THE WORKING AND FUNCTIONING OF AIRPLANES

( In Integration with Physics )

1. INTRODUCTION

A plane flies through the combination of several scientific principles and

technologies. Here's a brief overview of how a plane flies and the role of its
engine, Bernoulli's principle, and air pressure resistance:

1. Engine: The plane's engine provides the thrust required to overcome drag and
generate lift. The engine works by burning fuel, which produces a high-velocity
stream of hot gases that exit the back of the engine, creating a force called thrust
that propels the plane forward.

2. Bernoulli's Principle: This principle explains how the difference in air

pressure above and below a wing generates lift. When air flows over the curved
surface of a wing, it has to travel further than air flowing underneath the wing.
According to Bernoulli's principle, the faster-moving air above the wing creates
an area of low pressure, while the slower-moving air below the wing creates an
area of high pressure. This pressure difference generates lift and allows the
plane to stay aloft.

3. Air Pressure Resistance: Air pressure resistance, or drag, is the force that
opposes the motion of the plane through the air. Drag is caused by several
factors, including the friction between the air and the surface of the plane, the
shape of the plane, and the turbulence caused by the movement of the plane
through the air. To reduce drag, planes are designed with streamlined shapes and
smooth surfaces.

In summary, a plane flies by using its engine to generate thrust, Bernoulli's

principle to generate lift, and minimising air pressure resistance (drag) to
maintain the flight.
 2. PLANE CRASHES

Plane crashes can have various reasons from a physics perspective. Here are a
few examples:

1. Mechanical Failure: A plane crash can occur due to mechanical failure, such
as an engine malfunction or a structural issue with the plane. These issues can
cause a loss of control or a decrease in lift, making it difficult or impossible for
the pilot to maintain flight.

2. Loss of Lift: A loss of lift can also cause a plane crash. This can happen when
the angle of attack of the wings is too high, causing the airflow over the wings
to become turbulent and lose lift. This can also happen when the plane is flying
too slowly or encounters wind shear, a sudden change in wind speed or
direction.

3. Weather Conditions: Poor weather conditions, such as fog, heavy rain, or

thunderstorms, can cause a plane crash. These conditions can make it difficult
for the pilot to see and maintain control of the plane, or can cause turbulence
that affects the plane's stability.

4. Human Error: Human error is another common cause of plane crashes. This
can include errors made by the pilot, air traffic control, or maintenance
personnel. For example, a pilot might make a mistake in judgment or fail to
follow proper procedures, or a maintenance worker might fail to identify and fix
a mechanical issue.

5. Sabotage or Terrorism: Unfortunately, plane crashes can also occur due to

intentional acts of sabotage or terrorism. These incidents can involve
explosives, hijackings, or other violent acts that cause the plane to crash.

In summary, plane crashes can have various reasons from a physics perspective,
including mechanical failure, loss of lift, poor weather conditions, human error,
and intentional acts of sabotage or terrorism.
 3. THE ENGINE

i) Types of Engines

The engine of the aeroplane has undergone significant evolution over the years.
Here's a brief overview of some of the major developments in airplane engine
technology:

1. Early Engines: The earliest airplane engines were typically lightweight,

low-powered engines that used a simple combustion process. These engines
were typically powered by gasoline, and they produced relatively low levels of
thrust.

2. Radial Engines: In the 1920s and 1930s, radial engines became popular for
their high power-to-weight ratio. These engines were characterized by a circular
array of cylinders that surrounded a central crankshaft, and they produced more
power than earlier engines.

3. Turboprop Engines: In the 1940s and 1950s, the development of turboprop

engines revolutionized airplane technology. These engines used a gas turbine to
drive a propeller, which produced more power and efficiency than earlier
engines.

4. Jet Engines: The first practical jet engine was developed in the 1930s, and it
quickly became the standard engine for commercial and military airplanes. Jet
engines use the principles of Newton's third law of motion to produce thrust,
which allows planes to travel at higher speeds and altitudes than earlier engines.

5. High-Bypass Turbofan Engines: In the 1960s and 1970s, high-bypass

turbofan engines were developed. These engines combine the power and
efficiency of jet engines with the noise-reducing properties of turboprop
engines. High-bypass turbofan engines are now the standard for commercial
airplanes.
6. Electric Engines: In recent years, there has been growing interest in
developing electric engines for airplanes. These engines use electric motors
powered by batteries or fuel cells, which offer the potential for significant
improvements in efficiency and environmental sustainability.

In summary, the engine of the airplane has evolved significantly over the years,
from simple combustion engines to high-tech jet engines and beyond. These
developments have enabled airplanes to travel faster, farther, and more
efficiently than ever before.

ii) Parts of Engines

The engine of a plane is a complex machine that typically consists of several

different parts that work together to generate thrust and propel the aircraft
forward. Here are some of the main parts of an airplane engine:

1. Intake: The intake is the part of the engine that brings air into the engine. The
intake is typically located at the front of the engine and is designed to funnel air
into the engine efficiently.

2. Compressor: The compressor is responsible for compressing the air that

enters the engine. This compressed air is then mixed with fuel and ignited to
produce a high-pressure stream of hot gases.

3. Combustion Chamber: The combustion chamber is where the fuel and

compressed air are mixed and ignited to create a high-temperature,
high-pressure gas stream that produces thrust.

4. Turbine: The turbine is a set of blades that are driven by the hot gases
produced in the combustion chamber. The turbine is connected to the
compressor and other parts of the engine and helps to keep the engine running
smoothly.

5. Exhaust: The exhaust is the part of the engine that expels the hot gases
produced during combustion. The exhaust is typically located at the back of the
engine and is designed to direct the hot gases away from the plane.
6. Accessories: In addition to these main components, airplane engines may also
include a variety of accessories, such as oil pumps, fuel pumps, and electrical
generators, which help to keep the engine running smoothly and provide power
to other systems on the plane.

In summary, the engine of a plane is a complex machine that includes several

different parts that work together to produce thrust and propel the aircraft
forward. These parts include the intake, compressor, combustion chamber,
turbine, exhaust, and various accessories.
 4. JET AND COMMERCIAL ENGINES

The terms "jet engine" and "commercial aircraft engine" are sometimes used
interchangeably, but they refer to different aspects of an aircraft's propulsion
system. Let's clarify the difference between the two:

1. Jet Engine:
- A jet engine is a type of propulsion system that generates thrust by expelling
a high-speed jet of exhaust gases.
- Jet engines can be categorized into several types, including turbojet,
turbofan, turboprop, and turbo-shaft engines.
- Jet engines are used in various applications, not limited to commercial
aviation. They power military aircraft, general aviation planes, and even some
small drones.

2. Commercial Aircraft Engine:

- The term "commercial aircraft engine" typically refers to the engines used on
commercial airliners, which are large passenger or cargo planes designed for air
transportation services.
- Commercial aircraft engines are usually high-bypass turbofan engines. These
engines are efficient and provide the necessary thrust for large and heavy
aircraft used in commercial aviation.
- Commercial aircraft engines are specifically designed for the needs of
transporting passengers or cargo over long distances, and they are optimized for
fuel efficiency and reliability.

In summary, a jet engine is a broad category that includes various types of

propulsion systems, while a commercial aircraft engine refers specifically to the
engines used on commercial airliners. Commercial aircraft engines are a subset
of jet engines, and they are designed with specific features to meet the
requirements of large-scale air transportation.
 5. THE PHYSICS BEHIND IT

Aeroplanes are able to fly because of the four main forces acting upon them:
lift, weight, thrust, and drag. These forces work together to allow an aeroplane
to overcome the force of gravity and achieve flight.

Lift is the force that opposes the weight of an aeroplane and holds it in the air. It
is created by the shape and speed of the aeroplane's wings, which are specially
designed to produce lift. As an aeroplane moves through the air, the air passing
over the wings is affected by the shape of the wings. The air molecules passing
over the curved surface of the wing are moving faster than the air molecules
passing underneath the flat surface of the wing. This creates a difference in air
pressure, with the air pressure under the wing being higher than the air pressure
over the wing. The difference in air pressure creates an upward force, which is
lift.

Weight is the force of gravity that pulls the aeroplane towards the ground. The
weight of an aeroplane is determined by its mass and the strength of the
gravitational field it is in. In order for an aeroplane to fly, it must generate
enough lift to overcome its weight.

Thrust is the force that propels an aeroplane forward. It is created by the

engines, which can be either propellers or jets. The engines push the aeroplane
forward by producing a flow of high-speed air, which provides the necessary
thrust to overcome the drag force acting on the aeroplane.

Drag is the force that opposes the forward motion of an aeroplane and slows it
down. Drag is created by the resistance of the air against the surface of the
aeroplane. The more streamlined the shape of the aeroplane, the less drag it
experiences.

In order to fly, an aeroplane must generate enough lift to overcome its weight
and enough thrust to overcome the drag. The pilot can control the lift and thrust
by adjusting the angle of attack of the wings and the power of the engines. The
angle of attack is the angle between the wing and the oncoming air stream. By
increasing the angle of attack, the pilot can increase the lift, allowing the
aeroplane to climb. By decreasing the angle of attack, the pilot can decrease the
lift and allow the aeroplane to descend.

The pilot can also control the speed of the aeroplane by adjusting the thrust. By
increasing the thrust, the pilot can increase the speed of the aeroplane, allowing
it to climb or maintain altitude. By decreasing the thrust, the pilot can decrease
the speed of the aeroplane, allowing it to descend.

Once an aeroplane is in flight, the pilot must also consider other factors that can
affect the performance of the aeroplane. For example, changes in air
temperature and pressure can affect the lift and drag, making it necessary for the
pilot to adjust the angle of attack and thrust. The pilot must also consider wind
conditions, which can affect the speed and direction of the aeroplane.

In conclusion, aeroplanes are able to fly because of the interplay of the four
main forces: lift, weight, thrust, and drag. The pilot can control the lift and
thrust by adjusting the angle of attack of the wings and the power of the
engines, allowing the aeroplane to maintain altitude, climb, and descend. To be
successful, the pilot must consider the effects of changing conditions and make
necessary adjustments to maintain the desired flight path.
 6. BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

While it's commonly stated that Bernoulli's principle explains lift in aviation, it's
essential to note that the complete picture of lift involves several factors, and
Bernoulli's theorem is just one part of the explanation. Bernoulli's principle
states that as the speed of a fluid (such as air) increases, its pressure decreases,
and vice versa.

In the context of aviation, the shape of the wing plays a crucial role. Aircraft
wings are designed with an airfoil shape, which is curved on the top and flatter
on the bottom. As an airplane moves through the air, the shape of the wing
causes the air above the wing to travel faster than the air beneath it. According
to Bernoulli's principle, the faster-moving air above the wing creates lower
pressure compared to the slower-moving air beneath the wing. This pressure
difference generates lift.

However, it's crucial to recognize that lift is a result of various factors, including
Bernoulli's principle, Newton's third law of motion, and the angle of attack of
the wing.

1. *Bernoulli's Principle:* As mentioned, the faster airflow over the curved

upper surface of the wing results in lower pressure, contributing to lift.

2. *Newton's Third Law:* Lift can also be explained by Newton's third law of
motion, which states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction. The downward deflection of air by the wing (action) results in an
upward force (reaction), which is lift.

3. *Angle of Attack:* The angle at which the wing meets the oncoming air,
known as the angle of attack, is crucial. A moderate angle of attack is necessary
for optimal lift.

In summary, while Bernoulli's principle plays a role in lift generation, the

complete explanation involves a combination of factors. Understanding lift as a
result of the interaction between the shape of the wing, the angle of attack, and
the principles of fluid dynamics provides a more accurate depiction of how
airplanes fly.
 7. THE HISTORY

The history of airplane engines is a fascinating journey marked by innovation,

engineering breakthroughs, and the relentless pursuit of improved performance.
Here is a brief overview of key milestones in the history of airplane engines:

1. **Wright Brothers' First Flight (1903):**

- The Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur, made history with the first
powered, controlled, and sustained flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
- Their aircraft, the Wright Flyer, was powered by a 12-horsepower,
four-cylinder engine designed and built by the brothers.

2. **World War I Era (1914-1918):**

- The war accelerated aircraft development, leading to advancements in
engine design.
- Rotary engines, where the entire engine spins with the propeller, gained
popularity. Examples include the Le Rhône and the Bentley BR1.

3. **Interwar Period (1919-1939):**

- Liquid-cooled inline engines, such as the Rolls-Royce Merlin and the
Daimler-Benz DB 601, became prominent.
- Radial engines, like the Pratt & Whitney R-1340 Wasp, were widely used,
particularly in military aircraft.

4. **World War II (1939-1945):**

- The war saw significant progress in engine technology. Aircraft like the
Supermarine Spitfire and the North American P-51 Mustang were powered by
high-performance engines.
- Jet engines emerged during this period, with the Messerschmitt Me 262
becoming the first operational jet-powered fighter.

5. **Jet Age (Post-World War II):**

- The post-war era saw a rapid transition from propeller-driven to jet-powered
aircraft.
- The Gloster Meteor and the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star were among the
early jet-powered aircraft.
6. **Turbojets to Turbofans (1950s-1960s):**
- Turbojet engines evolved into more fuel-efficient turbofans. Turbofans, like
the Pratt & Whitney JT3D, provided greater thrust and improved fuel efficiency.

7. **High-Bypass Turbofans (1970s-1980s):**

- High-bypass turbofan engines, exemplified by the CFM56 and the General
Electric CF6, became standard for commercial airliners, offering increased fuel
efficiency and quieter operation.

8. **Modern Era (1990s-Present):**

- Advancements in materials, design, and computer technology led to highly
efficient and powerful engines.
- High-bypass turbofans, exemplified by the General Electric GE90 and the
Rolls-Royce Trent series, power many contemporary commercial aircraft.

9. **Emergence of Advanced Technologies:**

- Modern engines incorporate advanced technologies such as composite
materials, digital controls, and improved aerodynamics for increased efficiency
and reduced environmental impact.

The history of airplane engines is a testament to human ingenuity and the

continuous quest for better performance, efficiency, and safety in aviation.