Part V Complex Analysis

17 Functions of a Complex Variable

EXERCISES 17.1
Complex Numbers

3. i8 = (i2 )4 = (−1)4 = 1
6. −3 − 9i
9. 11 − 10i

12. −2 − 2i
2 − 4i 3 − 5i −14 − 22i 7 11
15. · = =− − i
3 + 5i 3 − 5i 34 17 17
3 − i 11 + 2i 35 − 5i 7 1
18. · = = − i
11 − 2i 11 + 2i 125 25 25
21. (1 + i)(10 + 10i) = 10(1 + i)2 = 20i

24. (2 + 3i)(−i)2 = −2 − 3i
x
27.
x2 + y2
30. 0

33. 2x + 2yi = −9 + 2i implies 2x = −9 and 2y = 2. Hence z = − 92 + i.

36. x2 − y 2 − 4x + (−2xy − 4y)i = 0 + 0i implies x2 − y 2 − 4x = 0 and y(−2x − 4) = 0. If y = 0 then x(x − 4) = 0

√ √
and so z = 0 and z = 4. If −2x − 4 = 0 or x = −2 then 12 − y 2 = 0 or y = ±2 3 . This gives z = −2 + 2 3 i
√
and z = −2 − 2 3 i.


39. |z1 − z2 | = |(x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − y2 )| = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 which is the distance formula in the plane.

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 17.2 Powers and Roots

EXERCISES 17.2
Powers and Roots

   
3π 3π √ 7π 7π
3. 3 cos + i sin 6. 5 2 cos + i sin
2 2 4 4
√  
3 2 5π 5π
9. cos + i sin 12. z = −8 + 8i
2 4 4
          √ √
π 3π π 3π z1 1 π 3π π 3π 2 2
15. z1 z2 = 8 cos + + i sin + = 8i; = cos − + i sin − = − i
8 8 8 8 z2 2 8 8 8 8 4 4
 √         
π π √ 3π 3π π 3π π 3π
18. 4 2 cos + i sin 2 cos + i sin = 8 cos + + i sin + = −8
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 
9π 9π
21. 29 cos + i sin = −512
3 3
 
√ 4 8π 8π √
24. (2 2 ) cos + i sin = −32 + 32 3 i
3 3
 
2kπ 2kπ
27. 81/3 = 2 cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2
3 3
 
2π 2π √
w0 = 2[cos 0 + i sin 0] = 2; w1 = 2 cos + i sin = −1 + 3 i
3 3
 
4π 4π √
w2 = 2 cos + i sin = −1 − 3 i
3 3

    
1/3 1/6 π 2kπ π 2kπ
30. (−1 + i) =2 cos + + i sin + , k = 0, 1, 2
4 3 4 3
 π π 1 1
w0 = 21/6 cos + i sin = √ + √ i = 0.7937 + 0.7937i
4 4 3
2 3
2
 
11π 11π
w1 = 21/6
cos + i sin = −1.0842 + 0.2905i
12 12
 
19π 19π
w2 = 21/6 cos + i sin = 0.2905 − 1.0842i
12 12

33. The solutions are the four fourth roots of −1;

π + 2kπ π + 2kπ
wk = cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2, 3.
4 4
We have
√ √ √ √
π π 2 2 5π 5π 2 2
w1 = cos + i sin = + i w3 = cos + i sin =− − i
4 4 2 2 4 4 2 2
√ √ √ √
3π 3π 2 2 7π 7π 2 2
w2 = cos + i sin =− + i w4 = cos + i sin = − i.
4 4 2 2 4 4 2 2

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17.2 Powers and Roots

  3
3π 3π
    
1 π 1
8 cos + i sin
8 8 29 9π 10π 9π 10π π
36.    = cos − + i − = cos + i sin = i
π π 10 210 8 16 8 16 2 2 2 2
2 cos + i sin
16 16
π π 3π
39. (a) Arg(z1 ) = π, Arg(z2 ) = , Arg(z1 z2 ) = − , Arg(z1 ) + Arg(z2 ) = = Arg(z1 z2 )
2 2 2
π π π
(b) Arg(z1 /z2 ) = − , Arg(z1 ) − Arg(z2 ) = π − = = Arg(z1 /z2 )
2 2 2

EXERCISES 17.3
Sets in the Complex Plane

3. 6. 9.

12. 15. 18.

21.

√
√

24. |Re(z)| = |x| is the same as x2 and |z| = x2 + y 2 . Since y 2 ≥ 0 the inequality x2 ≤ x2 + y 2 is true for
all complex numbers.

278
 17.4 Functions of a Complex Variable

EXERCISES 17.4
Functions of a Complex Variable

3. x = 0 gives u = −y 2 , v = 0. Since −y 2 ≤ 0 for all real values of y, the image is the origin
and the negative u-axis.
6. y = −x gives u = 0, v = −2x2 . Since −x2 ≤ 0 for all real values of x, the image is the origin and the
negative v-axis.

9. f (z) = (x2 − y 2 − 3x) + i(2xy − 3y + 4) 12. f (z) = (x4 − 6x2 y 2 + y 4 ) + i(4x3 y − 4xy 3 )

15. (a) f (0 + 2i) = −4 + i (b) f (2 − i) = 3 − 9i (c) f (5 + 3i) = 1 + 86i

√ √ √
π 2 2 −1 π 1 3 3 3
18. (a) f (0 + i) = + i (b) f (−1 − πi) = −e (c) f (3 + i) = e + e i
4 2 2 3 2 2
z4 − 1 (z 2 − 1)(z − i)(z + i)
21. lim = lim = −4i
z→i z − i z→i z−i
x+y−1 y 1 x+y−1
24. Along the line x = 1, lim = lim = = −i, whereas along the x-axis, lim =
z→1 z−1 y→0 iy i z→1 z−1
x−1
lim = 1.
x→1 x − 1

27. f  (z) = 12z 2 − (6 + 2i)z − 5

30. f  (z) = (z 5 + 3iz 3 )(4z 2 + 3iz 2 + 4z − 6i) + (z 4 + iz 3 + 2z 2 − 6iz)(5z 4 + 9iz 2 )

(2z + i)3 − (3z − 4 + 8i)2 8 − 13i
33. f  (z) = 2
=
(2z + 1) (2z + i)2
36. 0, 2 − 5i
z + ∆z − z ∆z
39. We have lim = lim .
∆z→0 ∆z ∆z→0 ∆z

If we let ∆z → 0 along a horizontal line then ∆z = ∆x, ∆z = ∆x, and

∆z ∆x
lim = lim = 1.
∆z→0 ∆z ∆x→0 ∆x
If we let ∆z → 0 along a vertical line then ∆z = i∆y, ∆z = −i∆y, and
∆z −i∆y
lim = lim = −1.
∆z→0 ∆z ∆y→0 i∆y
Since these two limits are not equal, f (z) = z cannot be differentiable at any z.
dx dy
42. The system = −y, = x can be solved as in Section 3.11. We obtain x(t) = c1 cos t + c2 sin t,
dt dt
y(t) = c1 sin t − c2 cos t.

279
17.4 Functions of a Complex Variable

45. If y = 1 2
2x the equations u = x2 − y 2 , v = 2xy give u = x2 − 14 x4 , v = x3 . With the aid of a
computer, the graph of these parametric equations is shown.

EXERCISES 17.5
Cauchy-Riemann Equations

∂u ∂v
3. u = x, v = 0; = 1, = 0. Since 1 = 0, f is not analytic at any point.
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
6. u = x2 − y 2 , v = −2xy; = 2x, = −2x; = −2y, − = 2y
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
The Cauchy-Riemann equations hold only at (0, 0). Since there is no neighborhood about z = 0 within which
f is differentiable we conclude f is nowhere analytic.
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
9. u = ex cos y, v = ex sin y; = ex cos y = ; = −ex sin y = − . f is analytic for all z.
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
12. u = 4x2 + 5x − 4y 2 + 9, v = 8xy + 5y − 1; = 8x + 5 = , = −8y = − . f is analytic for all z.
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
15. =3=b= ; = −1 = −a = − . f is analytic for all z when b = 3, a = 1.
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
18. u = 3x2 y 2 , v = −6x2 y 2 ; = 6xy 2 , = −12x2 y; = 6x2 y, − = 12xy 2
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
u and v are continuous and have continuous first partial derivatives. The Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied
whenever 6xy(y + 2x) = 0 and 6xy(x − 2y) = 0. The point satisfying y + 2x = 0 and x − 2y = 0 is z = 0. The
points that satisfy 6xy = 0 are the points along the y-axis (x = 0) or along the x-axis (y = 0). The function
f is differentiable but not analytic on either axis; there is no neighborhood about any point z = x or z = iy
within which f is differentiable.
21. Since f is entire,
∂u ∂v
f  (z) = +i = ex cos y + iex sin y = f (z).
∂x ∂x

∂2u ∂2u ∂2u ∂2u ∂u ∂v

24. 2
= 0, 2
= 0 gives + = 0. Thus u is harmonic. Now = 2−2y = implies v = 2y−y 2 +h(x),
∂x ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
= −2x = − = −h (x) implies h (x) = 2x or h(x) = x2 +C. Therefore f (z) = 2x−2xy+i(2y−y 2 +x2 +C).
∂y ∂x
∂2u 2y 2 − 2x2 ∂ 2 u 2x2 − 2y 2 ∂2u ∂2u ∂u 2x ∂v
27. 2
= 2 2 2
, 2
= 2 2 2
gives + = 0. Thus u is harmonic. Now = 2 =
∂x (x + y ) ∂y (x + y ) ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂x x +y 2 ∂y
y ∂u 2y ∂v 2y
implies v = 2 tan−1 + h(x), = 2 = − = 2 − h (x) implies h (x) = 0 or h(x) = C.
x ∂y x + y2 ∂x x + y2

280
 17.6 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

 y 
Therefore f (z) = loge (x2 + y 2 ) + i tan−1 + C , z = 0.
x
x y
30. f (x) = 2 −i . The level curves u(x, y) = c1 and v(x, y) = c2 are the family of circles x = c1 (x2 +y 2 )
x + y 2 x2 + y 2
and −y = c2 (x2 + y 2 ), with the exception that (0, 0) is not on the circumference of any circle.

EXERCISES 17.6
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

√ √
π π 2 2
3. e−1+ 4 i = e−1 cos + ie−1 sin = e−1
π
+ i
4 4 2 2

3π 3π
6. e−π+ = e−π cos + ie−π sin = −e−π i
3π
2 i
2 2
9. e5i = cos 5 + i sin 5 = 0.2837 − 0.9589i
5π 5π 5π
12. e5+ 2 i = e5 cos + ie5 sin = e5 i
2 2
15. ez = ex −y +2xyi = ex −y cos 2xy + iex −y sin 2xy
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

ez1 ex1 cos y1 + iex1 sin y1 (ex1 cos y1 + iex1 sin y1 )(ex2 cos y2 − iex2 sin y2 )
18. = =
ez2 ex2 cos y2 + iex2 sin y2 e2x2
= ex1 −x2 [(cos y1 cos y2 + sin y1 sin y2 ) + i(sin y1 cos y2 − cos y1 sin y2 )]
= ex1 −x2 [cos(y1 − y2 ) + i sin(y1 − y2 )] = ex1 −x2 +i(y1 −y2 ) = e(x1 +iy1 )−(x2 +iy2 ) = ez1 −z2
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
21. u = ex cos y, v = −ex sin y; = ex cos y, = −ex cos y; = −ex sin y, − = ex sin y
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Since the Cauchy-Riemann equations are not satisfied at any point, f is nowhere analytic.
 π   π 
24. ln(−ei) = loge e + i − + 2nπ = 1 + − + 2nπ i
2 2
√ √ √ π  π 
27. ln( 2 + 6 i) = loge 2 2 + i + 2nπ = 1.0397 + + 2nπ i
3 3
30. Ln(−e3 ) = loge e3 + πi = 3 + πi
√ √ π π
33. Ln(1 + 3 i)5 = Ln(16 − 16 3 i) = loge 32 − i = 3.4657 − i
3 3
1 i
36. = ln(−1) = loge 1 + i(π + 2nπ) = (2n + 1)πi and so z = − .
z (2n + 1)π
π
39. (−i)4i = e4i ln(−i) = e4i[loge 1+i(− 2 +2nπ)] = e(2−8n)π
√
2+i(− π
= e 2 −4nπ [cos(loge 2) + i sin(loge 2)] = e−4nπ [3.7004 + 3.0737i]
π
42. (1 − i)2i = e2i ln(1−i) = e2i[loge 4 +2nπ)]

45. If z1 = i and z2 = −1 + i then

√ 3π
Ln(z1 z2 ) = Ln(−1 − i) = loge 2− i,
4
whereas  
π √ 3π √ 5π
Lnz1 + Lnz2 = i + loge 2 + i = loge 2 + i.
2 4 4

281
17.6 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

48. (a) (ii )2 = (ei ln i )2 = [e−( 2 +2nπ) ]2 = e−(π+4nπ) and i2i = e2i ln i = e−(π+4nπ)
π

(b) (i2 )i = (−1)i = ei ln(−1) = e−(π+2nπ) , whereas i2i = e−(π+4nπ)

EXERCISES 17.7
Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

π  π π
3. sin + i = sin cosh(1) + i cos sinh(1) = 1.0911 + 0.8310i
4 4 4
π  cos( π + 3i) −i sinh(3)
6. cot + 3i = 2
= = −0.9951i
2 sin( π2 + 3i) cosh(3)

9. cosh(πi) = cos(i(πi)) = cos(−π) = cos π = −1

12. cosh(2 + 3i) = cosh(2) cos(3) + i sinh(2) sin(3) = −3.7245 + 0.5118i

eiz − e−iz √
15. = 2 gives e2(iz) − 4ieiz − 1 = 0. By the quadratic formula, eiz = 2i ± 3 i and so
2i
√
iz = ln[(2 ± 3 )i]
 √ π  π √
z = −i loge (2 ± 3 ) + + 2nπ i = + 2nπ − i loge (2 ± 3 ), n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .
2 2

ez − e−z √
18. = −1 gives e2z + 2ez − 1 = 0. By the quadratic formula, ez = −1 ± 2 , and so
2
√
z = ln(−1 ± 2 )
√ √
z = loge ( 2 − 1) + 2nπi or z = loge ( 2 + 1) + (π + 2nπ)i,

n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .

21. cos z = cosh 2 implies cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y = cosh 2 + 0i and so we must have cos x cosh y = cosh 2 and
sin x sinh y = 0. The last equation has solutions x = nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , or y = 0. For y = 0 the first
equation becomes cos x = cosh 2. Since cosh 2 > 1 this equation has no solutions. For x = nπ the first equation
becomes (−1)n cosh y = cosh 2. Since cosh y > 0 we see n must be even, say, n = 2k, k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . . Now
cosh y = cosh 2 implies y = ±2. Solutions of the original equation are then

z = 2kπ ± 2i, k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .

ex+iy − e−x−iy 1 1
24. sinh z = = (ex eiy − e−x e−iy ) = [ex (cos y + i sin y) − e−x (cos y − i sin y)]
2 2 2
 x   x 
e − e−x e + e−x
= cos y + i sin y = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y
2 2
27. | cosh z|2 = cosh2 x cos2 y + sinh2 x sin2 y = (1 + sinh2 x) cos2 y + sinh2 x sin2 y
= cos2 y + sinh2 x(cos2 y + sin2 y) = cos2 y + sinh2 x

282
 CHAPTER 17 REVIEW EXERCISES

sin z sin z cos z [sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y][cos x cosh y + i sin x sinh y]
30. tan z = = =
cos z | cos z|2
cos2 x + sinh2 y
(sin x cos x cosh2 y − sin x cos x sinh2 y) cos2 x sinh y cosh y + sin2 x sinh y cosh y
= + i
cos2 x + sinh2 y cos2 x + sinh2 y
sin x cos x(cosh2 y − sinh2 y) sin y cosh y(cos2 x + sin2 x)
= 2 + i
cos2 x + sinh y cos2 x + sinh2 y
sin x cos x sinh y cosh y sin 2x sinh 2y
= 2 +i 2 = 2 +i
2
cos x + sinh y 2
cos x + sinh y 2
2(cos x + sinh y) 2(cos x + sinh2 y)
2

But
2 cos2 x + 2 sinh2 y = (2 cos2 x − 1) + (2 sinh2 y + 1) = cos 2x + cosh 2y.
Therefore tan z = u + iz where
sin 2x sinh 2y
u= , v= .
cos 2x + cosh 2y cos 2x + cosh 2y

EXERCISES 17.8 Inverse Trigonometric

and Hyperbolic Functions

2nπ + i loge 1 2nπ

3. sin−1 0 = −i ln(±1) = = = nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
(2n + 1)π + i loge 1 (2n + 1)π
√
√ 2nπ − π
+ i loge (2 + 5 )
6. cos−1 2i = −i ln[(2 ± 5 )i] = 2 √ , n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
2nπ + π
2 − i loge (2 + 5 )
i i+1 i π i π
9. tan−1 1 = ln = ln(−i) = −nπ + + loge 1 = − nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
2 i−1 2 4 2 4
−1
Note that this can also be written as tan 1 = 4 + nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .
π

√
−1
√ loge (1 + 2 ) + ( π2 + 2nπ)i
12. cosh i = ln[(1 + ± 2 )i] = √ , n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
loge ( 2 − 1) + (− π2 + 2nπ)i

CHAPTER 17 REVIEW EXERCISES

3. − 25
7

6. The closed annular region between the circles |z + 2| = 1 and |z + 2| = 3. These circles have center at z = −2.
π 
9. z = ln(2i) = loge 2 + i + 2nπ , n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
2
 π π
12. f (−1 + i) = −33 + 26i 15. Ln(−ie3 ) = loge e3 + − i=3− i
2 2

283
CHAPTER 17 REVIEW EXERCISES

1 17
18. − − i
13 13
21. The region satisfying xy ≤ 1 is shown in the figure.

24. The region satisfying y < x is shown in the figure.

27. The four fourth roots of 1 − i are given by

    
π kπ π kπ
wR = 2 1/8
cos − + + i sin − + , n = 0, 1, 2, 3
16 2 16 2
  π  π
w0 = 21/8 cos − + i sin − = 1.0696 − 0.2127i
16 16
 
7π 7π
w1 = 21/8 cos + i sin = 0.2127 + 1.0696i
16 16
 
15π 15π
w2 = 2 1/8
cos + i sin = −1.0696 + 0.2127i
16 16
 
23π 23π
w3 = 21/8 cos + i sin = −0.2127 − 1.0696i
16 16

30. Im(z − 3z̄) = 4y, zRe(z 2 ) = (x3 − xy 2 ) + i(x2 y − y 3 ). Thus,

f (z) = (4y + x3 − xy 2 − 5x) + i(x2 y − y 3 − 5y).

33. z = z −1 gives z 2 = 1 or (z − 1)(z + 1) = 0. Thus z = ±1.

36. z 2 = z̄ 2 gives xy = −xy or xy = 0. This implies x = 0 or y = 0. All real numbers (y = 0) and all pure imaginary
numbers (x = 0) satisfy the equation.
√ π √ π
39. Ln(1 + i)(1 − i) = Ln(2) = loge 2; Ln(1 + i) = loge 2 + i; Ln(1 − i) = loge 2 − i.
4 4
Therefore,
√
Ln(1 + i) + Ln(1 − i) = 2 loge 2 = loge 2 = Ln(1 + i)(1 − i).

284