anterior perforated substance

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OLFACTORY BULB

• Lies in cribriform plate

• Has 2 main types of cells
• Mitral cells (deeper)
• Tufted cells (closer to the surface)
• Also contains inhibitory granular cells

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O R D E R O F T R AC T S
T R AV E LLED O F T HE
LAT E R AL ST R IAE

• Most of the fibres move along

the lateral Striae to the
ipsilateral olfactory cortex
1. Piriform area
2. Periamygdaloid/ entorhinal
area
3. Other centres in the brain

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INTERMEDIATE STRIAE

• The intermediate Striae sends the fibres

through the anterior perforated substance
which goes to the OLFACTORY
TUBERCLE which is a multi sensory area
• It integrates information from different senses

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LIMBIC
SYSTEM
• Responsible for the emotional visceral
response (drinking, eating, sexual
activity, looking after offspring) and
memory
• Located in the limbic lobe which is a
ring consisting of the cingulate gyrus,
the Para hippocampal gyrus, and the
septal cortex
• Consists of
• Limbic lobe
• Hippocampus & fornix
• Amygdala
• Septal area
• Mammillary bodies
• Hypothalamic nuclei
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C I N G U L ATE G YRU S

• Linked with the anterior

thalamic nuclei
• Linked also with the
parahippocampal gyrus and the
septal area via cingulum
association fibres
• Function is the generation or
control of emotional or visceral
response

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HIPPOC AMPAL
FORMATION

• Made up of
• Dentate gyrus
• Subiculum
• hippocampus

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HIPPOC AMPUS

• Enters the cavity of the inferior horn of the lateral

ventricle.
• Isolated from the lateral ventricle by the alveus
(veil formed by pyramidal cells)
• Subiculum is the transition from hippocampus to
parahippocampus
• Only has 3 cell layers unlike the rest of the cortex
• Polymorphic
• Pyramidal
• Molecular
• After reaching the subiculum it gains more
cell layers and then at the entorhinal area it
is back to 5 like the rest of the cortex
• Dentate gyrus is a continuation of the uncus
from the parahippocampal gyrus

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FORNIX

• Linked with the hippocampus

• Just below the corpus callosum
• Anterior part meets the
mamillary bodies of the
hypothalamus
• Body splits into two crura
posteriorly

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AMYGDALA

• Located anterior to the

temporal lobe of the lateral
ventricle
• 2 types of nuclei
• Corticomedial from autonomic
system
• Basolateral from prefrontal
cortex via uncinate fasciculus
• Main function is processing and
memorising emotional events.

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SEPTAL AREA

• The site of interaction

between the diencephalon
and the hippocampus
• Anterior to the
hypothalamus
• Consists of
• Septal nucleus
• Septum pellucidum
• Gyrus paraterminalis
• Area subcallosa

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HABENULAR NUCLEI AND

MAMILLARY BODIES

• Medial and lateral habenular nuclei in the habenular

trigone transmit to the intralaminar thalamic nucleus
and the interpeduncular nucleus
• Mamillary bodies medial and lateral nuclei within.
They transmit to the tegmentum in the midbrain via
the thalamus

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THALAMIC NUCLEI

• Some thalamic nuclei are integrated in the limbic system e.g

• Anterior nuclei
• Medial dorsal nuclei
• Some intralaminar nuclei

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G E N E R A L OV E RV IE W
OF FUNCTION OF
LIMBIC SYSTEM

• Linking with cerebral cortex

• Linking with hypothalamus
and the reticular formation
• For integration of conscious
nervous system with
autonomic system

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LATERAL VENTRICLE

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INTRO

• The last part of the ventricular system which

is continuous with the 3 rd ventricle via the
interventricular foramina of Monroe
• Has frontal, temporal and occipital horn as
well as a central part
• Contains C.S.F
• Contains choroid plexus continuous with the
3rd ventricle
• Between the body of the fornix and the
thalamus

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FRONTAL HORN

• Lies in the frontal lobe and has

the separate left and right by
the septum pellucidum
• Space between them also called
the cavum septum pelucidi
• Contains some neurons here
which are part of the limbic
system

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CENTRAL PART

• Bound superiorly by the corpus

callosum and inferiorly by the
thalamus
• Meets the occipital horn and
the temporal horn at the
collateral trigone

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OCCIPITAL
HORN

• Apex pointed to the occipital

lobe
• Binded superiorly by the
tapetum (grey matter lining the
corpus callosum)

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TEMPORAL
HORN

• Roof formed by tapetum and

caudate nucleus
• Medial wall formed by the
hippocampus

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