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7.3 Cyber-Physical Production Systems Building Blocks ...................................................................... 22
· Cyber Physical System (CPS) ...................................................................................... 23
· Cyber Physical Transportation System (CPTS).............................................................. 23
· Production Planning Software (PPSW) ........................................................................ 23
· Manufacturing Execution System (MES)...................................................................... 23
· Further CPPS............................................................................................................... 23
7.4 Realization of a CPPS Case Study: Robot-Human Collaboration..................................................... 24
7.4.1 Actors 25
7.4.2 Basic Use Cases for dynamic orchestration ................................................................................... 27
7.4.3 Use Case 2: Wire (silver) & contact bow (copper) ......................................................................... 30
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1. Cyber-Physical Systems
1.1.Introduction
During the current decade, several researchers realized that embedded systems are evolving to
systems where physical aspects played a fundamental role [1]. The interaction between the
intelligence provided by distributed interconnected processors and their physical world has gained
high importance.
Today, many researchers, practitioners, and national academic institutes provide their own
understanding and definitions of Cyber-Physical Systems. An internationally recognized standard
formal definition of Cyber-Physical Systems is still lacking.
The German National Academy of Science and Engineering (acatech) has provided initial description
within the development efforts for an Integrated Research Agenda for Cyber-Physical Systems [2]:
“Cyber-Physical Systems are systems that integrate computing elements with the physical
components and processes. The computing elements coordinate and communicate with sensors,
which monitor cyber and physical indicators, and actuators, which modify the cyber and physical
environment. Cyber-Physical Systems use sensors to connect all distributed intelligence in the
environment to gain a deeper knowledge of the environment, which enables a more accurate
actions and tasks.”
Lee et. al [3] outlines the fact that within Cyber Physical Systems, embedded computers and
networks monitor and control the physical processes including feedback loops where physical
processes affect computations and vice-versa. The design of such systems, therefore, requires
understanding the joint dynamics of computers, software, networks, and physical processes [4]. It is
this study of joint dynamics that sets this discipline apart. Cyber-Physical Systems combine cyber
capabilities with physical capabilities to solve problems that neither part could solve alone [5].
Examples of Cyber-Physical Systems include a wide variety of systems such as aerospace, command
and control, manufacturing, process control, robotic, telecommunication, power grid, and biomedical
systems [6].
The term "cyber-physical systems" emerged around 2006, when it was coined by Helen Gill at the
National Science Foundation in the United States. The terms "cyberspace" and "cyber-physical
systems" stem from the same root "cybernetics". The term "cybernetics" was coined by a group of
scientists led by Norbert Wiener and was made popular by the book Cybernetics or Control and
Communication in the Animal and the Machine [7], an American mathematician who had a huge
impact on the development of control systems theory. Wiener derived the term from the Greek
“Kybernetes” which means, among others, governor. Kybernesis however, and according to Krämer
[8] means control skills and evolved to the English “govern”. For the actual context we consider
systems in which physical objects and computational resources are tightly integrated and show a
degree of continuous inter- coordination.
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1.2.Definitions
The goal of the definitions section is to provide a common understanding of the terms as used
within the scientific community which are still valid for the current context.
It is important to mention that Cyber Physical Systems is still in its early stages of development,
therefore, a well-established and generally agreed definition is still lacking.
CPS is the abbreviation of Cyber -Physical Systems and is used in this document.
Components are the building blocks of any systems or sub-system including cyber-physical systems.
Cyber refers to any computing hardware or software resources or both that can achieve
computation, communication, and control functions in a discrete, logical, and switching
environment (e.g. fully switched networks, required for a full-duplex communication).
Physical refers to any natural and human-made systems governed by the laws of physics and
operating in continuous time.
Figure 1 shows the core (3C) building blocks for Cyber Physical System, including
Computation, Communication, and Control. That constitutes the core high-level
requirements for a system to be considered Cyber-Physical.
Figure 1. The 3C minimal requirements a system must fulfill to be considered cyber physical
The 3C building blocks can be implemented through various components that can take various
forms according to the application domain and available technologies. These building blocks
are inter- connected and are communication-intensive via well-defined and available
interfaces.
2.3. IntelligentSystems
Intelligent systems are systems that emulate human capacities for learning, understanding,
perceiving, and eventually making decisions and take actions. In the context of cyber-physical
systems, there are particular opportunities and challenges associated with controlling or
predicting the behavior of such systems and how their behavior affects the overall system
behavior.
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2.6. Networked Control
Classical control systems use continuous or discrete-time signaling, where the controller continually
or periodically observes and provides actuation to the physical subsystem (e.g. industrial plant). In a
typical CPS architecture, the signaling is mediated by software and networks that do not have such
continuous or periodic behavior.
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2.11. Dependability
Cyber-Physical Systems ideally should be dependable systems, which means essentially making
them reliable, maintainable, available, safe, and secure.
2.13. Predictability/Determinism
Services should be delivered in a predictable way in terms of time. Cyber-Physical Systems are not
deterministic systems.
2.15. Interoperability
The intrinsically heterogeneous nature of cyber-physical systems requires mixing technologies and
tools. Interoperability becomes central.
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2.18. Cyber Security
Cyber Security
Intrusion
M alicious Attacks
Detection
Resilience Priv acy
· back doors;
· denial of service attacks;
· Trojan horses;
· Viruses.
2.20. Resilience
Technically, resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed. In the
context of CPS, resilience is the ability of a system to keep operating normally when stressed by
unexpected inputs, subsystem failures, or environmental conditions or inputs that are outside the
specified operating range. Recovery from failure, Fault tolerance, fault detection, and adaptation are
all techniques that promote resilience.
2.21. Privacy
In the context of CPS, privacy is the problem of protecting information about humans from
unauthorized access by other humans or machines.
2.22. Confidentiality
In this context of CPS, it is the problem of protecting the information flow. Physical components
added to the underlined system considerably increase the difficulty of determining information flow
and the difficulty of mitigating the corresponding confidentiality problem.
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2.23. Intrusion Detection
There is a need to consider both physical and cyber intrusions. Technologies that can influence
include:
· Embedded vision: motion detection and tracking, human detection, face recognition
· Timing models: enable detection of timing anomalies, which can reveal intrusion.
2.25. Heterogeneity
Cyber-physical systems are intrinsically heterogeneous and include various technologies and a
multitude of devices such as sensor nodes, mobile devices, computers, embedded systems;
different types of communication protocols, hardware and software constraints.
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2.29. Specification, Modeling, and Analysis
2.30. Concurrency
Cyber-physical systems are intrinsically concurrent. The cyber and the physical sub-systems coexist
in time where concurrent processes are common. Models of concurrency in the physical world
(coexisting physical dynamics in a time continuum) are very different from models of concurrency in
software (arbitrary interleaving of sequences of atomic actions), and very different from models of
concurrency in networks (asynchronous, partially-ordered discrete actions or clock-driven time
slots). It is fundamental to bring together these divergent models of concurrency, and ensuring
interoperability and communication between components that have divergent models of
concurrency, is a central problem in CPS.
2.33. Simulation
Simulation is the process of validating a design by imitating its behavior for a given set of inputs. Particular
CPS challenges include:
3.1. Healthcare
Many health care systems are cyber-physical systems. In hospitals, for example, information from
many sources like bedside monitors, lab results, and practitioner observations are combined to
inform interventions. Today, many components of the health system operate in isolation and some
limited integrated solutions are available. In the future, they will be combined into networked
closed-loop systems with humans in the loop to improve medical workflows and patient safety.
3.3. Communication
Most of communication systems are cyber-physical systems because of the digital control and
the contention for physical resources such as radio spectrum and fiber channels. E.g.:
· Cellular backhaul
· Sensor networks
· Wireless
3.4. Consumer
Cyber -physical systems are also part of various consumer applications such as:
· Smart homes
· Interactive games
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· Video systems
3.5. Energy
Energy production, distribution, and optimization are all CPS applications areas. For example, the
smart grid combines multiple electric power production plants with a multiplicity of loads using
dynamic load balancing and dynamic pricing with demand-response strategies. Smart buildings
integrate sensors (typically wireless) into control systems for lighting, HVAC (heating, ventilation, and
air conditioning), and safety (fire monitoring and evacuation).
3.6. Infrastructure
Society depends on critical infrastructure (electric power, water, roadways, etc.). CPS can help
manage and maintain such infrastructure by providing:
· disaster recovery
· structural health monitoring
· water distribution optimization
· water safety monitoring
3.7. Manufacturing
Manufacturing systems that include robotic machinery, embedded vision, or any computer-
controlled actuation are cyber-physical systems.
3.8. Military
Many military systems are cyber-physical systems. E.g.:
3.9. Robotics
Robotics is a rich area of research and development that encompasses a range of intellectual topics
from motion control to artificial intelligence. E.g.: mobile and autonomous robots.
3.10. Transportation
Transportation applications of CPS include:
· automotive systems
· avionics and aerospace
· elevators, escalators, and moving sidewalks
· railroads
· traffic management
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Major issues transportation system design includes safety, efficiency, and response to emergencies
and disasters.
Building systems that integrate computational and physical objects requires new systems science
foundations. This opens up new research possibilities based on currently available technology as well
as and new technology enablers. By merging computing and communication with physical processes,
cyber- Physical Systems bring many benefits including:
14
Figure 2. Interaction of cyber and physical domains in CPS and control loop
Cyber-physical systems are systems of systems. The basic building blocks are the following:
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· Physical Environment
· Embedded systems
5.3. Sensors
A sensor generally refers to a device that converts a physical measure into a signal that is read by
an observer or by an instrument [10]. The sensors that can be deployed in Cyber-Physical
Systems range from simple detectors that only measure one particular physical parameter to
complex environment sensors such as video and radar, and biosensors that can be implanted into
patients’ bodies to record complex health-related processes and sensor networks incorporating a
large number of often heterogeneous sensors.
Figure 4. From left to right demonstrates how a sensor works. Whereas reading it from right to left
illustrates how an actuator works.
5.4. Actuators
Actuators are the counterpart of Sensors which function the other way round (Fig 4.). Their main
task consists in converting the electrical signal (digital values) into a physical phenomenon, e.g. into
mechanical movements or other physical parameters such as pressure and temperature, or displays
for quantities measures by sensors (e.g. speedometers, temperature reading for thermostats), thus
producing an effect on the environment. The actuators used by Cyber-Physical Systems range from
simple, often mechanical controllers in control circuits, e.g., valve trains, to electromechanical and
hydraulic drives and complex control systems, e.g., for the longitudinal and lateral guidance of
vehicles or entire traffic flow via the coordinated interaction of several heterogeneous actuators in
actuator networks.
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5.5. Sensors and Actuators Collaboration in a Cyber Physical Environment
Sensors and Actuators provide the capability for the Cyber-Physical Systems to monitor and influence
their physical environment. Sensors record qualitative or quantitative measurements of the
environment’s physical or chemical properties such as temperature, pressure, humidity, sound or the
materials it is made of and convert these measurements into a format that can be processed digitally.
Sensors measure multiple physical properties and include electronic sensors, biosensors, and
chemical sensors. These sensors are regarded as the interface between the physical world and the
world of electrical devices, such as computers [11].
A (smart) sensor network consists of a group of smart sensors that are wired or wirelessly
connected to another smart sensor or to a common aggregator. In networking terminology, each
component in the network that has a communications module is called a node. A node that
generates data is called a source node, while a node that requests data is called a sink or sink node.
A sink can be another sensor node on the network, a gateway to another larger network, or a local
aggregator (Fig.5). A source node can report routine data, an alert, or maintenance data.
The sensor network performs two key tasks: data gathering and data dissemination. Data gathering is
about data capturing and transferring from each sensor node to a sink. The source sends data to the
17 the data. Data dissemination is the process for
sink periodically or on demand, and the sink processes
routing queries or data around the sensor network. Data dissemination is a two-step process. In the
first step, the sink node describes the data it is interested in and broadcasts this descriptor, which is
called “interest”, across the network. Each node maintains an interest cache of all data to be
reported. In the second step, the nodes that have data of interest send this data to the sink.
Earlier, sensor networks consisted of a small number of sensor nodes that were wired to a central
processing station. However, nowadays, the focus is more on wireless, distributed, dynamic, and
sensing nodes.
Figure 6: Sensor Network Meta-Model (a Sink Node behaves as Sensor, gateway or Local Aggregator,
or all of these at the same time)
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6. Example of Cyber Physical System
Components
The following is a self contained example of a Cyber Physical System that outlines main hardware
components as described below:
In the manufacturing context, CPS combines progress achieved by large computing systems on
modeling, planning and prediction. This is made possible using data that is produced during
manufacturing processes by many small data driven devices like sensors, actuators, and RFID. All is
enabled by advances in M2M communications and control systems. These CPS-based systems are
called Cyber-Physical Production Systems (CPPSs).
Cyber-Physical Production Systems (CPPSs) are relying on the newest and continuous developments
of computer science, information and communication technologies on the one hand, and of
manufacturing science and technology, including the integration of production and logistics, on the
other hand. That is leading to the 4th Industrial Revolution referred to as Industry 4.0.
According to the Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Germany (BMBF) : “Industry is on the
threshold of the fourth industrial revolution. Driven by the Internet, the real and virtual worlds are
growing closer and closer together to form the Internet of Things. Industrial production of the future
will be characterized by the strong individualization of products under the conditions of highly
flexible (large series) production, the extensive integration of customers and business partners in
business and value- added processes, and the linking of production and high-quality services leading
to so-called hybrid products [12]”.
CPPS enable and support the communication similarly between humans, machines and products. The
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elements of a CPPS are able to acquire and process data, and can self- control certain tasks and
interact with humans via interfaces [16].
One of the main goals to achieve is the optimization of the production lines and processes. That is,
machines are aware of their context, can reconfigure themselves adapting to production conditions
and communicate independently and wirelessly with one another [13].
Another interesting aspect is the concept of Virtual Factories which is concerned with performing
managerial control through the Cloud. This provides a high flexibility to react to market through
intelligent orchestration of the production systems, including product properties, costs, logistics,
security, time to market and sustainability. Full integration of the value chain is enabled through
internet-based business processes, cloud computing, and smart products.
Figure 8 illustrates the various layers of cyber physical production systems, the interaction with
humans using Human Machine Interfaces.
7.2 Definitions
In the following we provide few relevant definitions related to CPPS:
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A brief definition is provided by Kagermann [15]: “Crosslinking of cyber-physical systems (CPS)
and integration into production and logistics”.
An attempt to provide the big picture of industry 4.0 and the relationship to the various
technological concepts, Figure 10 illustrates the underlined abstraction model. Essentially, it shows
how industry 4.0 is built on top of the internet of services, which in turn is built upon Smart
Factories. Smart Factories are built on top of Cyber Physical Systems, which in turn uses the Internet
of Things technologies and infrastructure for its purposes.
· Capture data through integrated sensors and measurement systems in real time.
· Store and analyze data for the purpose of the construction of system Models.
· Using actuators and multimodal Human-Machine interfaces to interact actively with the
physical, human, and digital world
· These are connected to each other and the Internet of services and the Internet of things
over digital communication devices.
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The main task of a CPPS is to process raw material and requires a Production Planning Software
(PPSW) to define, specify, and setup the objectives and the corresponding functionalities.
A Cyber Physical Production System (CPPS) is composed of the following building blocks (Fig. 11):
1..*
ContextStrategy Strategy
In the following we introduce initial use cases for the production cell including Robot-Human
collaboration.
The use cases deal with the dynamical orchestration of the demonstrator as illustrated in
figure 12.
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Figure 12: The production cell used for Robot-Human Collaboration scenario
7.4.1 Actors
In the following are the actors participating in the various uses cases describe below.
CPPS Actor
Figure 12. CPPS Actor is an abstract actor whose role is fulfilled by concrete various actors
25
The actors are listed with a short description of their roles and tasks in the table below.
26
Coordinator · PC The Coordinator runs the coordinator
· Touch Panel software and interacts with the different
controllers and the user.
Inverter · Inverter Controller The Inverter Controller controls the current
Controller · Interface Distributor flow for the both welding heads in the
(Miyachi) Welding and the Soldering Module. It
consists of the Inverter Controller itself and
an auxiliary component which distributes
the different programs to the two welding
The use cases focus on those cases where the production is started by reading the RFID tags
of the containers which hold the parts. Furthermore it is assumed that human interaction is
minimized.
There are four different RFID tags identifying four different orders. For each order, one use
case is generated. The orders are:
All above operations turn down to two main operations which are welding and soldering.
There are common initialization steps that are performed equally for both soldering and
welding operations.
These common steps are captured by Use case 1 which is described using the following UML
sequence diagram:
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Use Case Connect wire and contact bow (copper to copper)
Requirement -
ID
Description The typical process for soldering the two parts
Precondition The production cell has been initialized and every component is
available and working properly.
The production cell is in a state to accept a new order.
Post-condition Execution performed successfully and the tow parts are connected and are
available for the user to pick up
Priority -
Trigger The moment the soldering process begins after the two push buttons are
pressed by the user.
Main flow of
events Step Actor Description
28
and how the solder feed is adjusted (position,
especially height)
Coordinator
The Coordinator request the Soldering Module to
16
proceed with the soldering process
29
of solder have to be synchronized, lifting and
lowering of welding head have to be also in sync
with the inverter program.
Soldering Module
After finishing the soldering task the Soldering
20
Module reports success to the Coordinator
Notes:
Requirement ID -
Rationale In this case, both processes can be used: either soldering or welding. A process has to be
chosen by the coordinator.
Precondition The production cell has been initialized and every component is working.
The production cell is in a state to accept a new order.
30
Priority How critical it is to the system, i.e., how important to implement in the first place
Trigger The user takes the container with the RFID Tag for Order 2 (Wire (silver) & contact bow
(copper))
and places it in front of the RFID Reader.
The user takes the container with the RFID Tag for
User, Manual Control
1 Order 2 (Wire (silver) & contact bow (copper))
Module
and places it in front of the RFID Reader.
Manual Control The RFID reader reads the tag and sends the data from
2
Module, Coordinator the tag to the coordinator.
Coordinator,
The coordinator requests the state of the Welding
6
Module.
Welding Module
31
can fulfil the process.
Coordinator, Center The Coordinator requests the state from the Center
8
Module Module
User,
11 The user puts the two parts onto the mount.
Center Module
Center Module,
The Center Module reports to the Coordinator that the
15
mount is in the correct position.
Coordinator
Coordinator, Welding
Module The Coordinator request the Welding Module to
16
proceed with the welding process
32
to be also in sync with the inverter program.
Welding Module,
After finishing the welding task the Welding Module
20
reports success to the Coordinator
Coordinator
22 User, Center Module The User takes the welded part from the mount.
only one of the processing modules is available. Then the coordinator will initiate the
process with the available module. (Only if quality would not be sufficient the coordinator
would deny the operation. See note to step 4a below)
Notes:
Step 4a: For the moment it is assumed that there is a simple preference: welding before soldering
because welding delivers connections which are more stable. In coming versions the order could
specify a preference as well e.g. choosing the cheapest which fulfills some quality criterion or the
hardest or a compromise of hard and flexible ...
This would require an elaborated model for encoding order attributes on the one side as well as
on the product and process side.
Furthermore, this is the only additional step to use case 1.
Step 21: perhaps security step in between: cooling down of the material
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