Theory and Practice of Solar Cells: A Cell to System Perspective

PV Systems and Farm Design

M. A. Alam

alam@purdue.edu
Electrical and Computer Engineering
Purdue University
West Lafayette, IN USA

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 Outline

1) Configurations of PV systems
2) Principles of fixed tilt farm design
3) Calculation of yearly energy yield
4) Conclusions

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes

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Course outline: A multiscale problem

Fabrication,
Device physics, Reliability, LCOE
Manufacturing

Collection of Panel
Module Rooftop
independent
p-n junction solar cell PV
2-level PV Cell Solar farm

nm nm-𝜇m cm-m km

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes

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System Integration: Sysmbols

Inverter Distribution
Cells, modules, panel panel

CC
Charge Battery/ AC
controller storage source/
grid

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes

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 Stand-alone PV systems

Simple More expensive

Low cost Off-grid
Calculators Many home PV
Irrigation Variety of electronics
M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes
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Solar homes: Grid-connected PV
PV connected to
Power-grid

Hybrid:
Multiple sources
Both AC/DC loads

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes

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 Community PV:
Microgrid and Solar Farms

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes

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 Aside: Inverter configurations
Power
optimizer

Central Micro String Micro with

Power-optimizer
M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes
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 Outline

1) Configurations of PV systems
2) Principles of fixed tilt farm design
3) Calculation of yearly energy yield
4) Conclusions

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes

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Sunlight varies with seasons

𝐼0 (𝑑𝑛 ) = 𝐼0 (1 + Δ cos 2𝜋 𝑑𝑛 /𝐷)

Δ = 2(𝑅max – 𝑅min )/𝑑

1450

𝐼0 (W/m2 )
1400

1350

1300
400

300 Extra-

(kW-hr/m2 )
terrestrial
200
Monthly
100 Monthly GHI
0
J FMAMJ J ASOND

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How to tilt a solar module (i.e.
determine 𝛽)

𝐼𝑏

𝜃𝑧
𝛽 𝛼

𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 𝐼𝑏 sin 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝐼𝑏 cos(𝜃𝑧 − 𝛽)

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes 14

𝜃𝑧 varies throughout the year
δ ≡ Sun declination angle

North
𝛼(𝑑) = 90 − 𝐿 ± 𝛿(𝑑)
South
𝛿
𝜃𝑧 𝜃𝑧 (𝑑) = 𝐿 ∓ 𝛿(𝑑)

𝛼 𝜃𝑧,𝑤 = 𝐿 + 23.45
𝜃𝑧,𝑠 = 𝐿 − 23.45

2𝜋 𝑑 − 80 March 21st (Vernal

𝛿= 23.450 sin
365 Equinox)≡ 80 days
 An empirical rule for tilt
𝜃𝑧 (𝑑) = 𝐿 ∓ 𝛿(𝑑)

𝜃𝑧,𝑤 = 𝐿 + 23.45
𝛽
𝜃𝑧,𝑠 = 𝐿 − 23.45

Summer intensity is higher: 𝛽 = 𝐿 − 10

Optimize integral over daily

intensity and solar angle for given 𝛽 𝛽 = 0.69𝐿 + 3.7

Two tilt, summer/winter: 𝛽𝑠 = 𝜃𝑧,𝑠 𝛽𝑤 = 𝜃𝑧,𝑤

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 Example: How to tilt a module

Lafayette Madras Shanghai

40.27𝑁 13.5 𝑁 31.23 𝑁

𝛽 = 𝐿 − 10 30.27 3.50 21.23

𝛽 = 0.69𝐿 + 3.6 31.79 12.92 24. 83

𝛽𝑠 = 𝜃𝑧,𝑠 16.82 −9.95 7.78

𝛽𝑤 = 𝜃𝑧,𝑤 63.72 36.95 54.68

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 Aside: Cleaning considerations

Tilt angle, Electrical vs. mechanical, Air vs. water cleaning

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes
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 Three components of irradiance

𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 + 𝐼𝑎𝑙𝑏 𝑘 𝑇 = 𝐼𝐺𝐻𝐼 /𝐼0 cos(𝜃𝑍 )

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Standalone yield: Direct light
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 + 𝐼𝑎𝑙𝑏

𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 𝐼𝑏 sin 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝐼𝑏 cos 𝜃𝑧 − 𝛽

𝐼𝑏

𝜃𝑧
𝛽 𝛼

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes 20

 Stand-alone yield: diffuse component
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 + 𝐼𝑎𝑙𝑏

𝐼𝑑 𝐼𝑑

𝛽 𝛽

𝐼𝑑 𝜋 𝐼𝑑 1 + cos 𝛽
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = න sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 =
2 𝛽 2

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes 21

 Stand-alone yield: albedo
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 + 𝐼𝑎𝑙𝑏
ℎ
𝑟 = 𝑠 Τℎ → ∞ 𝑆3 𝑆1
ℎ
𝛽 𝑆2
𝑆4
𝑠 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 – 𝑆3 + 𝑆4
𝐼𝑎𝑙𝑏 = 𝐼𝐺𝐻𝐼 𝑅𝐴 𝑉𝐹 𝑉𝐹 =
2ℎ

ℎ + 𝑠 – (0 + 𝑠 2 + ℎ2 + 2𝑠ℎ cos 𝛽)
𝑉𝐹 =
2ℎ
1
𝑉𝐹 = 1 + 𝑟 − 1 + 𝑟 2 + 2𝑟 cos 𝛽 → (1 − cos 𝛽)/2
2
M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes 22
 Stand-alone module: Energy yield

𝐼𝑏

𝜃𝑧
𝛽 𝛼

𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 𝐼𝑏 cos(𝜃𝑧 − 𝛽)

𝐼𝑑 1 + cos 𝛽
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 + 𝐼𝑎𝑙𝑏 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 =
2

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes

𝐼𝑎𝑙𝑏 = 𝐼𝐺𝐻𝐼 𝑅𝐴 (1 − cos 𝛽)/2
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Row spacing in Lafayette, IN
Summer zenith: 𝜃𝑍𝑠
Winter zenith: 𝜃𝑍𝑤
𝜃𝑍𝑠
𝜃𝑍𝑤

ℎ 𝜃𝑍𝑤
ℎ𝑦
𝛽 ℎ𝑥
𝑟𝑠
𝑝

SBR ≡ 𝑟𝑠 /ℎ𝑦 = tan 90 − 𝛼 = tan 𝜃𝑧𝑤,𝑝

𝑝/ℎ = cos(𝛽) + sin(𝛽) tan 𝜃𝑧𝑤,𝑝

SBR ≡ 𝑟𝑠 /ℎ𝑦 = tan 90 − 18.14 = 3.05

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes 27

Farm yield per unit area: direct beam
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 + 𝐼𝑎𝑙𝑏

𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 𝐼𝑏 sin 𝛼 + 𝛽 ℎ/𝑝 = 𝐼𝑏 cos 𝜃𝑧 − 𝛽 × ℎ/𝑝

𝐼𝑏

𝜃𝑧
𝛽 𝛼

𝑝
M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes 30
 Farm yield: diffused energy collection
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 + 𝐼𝑎𝑙𝑏

𝐼𝑑
𝐼𝑑

𝛼+𝛽
𝛽 𝛼

𝑝 𝐼𝑑 𝜋 𝑝 𝐼𝑑 1 + cos(𝛼 + 𝛽 )
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 (𝜉) = × න sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ×
ℎ 2 𝛽+𝛼(𝜉) ℎ 2

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes 31

 Outline

1) Configurations of PV systems
2) Principles of fixed tilt farm design
3) Calculation of yearly energy yield
4) Conclusions

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes

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Variety of Solar Farms

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes 34

 Monofacial solar farms

Southern hemisphere, Northern hemisphere,

North facing panels South facing panels
Panel tilt (deg.)

80
60 W
40
20
0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
4
3
2 period
(m)

1 Row spacing
0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
5
4
SBR

3
2
1
0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
Yearly Yield (kW-hr/m2 )
Latitude (deg.)

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes

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Albedo contribution to Monofacial Farms

• 𝑅𝐴 = 0.2
• 1-2 % gain in YY
• 1-2o increase in optimum tilt angle
• < 1% reduction in LCOE*

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes

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 Ground-sculpted bifacial farms
180
120

Longitude
60
0
-60
-120
-180
(a)(i)

Improvement, %
1 2
(c) (d) 40 GvBF vs. mono

20 GvBF vs. vBF-1

ℎ 0
160
𝑟 Latitude 40 N

Annual Yield (kW-hr/m )

𝑝

2
(a)(ii) (e) (f) 140
0.5
area

𝑟 = 0.5ℎ 120
Daily Energy/farm

0.4

0.3 𝑟=0
W
(kW-hr/m )
2

100 Monofacial
0.2
(10% soiling loss)
0.1 80
0 1 2 3 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65
p/h Annual mean-clearness index
(b) (g) (h)
M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes
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 Land-cost inclusive optimization
(a) = 0 (b) = 15 (c) = 100

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M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes
 Conclusions
PV design must be understood in a system context.
Given the weather information, it is relatively easy to
calculate the energy yield for stand-alone modules as
well as solar farms.
The increasing cost of land and wide-spread PV
deployment are encouraging the PV industry to
explore novel technologies (e.g. bifacial PV) and farm
topologies (e.g. floating solar).
An end-to-end cost-benefit analysis is essential to
create a farm thatM.is ideally suited to a location.
A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes
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 Self-study Quiz

 Which direction does 90 degrees Azimuth indicate?

 Names the light-components one must sum to calculate the
energy yield.
 What is the cross-string method? Why do we need this
technique?
 How does the albedo light collection by a module in a farm
compare to that of an stand-alone module?
 What type of solar benefit the most from ground-sculpting?
 When should one use floating solar farms compared to
normally tilted solar farms?

M. A. Alam, PV Lecture Notes

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