Biology AS Level Note
Cell Structure
 The Microscope in Cell Studies:
Size of cells is typically measure in
micrometer (μm) scale or nanometre
(nm)
Converting unit of measurements:
 Eyepiece Graticules and Stage
Micrometers:
 Resolution and Magnification
Stage micrometer scale:
 The scale in the slide in the
Microscope
Eyepiece Graticule:
 A ruler like lens in a
Microscope
One graticule division
 Number of micrometers
÷ Number of graticule division
By the Example image 1 graticule
division is equal to:
Stage Micrometer: 0.1 mm = 100
μm
 100 μm ÷ 40 = 2.5 μm
(magnification factor/calibration)
After calibrating we can calculate
the cell by using
length of the image x calibration
Magnification:
 how many times bigger the image of
a specimen observed is in compared TEM:
to the actual (real-life) size of the  Show the inner structure of the
specimen cell
 Resolution can go down to 0.5
Resolution: nm
The ability to distinguish between  Electron passes through the
two separate points surface

There are two type of microscope: The Most Important thing to

1. Light Microscope
2. Electron Microscope
Light Microscope
 Are used for specimen above
200 nm
 Visible light passes through the
specimen
 Eyepiece lens (x10)
 Useful for looking at whole
cells, small organism, tissues
within organs (e.g. leaves /
skin)
remember!
SEM  3D Image, Only the cell
Surface
TEM  2D Image, show inner
Cell
Difference between Light and
Electron Microscope:
The similarities  Both uses lens
Cell Size/ Scale

 The electromagnetic spectrum

Resolution depend on the
wavelength of the light /
radiation used

Electron Microscope
Is divided into 2 type:
1. Scanning Electron Mag.
(SEM)
2. Transmission Electron Mag.
(TEM)  RBC : 7 μm
 Egg Shell : 100 μm
 Virus : 20 – 40 nm
SEM:  Prokaryote : 0.1 – 5 μm
 Create a detail 3D image  Nucleus : 6 – 7 μm
 Smaller resolution than TEM  Ribosomes : 25 nm
 Electron bounce back and forth  Cell Membrane : 7 nm
across the specimen’s surface  Microtubules : 25 nm
  Microfilament : 6 nm  Compose of cellulose,

 Eukaryotic Cell
Type of Eukaryotic cell:
1. Animal
2. Plant
3. Fungi
4. Protists

Cell Structure:
- Plasma Membrane (Cell Surface
hemicellulose, pectin,
proteins, etc.

Function
 Provide structural strength and
support (Provided b the
polysaccharides cellulose in
plants)

Membrane)
 Separate the cell from the
outside movement
 Compromise specific
embedded proteins

- Nucleus

Function
 Regulates the transport of
materials entering and exiting the
cell.
- Cell Wall
Note: ABSENT IN ANIMAL
CELL

 Is a Rigid structure present

outside of the plant cell
 A protective layer that protect
the cell from any injury from
the outside
Structure:
 The double layered membrane
is a continuous channel of
 membranous from the ER
network
 Has pore which allow entry of
large molecule (mRNA and
Ribosome, Enzyme e.g. DNA
Polymerases)
 House of chromosomal DNA
and genetic material
Function:
 Control and regulate cell
activities of growth and maintain
cell metabolism
Rough ER
» Covered with Ribosome
» Processes proteins made by
ribosomes
Smooth ER
» Lack Ribosome
» Involve in the production of
Lipids (Cholesterols and
phospholipids), Carbohydrate,
and Steroids

- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

- Golgi Apparatus (Golgi Body)

 A system of hollow tubes /

sacs transportation purpose

Structure:
 Continuous folded
membranous organelles
found in cytoplasm
 Made up of thin network of
flattened interconnected
compartments (sacs) that Structure:
connects from the cytoplasm  Made up of flat disc-shaped
to the cell nucleus structure called cisternae
 Arranged parallel and
There are 2 type of ER: concentrically near the nucleus
1. Rough ER (They are not interconnected)
2. Smooth ER
 Found in Cytoplasm
 Function:
 Transport, modify, and pack
proteins and lipids into the Golgi
vesicles to deliver them to their sites
- Ribosomes
 Receive mRNA code for
proteins synthesis
Structure:
 Made up of ribosomal
proteins and ribosomal RNA
(rRNA)
 Has 2 subunit (large and
small) These subunit are
designated as the 40s and the
60s in the animal cell
Function:
 The site of protein synthesis in
the cell.
- Mitochondria
Structure:
 A rod-shaped or oval or
spherically shaped, with a size
of 0.5 to 10 μm
 Have an inner and outer
membrane
 Have a mitochondrial gel-
matric in the central mass
 The membrane bend into folds
known as cristae
Function
 Producing energy known as ATP
enabling the cell to perform it’s
function
- Chloroplast
ONLY FOUND IN PLANTS!
Structure:
 Larger than mitochondria
 Surrounded by a double
membrane
 Membrane-bound
compartments called
thylakoids containing
chlorophyll that stack to form
structure called Grana
 Grana are joined together by
lamellae
Function:
 The site of photosynthesis
- Vacuole
Vacuoles in animal cells are nor
permanent and small
While in plant cell the vacuole is
permanent and large
- Cytoplasm
The liquid where all cell metabolic
activities take place
- Vesicles
Membrane bound sac for transport
and storage
- Lysosome
Structure:
 Round subcellular organelle
found in all eukaryotic cells
 Very acidic organelles
containing digestive enzyme
Function
 Break down waste materials such
as worn out organelles, used
extensively by cells of the immune
system and apoptosis (programmed
cell death)
- Cytoskeleton
Create a network organizing the cell - Microtubules
components and to also maintain
the cell shape
Structure:
 Formed from different
proteins of long chains of
amino acid
 Made up of 3 type of tiny
filaments
- Actin filaments
(Microfilaments)
- Microtubules
- Intermediate Filaments

- Centriole Structure:
 Long, straight, hollow
cylinders filaments that are
constructed from 13 – 15 sub
filaments (protofilaments)
 Made up of alpha and beta
tubulin combined to form
dimers
 Dimers joined together into a
protofilaments
NOT FOUND IN FLOWERING
PLANTS AND FUNGI! Function
 Provide support and movement of
Structure: the cell
 Made up pf 9 microtubule
bundles - Microfilament (Actin filaments)

Function
 Assist in organizing cell in cell
division process

Structure:
 Composed of 2 strands of
subunit of the protein actin
wound in a spiral.
Function
  Structure and Support, Create Structure:
tension  Similar to cilia but longer
microtubules
- Microvilli
Function
 Provide cell movement

- Peroxisome

Function:
 Increase the surface area for
absorption

- Cilia
Structure:
 Spherically shaped bound by a
membrane

Function
 Lipids metabolism, Chemical
detox, also mechanism in reactive
oxygen species

Structure:
 Hair-like projections made Animal and Plant Cell
from microtubules The structure of the cell
 Made out of strands of
filaments

Function
 Allow movement of a
substance over the cell surface

- Flagella
 Animal Cell The Differences:

 Plant Cell

 Prokaryotic Cell

  Bacteria and Virus

Characteristic of the cell:

 Lack nuclear membrane
  Mitochondria, Golgi  Viruses
apparatus, chloroplast,
lysosome are ABSENT
 Their genetic material is
not packaged within a
membrane-bound
nucleus, rather it is
packaged as linear
chromosome

 Viruses are non-cellular

infectious particles that straddle
the boundary between ‘living’
and ‘non-living’

They are relatively simple in

structure; much smaller than
prokaryotic cells (with
diameters between 20 and 300
nm)

Structurally they have:

 A nucleic acid
core (their genomes are
either DNA or RNA,
and can be single or
double-stranded)
 A protein coat called a
‘capsid’

Some viruses have an outer
layer called an envelope formed
- Bacteria usually from the membrane-
phospholipids of a cell they were
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic made in
Comparison:
All viruses are parasitic in that they
can only reproduce by infecting
living cells and using their protein-
building machinery (ribosomes) to
produce new viral particles
 Note: 2. Oxygen
Cell  Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic 3. Carbon
4. Nitrogen
Eukaryotic
 Have organelles, no cell wall (in  The Building Block of Life
animal cell) , no plasmid Simple Biological Molecule:
1. Monosaccharides
Prokaryotic 2. Amino Acid
 No nuclear membrane, have cell 3. Fatty Acid and Glycerol
wall, have plasmid, unicellular 4. Nucleotides
5. Organic Bases
Similarities;
 Both have ribosome Complex Biological Molecule
(Macromolecules):
Organelle Structure from 1. Polysaccharides
Smallest to largest: 2. Nucleic Acid
1. Ribosome 3. Proteins
2. Mitochondria 4. Lipids
3. Nucleus
4. Golgi apparatus Extra Note!
5. Rough ER 1. Monomer (one)
6. Smooth ER  Simple molecule use as the
7. Lysosome basic building block
8. Cell wall
9. Cell Membrane 2. Dimers (two)
 Formed by two radicals /
molecules of simple
compound

Meaning 2 monomer joined

together

3. Polymers ( + two)
 Formed by 2 dimers or more

-a
Biological Molecule
 Biochemistry
The four most common element in
living organism:
1. Hydrogen