LAB 1

AVOMETERS
(ANALOG MULTIMETERS)
AVOMETER EIGHT Mk.7
Objectives:
1‐ Analog AVOmeter vs. Digital AVOmeter.
2‐ Measuring procedures of AVOMETER EIGHT Mk.7.
3‐ Voltage and current’s ranges and readings.

4‐ Ohmmeter reading method.

5‐ Resistor color coding series:
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Gray 8
White 9
None 20%
Silver 10%
Gold 5%
 LAB 2

VLOTMETER–AMMETER
METHOD OF MEASURING
RESISTANCE

1
 VOLTMETER AMMETER METHOD OF MEASURING RESISTANCE is a
measuring method that is used to find the value of an unknown resistor Rx
by measuring the current through the resistor Rx (using Ammeter) and
measuring the voltage across the resistor Rx (using Voltmeter), and then
calculating its value using Ohms law:

 In general, the ammeter internal resistance is low (zero for ideal ammeter)
and the voltmeter internal resistance is high (infinite for ideal voltmeter).

 In Figure (2‐1), the voltmeter reads the true value of the load voltage VX
and the ammeter reads the supply current IS. If Rx is small compared to the
internal resistance of the voltmeter, the current drawn by the voltmeter
internal resistance is negligible and the supply current IS is very close to the
true value of the load current IX. Therefore, the connection of Figure (2‐1) is
the best circuit when measuring low‐resistance values.

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Example 2‐1)
We have two resistors, one of them is 100Ω and the other one is 300KΩ. We want
to measure these two resistors using the Voltmeter Ammeter Method and using
figure (2‐1) only. The Ammeter has an internal resistance RA = 200Ω and the
voltmeter has an internal resistance Rv = 600KΩ and E = 5V. Find the measured
values of the two resistors and find the error of measurement as a percent of
their true values.
Solution
a. Rx = 100Ω
When Rx = 100Ω in figure (2‐1), the Ammeter reading will be the source
current Is which is the sum of the currents through both Rx and Rv.
Ammeter Reading = Is = = = 16.667mA
// Ω Ω// Ω
The Voltmeter reading is the Source voltage E minus the voltage drop
across the ammeter internal resistance VA.
Voltmeter Reading = E – VA = E – Is* RA = 5V – 16.667mA * 200Ω = 1.667V
.
Rmeasured = = = 100Ω
.
And the error percent is almost 0%
b. Rx = 300KΩ

by repeating the same steps and replacing Rx with 300KΩ we find:

Ammeter Reading = Is = 24.975µ A

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 Voltmeter Reading = 4.995V
.
Rmeasured = = = 200KΩ
.

⎸ ⎸ ⎸ Ω Ω⎸
Error % = ∗ 100% = * 100%
Ω
=33.333%

So figure (2‐1) is suitable only for low‐resistance values.

 In Figure (2‐2), the ammeter reads the true value of the load current IX, and
the voltmeter reads the supply voltage E. If Rx is large compared to the
internal resistance of the ammeter, the voltage drop across the ammeter
internal resistance is negligible and the supply voltage E is very close to the
true value of the load voltage VX. Therefore, the connection of Figure (2‐2)
is the best circuit when measuring high‐resistance values.

Example 2‐2)

Repeat the requirements in example (2‐1) with figure (2‐2).

Solution

a. Rx = 100Ω

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 When Rx = 100Ω in figure (2‐2), the voltmeter reading will be the source
voltage E.
Voltmeter reading = E = 5V.
The ammeter reading is the current through Rx .
Ammeter reading = = = 16.667mA
Ω Ω
Rmeasured = = = 300Ω
.

⎸ ⎸ ⎸ Ω Ω⎸
Error % = ∗ 100% = * 100% = 200%
Ω

b. Rx = 300KΩ
Voltmeter reading = E = 5V
Ammeter reading = 16.656µA

Rmeasured = = = 300192.123Ω
.

⎸ ⎸
Error % = ∗ 100% =

⎸ Ω . Ω⎸
* 100% = 0.064% ≈ 0%
Ω

Questions
2‐1) The circuit shown in figure (2‐3) combines the two circuits in figure (2‐1) and
figure (2‐2). When the switch is in position 1, the circuit works as figure (2‐1) and
when the switch is in position 2 the circuit works as figure (2‐2). This circuit is
used to find the value of unknown resistor Rx and determine which of the two
figures (figure (2‐1) or figure (2‐2)) is the best to measure the value of Rx. The
internal resistance of the voltmeter is Rv and the internal resistance of the
ammeter is RA. Answer the following:

a) When the switch is in position 2 find the value of the current that the
ammeter measures in terms of Rx, RA and E.
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b) When the switch is in position 1 find the value of the current that the
ammeter measures in terms of Rx, Rv, RA and E.
c) If Rx is very small compared to Rv. What is the new value of the current in
part (b).
d) Compare between the results in part (a) and part (c).
e) State a procedure to determine whether Rx has a high‐resistance value or a
low‐resistance value and the best switch position to measure the value of
Rx.

2‐2) (Software Question): Design four electrical circuits. Two of them are
like the circuit in figure (2‐1). One with Rx = 150Ω and the other with Rx =
620kΩ. The other two circuits are as the circuit in figure (2‐2). One with Rx
= 150Ω and the other with Rx = 620kΩ. For all circuits, set the power supply
E to 5V and the internal resistance of the ammeter to 50Ω and the internal
resistance of the voltmeter 1MΩ. Calculate the values of the measured

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resistor Rx in all the four circuits using the voltmeter and ammeter readings
and compare the results with the true values of the resistor Rx.

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 LAB 3

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

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 Wheatstone Bridge is an electrical circuit that is used to find the value of an
unknown resistor Rx. Wheatstone Bridge is shown in figure (3‐1). R1 andR2
are resistors with known values, R3 is a variable resistor. R1 and R3 are in
series, and R2 and Rx are also in series, and both branches are in parallel
[(R1+R3) // (R2+Rx)].

 In figure (3‐1), the voltmeter reading depends on the potential difference

between points c and d. The bridge is said to be balanced when the
voltmeter reads zero volt. This condition occurs when the voltage at point c
equals the voltage at point d (Vc = Vd).

Vc = VdVac = Vad I1*R1 = I2*R2 (3‐1)

And also Vcb = Vdb I1*R3 = I2*Rx (3‐2)

From equation (1) and (2)

∗
Rx = (3‐3)

 The procedure for finding the value of Rx in Wheatstone bridge is as

follows:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (3‐1).

2. Change the value ofR3until the voltmeter reads zero volt. (balanced
condition).
3. Calculate Rx from equation (3).

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Example 3‐1)

We want to use the Wheatstone Bridge in figure (3‐1) to measure the value of
unknown resistor Rx. If R1 = 1KΩ, R2 = 2.2KΩ, and R3 is a 10KΩ variable resistor.
The value of R3 that makes the voltmeter reads zero voltage is 5KΩ. What is the
value of Rx?

Solution

R1 = 1KΩ, R2 = 2.2KΩ and the value of R3 at balance condition is 5KΩ

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 ∗ Ω∗ . Ω
Rx = = = 11KΩ
Ω

Questions
3‐1) For the circuit in figure (3‐2), R1 = 4KΩ, R2 = 8KΩ, Re = 2KΩ, E = 5V, and Rj is
10KΩ variable resistor. What is the maximum value and the minimum value of Rx
that this Bridge can measure?

3‐2) (Software Question): Design a Wheatstone Bridge as the one shown in

figure (3‐1) with E = 5V, R1 = 430Ω, R2 = 220Ω, Rx = 2.2KΩ, and R3 is a variable
resistor of 10KΩ. Connect a voltmeter between point c and d in figure (3‐1) and

11
calculate the value of R3 that makes the voltmeter reading equals zero. Then
calculate the value of Rx using equation (3‐3) and ensure that it has the same
value of 2.2KΩ.

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 LAB 4

ANALOG VOLTMETER DESIGN

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 Figure (4‐1) shows the design of a basic dc voltmeter. It consists of an
Ammeter in series with a resistor Rs called the Multiplier Resistor. The
Ammeter has an internal resistor Rm and a range of IFSD. The value of
Rs determines the voltmeter range.
 To design a voltmeter of a specific range, you must add the proper
value of Rs to get the wanted voltmeter range. If the Ammeter has an
internal resistor Rm and a range of IFSD, then the value of Rs can be
calculated from figure (4‐1) as follows:

Voltmeter Range IFSD* Rs Rm ⇨ Rs Rm ⇨

FSD

Rs ‐ Rm‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 4‐1
FSD

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Example 4‐1)

The Ammeter of figure (4‐1) has IFSD = 1mA and Rm = 385Ω. If we want to
design an analog voltmeter with a voltage range of 10V, find the value of Rs
required to achieve this voltmeter range. Then show the scale of the
voltmeter.

Solution

Rs is calculated from equation (4‐1) as follows:

Rs = ‐ 385Ω = 9615Ω

And figure (4‐2) shows the scale of the voltmeter.

 When a voltmeter is connected to measure the voltage across a

resistor in an electrical circuit, the internal resistance of the voltmeter
is considered as a part of this electrical circuit and may affect the
accuracy of the voltmeter reading. So the higher internal resistance of
a voltmeter, the more accurate and reliable voltmeter reading.

15
 Questions
4‐1) The analog voltmeter that we have designed in Example (4‐1) has an
internal resistance of 10KΩ (Rs + Rm = 9615Ω + 385Ω = 10KΩ). If we have
used this voltmeter to measure the voltage in an electrical circuit as shown
in figure (4‐3), find the following:

a) The true value of the voltage across the 20KΩ.

b) The actual reading of the voltmeter.
c) The error in the voltmeter reading as a percent of the true value.

4‐2) (Software Question): Design the circuit in figure (4‐3) with the values
indicated. Set the internal resistance of the Ammeter to 385Ω and the range
of the Ammeter to 1mA. Ensure that the actual reading of the voltmeter is
the same as in part (b) in Question (4‐1).(Hint: the voltmeter reading is
calculated by multiplying the Ammeter reading by the voltmeter internal
resistance which is 10KΩ).

16
 LAB 5

INCREASING THE RANGE OF

AN ANALOG AMMETER

17
 Figure (5‐1) shows a basic circuit used to increase the range of an
analog dc ammeter. It consists of an ammeter (with an internal
resistor Rm and a range of IFSD) in parallel with a resistor Rshunt
called the Shunt Resistor. The value of the resistor Rshunt
determines the new range of the ammeter.
 To eliminate confuse, the ammeter that we will increase its range
will be called the Internal Ammeter. And the ammeter after
increasing its range (after adding Rshunt) will be called the New
Ammeter.
 To increase the range of an Internal Ammeter, first you have to
determine the new range of the New Ammeter ITOTAL. If the
Internal Ammeter in figure (5‐1) has an internal resistor Rm and a
range of IFSD, then the value of Rshunt is calculated as follows:

VRshunt = VRm⇨ (ITOTAL – IFSD) *Rshunt=IFSD * Rm⇨

∗ FSD
Rshunt = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐(5‐1)
TOTAL FSD

18
Example 5‐1)

An Internal ammeter with an internal resistance Rm = 385Ω and IFSD =

1mA. We want to increase the range of this ammeter to 10mA. What is
the value of Rshunt that must be added to achieve this new range?

Solution

To increase the range of the Internal Ammeter from 1mAto 10mA,

Rshunt is calculated form equation (5‐1) as follows:
∗ FSD Ω∗
Rshunt = = = 42.778Ω
TOTAL FSD

The scale of the new range is shown in figure (5‐2).

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  When an ammeter is used to measure the current passing
through a resistor in an electrical circuit. The internal resistance of
the ammeter is considered as a part of this circuit and may affect
the accuracy of the ammeter reading. So the lower internal
resistance of an ammeter, the more accurate and reliable
ammeter reading.

Questions
5‐1) The NewAmmeterwith the increased range that we have designed in
Example (5‐1) has an internal resistance of 38.5Ω(Rshunt//Rm =42.78Ω //
385Ω = 38.5Ω). If we have used this ammeter to measure the current in an
electrical circuit as shown in figure (5‐3), find the following:

a) The true value of the current through the 1KΩ.

b) The actual reading of the New Ammeter.
c) The error in the New Ammeter reading as a percent of the true value.

20
5‐2) (Software Question): Design the circuit in figure (5‐3) with the values
indicated. Set the internal resistance of the Internal Ammeter to 385Ω and
the range of the Internal Ammeter to 1mA. Ensure that the actual reading
of the New Ammeter is the same as in part (b) in Question (5‐1). (Hint: the
New Ammeter reading can be calculated using the Current Divider Rule as
follows:
∗ Ω . Ω
(New Ammeter Reading) =
. Ω

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 LAB 6

ANALOG OHMMETERDESIGN
( SERIES TYPE)

22
 Figure (6‐1) shows the circuit diagram of anAnalog Ohmmeter
(Series Type). It consists of an Ammeter (with an internal
resistance Rm and a range of IFSD) in series with a resistor
designated byRh and a batteryE.
 In figure (6‐1), when nothing is connected between terminalsa
andb (Rx = ∞Ω), the Ammeter measures zero current. And When
a link is connected between terminalsa andb (Rx = 0Ω), the
current through the Ammeter Immustbe IFSD.

IFSD = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (6‐1)

h

 From equation (6‐1), the value of E and Rhmust be adjusted to

make the current through the Ammeter equals to IFSD when a link
is connected between terminals a andb.
 When any other resistor Rxis connected between terminalsa and
b in figure (6‐1), the current through the Ammeter Imis calculated
by the following equation:

Im = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (6‐2)
h

 Now from equation (6‐2) we can calculate the value of any

unknown resistor Rx by reading the current through the Ammeter
Imand substituting its value in equation (6‐2).

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Example 6‐1)

we want to design an Analog Ohmmeter (Series Type). This Ohmmeter

has anAmmeter with an internal resistance of 385Ω and a range of
1mA.

Solution

From the given information, Rm = 385Ω and IFSD = 1mA, so the value of
E and Rh can be determined from equation (6‐1) as follows:

1mA =
Ω
The values of E and Rhmust be adjusted to satisfy this equation.
Therefore, we have chosenE=5V and Rh = 4615Ω.

Now we can use equation (6‐2) to show the relation between the
Ammeter reading Imand any unknown resistor Rx as follows:

Im =

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Now we can use this relation to convert the scale of the Ammeter to a
new scale of an Ohmmeter as follows:

1) Connect Rx to the terminals of the ohmmeter shown in

figure (6‐1) and observe the Ammeter reading Im.
2) Substitute the Ammeter reading Im in the equation above to
find the value of Rx.

Now the scale of the Ohmmeter is shown in figure (6‐2).

Questions
6‐1) If we used the Ohmmeter that we have designed in Example (6‐1)
to measure the value of some unknown resistors. What are the values
of these resistors if the Ammeter readings of the Ohmmeter were:

a‐ 0.5mA
b‐ 0.333mA

25
 c‐ 0mA
d‐ 1mA
e‐ 0.2mA

6‐2) (Software Question): Implement the Ohmmeter that we have

designed in Example (6‐1) and use it to verify the answers of Question
(6‐1). Set the internal resistance of the Ammeter to 385Ω and its range
to 1mA.

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 LAB 7

ANALOG OHMMETERDESIGN
( SHUNT TYPE)

27
 Figure (7‐1) shows the circuit diagram of an Analog Ohmmeter
(Shunt Type). It consists of an Ammeter (with an internal
resistance Rm and a range of IFSD) in series with a resistor
designated by Rc and a battery E.
 In figure (7‐1), when a link is connected between terminals a and
b (Rx = 0Ω), the current through the Ammeter Im is zero. And
when nothing is connected between terminals a and b (Rx = ∞Ω),
the current through the Ammeter must be IFSD.

IFSD = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (7‐1)

c

 From equation (7‐1), the value of E and Rc must be adjusted to

make the current through the Ammeter equals to IFSD when
nothing is connected between terminals a and b.
 When any other resistor Rx is connected between terminals a and
b in figure (7‐1), the current through the Ammeter Im is calculated
by the following equation:

∗
Im = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (7‐2)
∗ c

 Now from equation (7‐2) we can calculate the value of any

unknown resistor Rx by reading the current through the Ammeter
Im and substituting its value in equation (7‐2).

28
Example7‐1)

we want to design an Analog Ohmmeter (Shunt Type). This Ohmmeter

has an Ammeter with an internal resistance of 385Ω and a range of
1mA.

Solution

From the given information, Rm = 385Ω and IFSD = 1mA, so the value of
E and Rc can be determined from equation (7‐1) as follows:

1mA =
Ω
The values of E and Rc must be adjusted to satisfy this equation.
Therefore, we have chosen E=5V and Rh = 4615Ω.

Now we can use equation (7‐2) to show the relation between the
Ammeter reading Im and any unknown resistor Rx as follows:

29
Im =
Ω

Now we can use this relation to convert the scale of the Ammeter to a
new scale of an Ohmmeter as follows:

1) Connect Rx to the terminals of the ohmmeter shown in

figure (7‐1) and observe the Ammeter reading Im.
2) Substitute the Ammeter reading Im in the equation above to
find the value of Rx.

Now the scale of the Ohmmeter is shown in figure (7‐2).

Questions
7‐1) If we used the Ohmmeter that we have designed in Example (7‐1)
to measure the value of some unknown resistors. What are the values
of these resistors if the Ammeter readings of the Ohmmeter were:

30
 a‐ 0.5mA
b‐ 0.333mA
c‐ 0mA
d‐ 1mA
e‐ 0.8mA

7‐2) (Software Question): Implement the Ohmmeter that we have

designed in Example (7‐1) and use it to verify the answers of Question
(7‐1). Set the internal resistance of the Ammeter to 385Ω and its range
to 1mA.

31
 LAB 8

POTENTIOMETER METHOD
FOR MEASURING VOLTAGE

32
 Figure (8‐1) shows a circuit diagram for using potentiometer for
measuring voltage. It consists of a battery E with a known value
and a potentiometer and an Ammeter. The voltage source we
want to measure is connected between terminals a and b.

 Figure (8‐2) shows the Thevenin Equivalent of the circuit in figure

(8‐1). The values of ETH and RTH are as follows:
∗
ETH = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (8‐1)
∗
RTH = ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (8‐2)
Where R1 is the resistance of the lower part of the variable
resistor and R2 is the resistance of the top part of the variable
resistor.

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  The procedure for measuring voltages using the Potentiometer
Method is as follows:
1. Connect the voltage to be measured to the circuit in figure
(8‐1) between terminals a and b.
2. Adjust the value of the potentiometer variable resistor until
no current flows in the Ammeter.
3. At this point, the value of the measured voltage equals ETH
from equation (8‐1).

Example 8‐1)

In figure (8‐1), we have E = 15V and a potentiometer with a variable

resistor of 10KΩ. An unknown voltage source is connected between
terminals a and b. The variable resistor of the potentiometer was

34
adjusted until the ammeter reading becomes zero at R1 of 30% of the
variable resistor. What is the value of the measured voltage source?

Solution

From the given information, R1 = 0.3 * 10KΩ = 3KΩ.

AndR2 = 10KΩ ‐ R1 = 10KΩ ‐ 3KΩ = 7KΩ.

∗ ∗ Ω
ETH = = = 4.5V.
Ω Ω

so the measured voltage is 4.5V.

Questions
8‐1) Repeat the requirements in example (8‐1) with E = 20V and a
potentiometer with variable resistor of 1KΩ.And R1 which causes the
Ammeter reading to be zero is 50% of the variable resistor of the
potentiometer.

8‐2) (Software Question): implement the circuit in Question (8‐1) and

verify your answer.

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