Calculus 1

Engineering Mathematics-I
Mathematics-I [BT-102] [BT-102] MODULE–I

MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
Prof. Kamlesh Kumar Sahu, Oriental College of Technology, Bhopal:Mob. 9229486885 Page 1
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
Module–I
Syllabus: Rolle’s theorem, Mean Value theorems, Expansion of functions by Maclaurin’s and Taylor’s for one
variable; Taylor’s theorem for function of two variables, Partial Differentiation, Maxima & Minima (two and
three variables), Method of Lagranges Multipliers
Chapter – 1
Role’s and Lagrange’s theorem
1.1 Role’s theorem
Rolles's theorem is used to find a function's horizontal tangent line. It is a special case of the mean value
theorem which is discussed in the next section.
Rolle's Theorem states:
If a function satisfies the following conditions
1. The function is continuous in a closed interval [a, b],

2. The function is differentiable on this open interval (a, b),
3. The value of the function at the two ends are equal,
then there is a point between a and b such that its derivative is 0.
Geometrical Interpretation:
This theorem can be better understood by examining the following cases:
1. First, examine the case when the function f(x) is a constant. In this case, df(x)/dx = 0 at all the points
from a to b. For example, when a car is driving at an uniform velocity from time a to b, the derivative of the
velocity, acceleration, is 0 in this period
2. Next, take the case when the function value is larger than the starting point value, f(x) > f(a). In this case
the function value is maximum, when df(x)/dx equals 0. For example, when a ball is thrown directly upward,
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
velocity is 0 when the displacement is maximum. In other words, the function maximum will be at point c (see
graphic) where the tangent is horizontal.
3. Another case is when the function value is smaller than the starting value f(x) < f(a). In this case,
df(x)/dx = 0 happens at the minimum value point. For example, the derivative of a hanging cable at its lowest
point is 0. At point c (see graphic) the function f(x) is a horizontal tangent line.
4. Notice that when a function satisfy Rolle's hypotheses, it may have multiple horizontal tangent line at
various point when the function local extreme values are reached.
Example : One of the example in Rolle's Theorem is a car driving at an uniform speed, its acceleration is 0. It
can also be stated that if a car has zero acceleration, then its velocity is uniform. This is true in the physics, and
it is an example of how the theorem works. The theorem states:
If the derivative of a function at all points are 0 in an open interval (a, b), then the function is constant on (a, b).
Mathematically:
If f (x) be a real valued function of x such that
1. f (a) = f (b)
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
2. f (x) is a continuous function in the closed interval [a, b] i.e. a  x  b

3. f (x) is differentiable in the open interval (a, b) i.e., a < x < b
Then there exit at least one real value of c ((a, b) such that
f (c)  0
Rolle’s Theorem ensures that there is at least one point on the curve y = f (x) at which tangent is parallel to
X-axis, abscissa of the point lying in (a, b).
 Rolle’s theorem fails to hold good for a function which does not satisfy any one of the three
conditions stated above.
 There may be more than one point c, such that f (c)  0
 The converse of the theorem is not true, i.e. for some function f (x), f (c)  0 but f (x) may not
satisfy the condition of Rolle’s Theorem.
Example 1: Verify Rolle’s Theorem for the function f ( x)  x 2 in the interval [–1, 1].
[RGPV Dec. 2018]
Solution: Given the function is
f ( x)  x 2 … (1)
(i). Putting x = –1 and x = 1, we get
f (1)   1  1
2
f (1)  1  1
2
and
Clearly f (1)  f (1)
(ii). Since f (x) is a polynomial function in x, then f (x) is continuous in [–1, 1].
(iii). Since f (x) is a polynomial function in x, then it can differentiate such that
f ( x)  2 x
then by Rolle’s theorem  at least c  (–1, 1) such that
f (c)  0
 2c  0
 c  0   1,1
Hence verified Rolle ’s Theorem for [–1, 1]. Hence Proved
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
Example 2: Verify Rolle’s Theorem for the function f ( x)  x3  6 x2  11x  6 in [1, 2]

f ( x)  x3  6 x2  11x  6 … (1)
(i). Putting x = 1 and x = 3, we get
f (1)  13  6 1  111  6  0
2
f (2)   2  6  2  11 2  6  8  24  22  6  0
3 2
and
Clearly f (1)  f (2)
(ii). Since f (x) is a polynomial function in x, then f (x) is continuous in [1, 3].
f ( x)  3x2 12x  11
then by Rolle’s theorem  at least c  (1, 3) such that
f (c)  0
 3c2 12c  11  0
12  144  4  3 11 12  2 1
 c   2
23 6 3
 c  2.577, 1.4226  (1, 3)
Hence verified Rolle’s theorem for [1, 3].
Example 3:Verify Rolle’s Theorem for the function f ( x)  2x3  x2  4 x  2 [RGPV Feb. 2016]
f ( x)  2x3  x2  4 x  2 … (1)
Taking, f ( x)  0
 2 x3  x2  4 x  2  0
 x 2  2 x  1  2  x  2   0
  2 x  1  x2  2  0
1
 x   , x   2, x  2
2
 The required interval is   2, 2 
(i). Putting x=  2  
f  2 0 
and x= 2   2  0
f
Clearly f  2   f  2   0
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
(ii). Since f (x) is a polynomial function in x, then f (x) is continuous in   2, 2 

 
f ( x)  6 x2  2 x  4

then by Rolle’s theorem  at least c   2, 2 such that 
f (c)  0
 6c2  2c  4  0
 3c2  c  2  0
 3c2  3c  2c  2  0
 3c  c  1  2  c  1  0
 3c  2 c 1  0

2

c  ,  1   2, 2
3

Hence verified Rolle’s theorem for   2, 2  .
Example 4 : Discuss the applicability of Rolle’s theorem on the function
 x 2  1 ; 0  x  1
f ( x)  
3  x ; 1  x  2
 x 2  1 ; 0  x  1
Solution: Given the function is f ( x)   … (1)
3  x ; 1  x  2
(i). Putting x = 0 and x = 2, we get
f  0   02  1  1
and f  2  3  2  1
Clearly f  0  f  2
(ii) Test the differentiability at x = 1

f (1  h)  f (1)
Rf (1)  lim
h0 h
3  1  h    2
 lim   f (1)  12  1  3  1  2
h0 h  
h
Rf (1)  lim 1
h0 h
f (1  h)  f (1)
and Lf (1)  lim
h0 h
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
1  h 2  1  2
 
 lim 
h0 h
1  h 2  2h  1  2
h 2  2h
 lim    lim
h0 h h0 h
Lf (1)  lim  h  2   2
h0
Clearly right hand derivative and Left hand derivative of the function is exist but Rf (1)  Lf (1)
Therefore it is not differentiable in (0, 2).
Thus the Roll’s theorem is fail.
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
Verify the Rolle’s Theorem for the following function in the given interval.
Q.1 1. Verify Role’s theorem for f  x    x  a 
m
 x  b m , in a, b , m and n are positive constants.
[Ans: c=mb+na/ m+n
Q.2 Verify Rolle’s theorem for f ( x)  x 2  5x  6 in [2,3] [Ans: c=5/2]
Q.3 Verify Rolle’s theorem for 2 x3  x 2  4 x  2 Ans : Interval: [ 2, 2 ] ,c=-1 , 2/3]
[CBCS, Dec. 2016(3 marks)]

Q.4 Determine whether Rolle’s Theorem can be applied to f on the interval  a, b  . If Rolle’s Theorem can
be applied, find all values of c in the interval  a, b  such that f '(c)  0 .
Q.5 Verify Rolle’s theorem for f ( x)  x 2  2 x, 0, 2 Ans : c=1
6 3
Q.6 Verify Rolle’s theorem for f ( x)   x 1 x  2 x  3 , 1,3 Ans: c 
3
 1,  8,8
2
Q.7 Verify Rolle’s theorem for f ( x)  x 3
[Ans: . Rolle’s Theorem cannot be applied to f since f is not differentiable at x  0 which is on  8,8
x2  2x  3
Q.8 Verify Rolle’s theorem for f ( x)  ,  1,3 Ans : c  2  5
x2
 3
Q.9 Verify Rolle’s theorem for f ( x)  sin x, 0, 2  Ans : c  ,
2 2
f ( x)  tan x, 0,  
Q.10 Verify Rolle’s theorem for
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes

[ Ans: . Rolle’s Theorem cannot be applied since f is not continuous at x  which is on 0,   .
2
Mean Value Theorem ( Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem)
In the previous section, Rolle's theorem was introduced. One of the prerequisite of that theorem is
the two endpoints value are equal. However, the mean value theorem does not have this
requirement. It is more general than the Rolle's theorem. The mean value theorem states that if a
function satisfies the following two hypotheses,
1. The function is continuous on the closed interval [a, b],

2. The function is differentiable on the open interval (a, b),
then there is a point c in the open interval (a, b) such that

f (b)  f (a)
f (c)  …(1)
ba
Rearranging this equation gives: f (b)  f (a)  f (c) (b  a) …(2)
Mean Value Theorem Explanation Graphic

Graphically this means the slope of the secant line or chord between points A and B (average
value of f x  ) will be equal to the slope of the tangent line to f x  (the instantaneous rate of
change of f x  ) at least at one point c between a and b.
Now consider the slope of the line AB, mAB  tan   f b   f  a  / b  a  …(3)
The right hand side of the equation (1) and (3) are equal. Since the left hand side of equation (1) is
the slope of the tangent line at point C, the mean value theorem means that there is a pont c where
the tangent line is parallel to the line AB.
The mean value theorem is important because it sets some basic facts in differential calculus. One of these basic
facts is the following theorem.
Mathematically:
If f (x) be real valued function of x such that
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
1. f (a)  f (b)
2. f (x) is continuous function in the closed interval [a, b] i.e. a  x  b

3. f (x) is differentiable in the open interval (a, b) i.e., a < x < b,
Then there exit at least one real value c (a, b), such that
f (b)  f (a )
f (c) 
ba
Proof: Suppose the function (x) defined by
( x)  f ( x)   x … (1)
Where  is a constant (real number) such that

(a )  (b)
 f (a)   a  f (b)   b
f (b)  f (a)
  … (2)
ba
Now
1. (x) is continuous because f (x) and x both are continuous in [a, b]
2.  (x) is differentiable in (a, b) because (x) is a polynomial function in (a, b).
3. (a )  (b)
So, (x) satisfies all the three conditions of Rolle’s Theorem in [a, b]. Hence there exists atleast one real value
of c(a, b) such that
(c )  0
 f (c)    0
 f (c)   
f (b)  f (a )
     f (c)  [Putting the value of  from (2)]
ba
Hence proved.
Illustrative Examples
Example 1: Verify Lagrange’s Mean value theorem for the function f ( x)  x3  2 x2  x  3 in [0, 1]
Solution: The Given function is
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
f ( x)  x3  2 x2  x  3 … (1)
(i) Putting x = a = 0 and x = b = 1, we get
f (0)   0  2  0   0  3  3
3 2
f (1)  1  2 1  1  3  1

3 2
and
Clearly f (0)  f (1)
(ii). Since f (x) is polynomial function in x, then f (x) is continuous in [0, 1].
(iii). Since f (x) is polynomial function in x, then it can be differentiate such that
f ( x)  3x2  4 x 1
Then by mean value theorem  at least c  (0, 1) such that
f (1)  f (0)
f (c) 
1 0
1 3
 3c 2  4c  1   2
1 0
 3c2  4c  1  0
 3c 2  3c  c  1  0   3c  1 c  1  0
1
 c    0, 1 but c  1  0, 1
3
Hence Lagrange’s mean value theorem is verified for f (x) in [0, 1].
Example 2:Verify Lagrange’s Mean value theorem for the function f ( x)  2 x2 10 x  29 in [2, 7]
f ( x)  2 x2 10 x  29 … (1)
f (2)  2  2  10  2   29  8  20  29  17
2
f (7)  2  7  10  7   29  98  70  29  57
2
and
(ii). Since f (x) is polynomial function in x, then f (x) is continuous in [2, 7].
(iii). Since f (x) is polynomial function in x, then it can be differentiate such that
f ( x)  4 x  10
then by LMVT  at least c  (2, 7) such that
f (7)  f (2)
f (c) 
72
57  17
 4c  10  8
72
 4c  18  c  4.5   2, 7 
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
Example 3 Verify Lagrange’s Mean value theorem for the function f ( x)  x 2  4 in [2, 4]
f ( x)  x 2  4 … (1)
f (2)  22  4  0
and f (4)  42  4  12
(ii) For each x[2, 4], the function f (x) has a definite and unique value, then f (x) is continuous in [2, 4]
x
(iii) f ( x)  is exist for each x(2, 4), therefore f (x) is differentiable in (2, 4).
x2  4
By Mean value theorem  at least c  (2, 4) such that
f (4)  f (2)
f (c) 
42
c 12  0
 
c 4
2 42
c
  3
c2  4
Squaring both sides, we get
c2  3  c2  4
 2c 2  12  c  6   2, 4  
 c   6   2, 4 
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
Verify the Lagrange Mean value theorem for the following function in the given interval.
Q.1 1. Verify Mean value theorem for y = x2 in the interval [2,4].
Q.2 If f(x)=Ax2+Bx+C, where A,B,C are constants and A0. Then find the value of c in Lagrange’s
mean value theorem f(b)-f(a)=(b-a) f(c) [Ans: c=(b+a)/2
Q.3 Determine whether the Mean Value Theorem can be applied to f on the interval  a, b  . If
f (b)  f (a )
MVT can be applied, find all values of c in  a, b  such that f '(c)  .
ba
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
1
Q.4 Verify Mean value theorem for f ( x)  x 2 ,  2,1 Ans : c 
2
Verify Mean value theorem for . f ( x)  x 3 ,  0,1

2 8
Q.5 Ans : c 
27
1
Q.6 Verify Mean value theorem for f ( x)  2  x ,  7, 2 Ans: c 
4

Q.7 Verify Mean value theorem for f ( x)  sin x, 0,   Ans: c 
2
1
Q.8 Verify Mean value theorem for f ( x)  ,  1,1
x
MVT cannot be applied since f is not continuous @ x  0 which is on  1,1
[Hint :
Q.9 Let f be continuous on  a, b  and differentiable on  a, b  . If there exists c in  a, b  such
that f '(c)  0 , does it follow that f (a)  f (b)? Explain.
Taylor series and Maclaurin Series

Power Series : A power series about x = a (or "centered about x = a " ) is a sum of constants times powers
of ( x – a ).

C0  C1 ( x  a)  C 2 ( x  a) 2  C3 ( x  a) 3  . . . C n ( x  a) n  . . .   C n ( x  a) n
n0
In general, a power series is a series that contain variables, rather than a series of constants. A power series that
is "centered about x = a " means that a power series will converge when x = a.
Taylor Series
Taylor Series (or Taylor Polynomials) are specific forms of a power series that are used to approximate function
values about x = a (or "centered about x = a " ). Taylor Series are in the following form.

f ' (a) ( x  a) f " (a) ( x  a) 2 f ''' (a) ( x  a) 3 f ( n ) (a) ( x  a) n
f ( x)  f ( a ) 
1!

2!

3!
 ...   n!
n0
Note the forms of a Taylor Series and a Power Series. The constants in a power series are values that are
functions of n . The constants in a Taylor Series are values at x = a from a function, f ( x) , and/or its
(n)
f (a)
derivatives. In other words, the coefficient of nth term is in the form .
n!
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
Maclaurin Series
Maclaurin Series are specific forms of a Taylor Series that are used to approximate function values about x = 0
(or "centered about x = 0 " where a = 0 ). Maclaurin Series are in the following form.

f ' (0) x f " (0) x 2 f ''' (0) x 3 f ( n ) (0) x n
f ( x)  f (0) 
1!

2!

3!
 ...   n!
n0
(n)
f (0)
As in the Taylor Series, since a = 0 the coefficient of nth term is in the form .
n!
Maclaurin’s Theorem:
Suppose f(x) be any continuous differentiable function at x = 0, then it can be expand in ascending power of x
such that
x x2 x3 x 4 iv
f ( x)  f (0)  f (0)  f (0)  f (0)  f (0)  ...
1 2 3 4
The above statement can be written as
x x2 x3 x4
y  y0   y1 0   y2 0   y3 0   y4 0  ...
1 2 3 4
Proof:
Remarks:
1. Sometimes the Maclaurin expansion will only be valid for a certain range of x (in extreme cases,
only for x = 0).
2. Not all functions have Maclaurin expansions (e.g. x and log x.)
3. Clearly f must have derivatives of all orders existing at x = 0 in order to have a Maclaurin series
(i.e. it must be infinitely differentiable at x = 0).
4. The first few terms of the Maclaurin expansion of a function can give a good approximation to the
function for small values of x. This can be of great use in finding approximate solutions to
equations.
5. The Maclaurin theorem fails when the function or their derivative does not exist at x = 0.
Example: Find the Maclaurin’s series for f(x) = sinx
Solution: Given f x  sin x , f 0  0
f x  cosx ,  at x=0 f 0  1
f x   sin x ,  at x=0 f 0  0

MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
f x   cosx ,  at x=0 f 0  1

f x  sin x ,  at x=0 f 0  0
f x  cos(x) ,  at x=0 f 0  1
x x2 x3 x 4 iv
Using f ( x)  f (0)  f (0)  f (0)  f (0)  f (0)  ...
1 2 3 4
x2 x3 x4 x5
sin x  0  1 x   0 1  0 1 
2! 3! 4 5
x3 x5
 x
 
3! 5!
Example : Find the value of e 0.25 using the first five terms of the Maclaurin series.
Solution : Expansion of the function by Maclaurin series:
Let f ( x)  e x then f (0)  e0  1
f '( x)  e x  f '(0)  e0  1
f ''( x)  e x  f ''(0)  e0  1
f '''( x)  e x  f '''(0)  e0  1
f iv ( x)  e x  f iv (0)  e0  1 ………………..
x x2 x3 x 4 iv
Put these values in Maclaurin series: f ( x)  f (0)  f (0)  f (0)  f (0)  f (0)  ...
1 2 3 4
x 2 x3 x 4
ex  1  x     ....................
2! 3! 4!
Taking first five terms:
x2 x3 x4
ex  1 x   
2! 3! 4!
0.25 2 0.253 0.25 4

Put x=0.25, e 0.25
 1  0.25   
2! 3! 4!
 1.2840
x2 1 4 1 6
Example : Apply Maclaurin’s theorem to prove that logsec x   x  x  ...
2 12 45
[RGPV June 2015]
Solution: Suppose y  log sec x … (1)
Differentiate w.r.t. x successively, we get
1
y1  sec x tan x  tan x … (2)
sec x
 y2  sec2 x  1  tan 2 x  1  y12 … (3)
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
 y3  2y1 y 2 … (4)
 y4  2  y1 y3  (y2 )2  … (5)
 
 y5  2  y1 y4  y2 y3  2y2 y3   2  y1 y4  3y2 y3  … (6)
and y6  2  y1 y5  y2 y4  3y2 y4  3(y3 ) 2   2  y1 y5  4y 2 y 4  3(y3 ) 2  … (7)

   
Putting x = 0 in equations (1), (2), (3), (4), (5), (6) and (7) respectively, we get
y 0  0 , (y1 )0  0 , (y2)0 = 1, (y3)0 = 0, (y4)0 = 2, (y5)0 = 0 and (y6)0 = 16
The Maclaurin’s series in ascending power of x, is
x x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
y  y0  (y1 )0  (y2 )0  (y3 )0  (y4 )0  (y5 )0  (y6 )0  ....
1 2 3 4 5 6
Putting the values, we get
x x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
logsec x  0  (0)  (1)  (0)  (2)  (0)  (16)  ....
1 2 3 4 5 6
x2 1 4 1 6
 log sec x   x  x  ... Proved
2 12 45
Example : Expand sin–1x is power of x by Maclaurin’s theorem. [RGPV Dec. 2017]

Solution: Suppose y  f ( x)  sin 1 x  y0  0
Differentiate successively w.r.t., x we get
1 1/ 2
y1   1  x 2 
 
1  x2
11  1  1  1 
  1   1  2 
1 2 2  2  4 2  2  2  x6  ...
 y1  1  x  x 
21 2 3
n n n  n  1 2 n  n  1 n  2  3
[Using binomial expansions 1  x   1 x x  x  ..
1 2 3
x2 3 4 5 6
 y1  1   x  x  ...   y1 0  1
2 8 16
3 15
and y2  x  x3  x5  ...   y2 0  0
2 8
9 75
y3  1  x 2  x 4  ...   y3 0  1
2 8
75
y4  9 x  x3  ...   y4 0  0
2
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
225 2
y5  9  x  ...   y5 0  9
2
By Maclaurin’s theorem, we have
x x2 x3 x4 x5
y  y0   1 0
y   2 0
y   3 0
y   4 0
y   y5 0  ....
1 2 3 4 5
Putting the values we get
1 x x2 x3 x4 x5
sin x  0  1   0   1   0    9   ....
1 2 3 4 5
x3 3 5
 sin 1 x  x   x  .. Answer
6 40
Example : Find the Maclaurin’s expansion of log (1 + x).
Solution: Given, f ( x)  log(1  x)
Differential successively with respect to x, we get
1 1 2 6
f ( x)  , f ( x)   , f ( x)  and f iv ( x)  
1 x 1  x  2
1  x 3
1  x 4
Putting x = 0, we get
f (0)  log(1  0)  0 ,
1
f (0)  1
1 0
1
f (0)    1
1  02
2
f (0)  2
1  03
6
f iv (0)    6
1  0 4
We know that by Maclaurin’s series

x x2 x3 x 4 iv
f ( x)  f (0)  f (0)  f (0)  f (0)  f (0)  ...
1 2 3 4
x2 x3 x4
 log 1  x   0  x 1   1   2    6   ...
2 6 24
x 2 x3 x 4
 log 1  x   x     ... Answer
2 3 4
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
2 2 4 2 5
2x 2 x 2 x
1. Prove that : e x cos x  1  x     ---
3! 4! 5!
x2 x3 x 4
2. Prove that : log(1  x)  x     ...
2 3 4
3. Expand tan x by Maclaurin’s theorem and also find the value of tan 46o30’ upto four decimal places.
1
4. Expand e a sin x in ascending power of x and show that
a sin 1 x a 2 x 2 (12  a 2 ) . a 3 (22  a 2 ). a 2 4

e  1 a x   x  x  ... [ RGPV Dec. 2001, June 2002, 08 ]
2 3 4
x 2 x3 2.x 4
5. Show that : log (1  sin x)  x     ... [RGPV June 2006]
2 3 4
6. Expand 1  sin x in power of x, using Maclaurin’s expansion.
7. Expand ex sin x in power of x by Maclaurin’s theorem for as xm. [ RGPV Feb. 2005 ]
8. Expand log (1 + ex ) in ascending power of x as the term containing x4.

[ RGPV Feb. 2008 , Dec. 2013]
9. Expand the function e / ( 1 + e ) by Maclaurin’s theorem as far as the term x3.
x x
[ RGPV June 2008 ]
10. 10.Expand e sin x

by Maclaurin’s series upto the terms containing x4. [RPGV June 007, 2010, 09]
Taylor’s Series or Theorem:

The Taylor series of a function is an infinite sum of terms that are expressed in terms of the
function's derivatives at a single point. For most common functions, the function and the sum of its Taylor
series are equal near this point. Taylor's series are named after Brook Taylor who introduced them in 1715.
If zero is the point where the derivatives are considered, a Taylor series is also called a Maclaurin series,
after Colin Maclaurin, who made extensive use of this special case of Taylor series in the 18th century.
The partial sum formed by the n first terms of a Taylor series is a polynomial of degree n that is called
the nth Taylor polynomial of the function. Taylor polynomials are approximations of a function, which become
generally better when n increases.
Statement: Suppose f(x + h) be any function of x (where x is independent of h and vice versa), which
can be differentiate with respect to x, then it can be expand in ascending power of x such that
x x2 x3 x4 iv
f ( x  h)  f ( h)  f (h)  f (h)  f (h)  f (h)  ...
1 2 3 4
Corollaries from Taylor’s series:
1. Taylor series in ascending power of h,
h h2 h3 h4 iv
f ( x  h)  f ( x )  f ( x)  f ( x)  f ( x)  f ( x)  ..
1 2 3 4
2. Taylor series at the point x = a, is
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
x x2 x3 x 4 iv
f ( x  a)  f (a)  f (h)  f (a)  f (a)  f (a)  ...
1 2 3 4
3. Taylor series in ascending power of (x  a) is,
x x2 x3 x 4 iv
f ( x  a)  f (a)  f (h)  f (a)  f (a)  f (a)  ...
1 2 3 4
x x2 x3
Example 1: Show that log( x  h)  log h    ....
h 2h 2 3h3
Solution: Suppose f ( x  h)  log( x  h)
f (h)  log h
Differentiate successively w.r.t h, we get
1 1 2
f (h)  , f (h)   2 and f (h)  3
h h h
We know that the Taylor series in ascending power of x,
x x2 x3
f ( x  h)  f (h)  f (h)  f (h)  f (h)  ....
1 2 3
x  1  x 2  1  x3  2 
 log( x  h)  log h       ....
1  h  2  h2  3  h3 
x x2 x3
 log( x  h)  log h   2  3 .... Proved
h 2h 3h
Example2: Find the value of f  6  given that f  4  125 , f   4  74 , f   4  30 , f   4  6 and all other
higher derivatives of f  x  at x  4 are zero.
Solution
h2 h3
f x  h   f x   f x h  f x   f x   


2! 3!
x  4 , h  6  4 =2
Since fourth and higher derivatives of f x  are zero at x  4 .
22 23
f 4  2  f 4  f 42  f 4  f 4


2! 3!
 2 2   23 
f 6  125  742  30   6   125  148  60  8  341
 2!   3! 
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
Remark : Note that to find f 6 exactly, we only needed the value of the function and all its derivatives at some other
point, in this case, x  4 . We did not need the expression for the function and all its derivatives. Taylor series
application would be redundant if we needed to know the expression for the function, as we could just substitute x  6 in
it to get the value of f 6 .
Actually the Example posed above was obtained from a known function f  x   x 3  3x 2  2 x  5
where f 4  125 , f 4  74 , f 4  30 , f 4  6 , and all other higher derivatives are zero.
Example3: Compute the approximate value of 11 to four decimal place by taking the first five terms of an
approximate Taylor’s expansion. [RGPV Dec. 2014]
Solution: Suppose f ( x)  x as f ( x  h)  x  h
Differentiating w.r.t. x, successively we get
1 1 1 3 3
f ( x)  , f ( x)  x3/ 2   , f ( x)  x 5/ 2  2
2 x 4 4x x 8 8x x
We know that by Taylor’s series in ascending power of h
h h2 h3
f ( x  h)  f ( x )  f ( x)  f ( x)  f ( x)  ...
1 2 3
 1  h2  1  h3  3 
 x  h  x  h   2      ...
2 x  4 x x  6  8x2 x 
Putting x = 9 and h = 2, we get
 1  22  1  23  3 
9  2  9  2   2   6    ...
2 9  49 9   89 9 
2
 11  3  0.3333  0.01851  0.002057  ...  3.3168
Thus, 11  3.3168 Answer
Example 4: Find Taylor Series for f(x) = sin x . Also find the value of sin2 .
 
Solution: Take x  , x  h  2  h  2  x  2   0.42920
2 2
2 3
h4
f x  h   f x   f x h  f x   f x   f ( x)  
h h
So
2! 3! 4!

On putting x  and h  0.42920 we get the value of sin 2.
2
    
f x  sin x , at x  we get f    sin    1
2 2 2
  
f x  cosx , at x  we get f    0
2 2
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
  
f x   sin x , at x  we get f    1
2 2
  
f x   cos(x) , at x  we get f    0
2 2
  
f x  sin( x) , at x  we get f    1
2 2
Hence
        h   h   h
2 3 4
f   h   f    f  h  f    f    f   
2  2 2  2  2!  2  3!  2  4!
 
f   0.42920   1  00.42920  1
0.42920  0 0.42920  1 0.42920  
2 3 4
2  2! 3! 4!
 1  0  0.092106  0  0.00141393  
 0.90931
Example 5:Find the Taylor series expansion of log cos x about the point x = 0. [RGPV Dec. 2016]
Solution: Given function is,
f ( x)  log cos x … (1)
Differentiate w.r.t., x, successively we get
1
f ( x)    sin x    tan x … (2)
cos x
f ( x)   sec2 x  1  tan 2 x  y1  f ( x) … (3)
f ( x)   1  y1 … (4)
f ( x)   y2 … (5)
f iv ( x)   y3 … (6)
Putting x = 0, in equations (1), (2), (3), (4), (5) and (6), we get
f (0)  log 1  0 , f (0)   tan  0  0 , f (0)   1  tan 2  0    1
f (0)    1  1, f iv (0)  1

We know that Taylor series in ascending power of x – a is,
xa ( x  a)2 ( x  a)3 ( x  a)4 iv
f ( x)  f ( a )  
f ( a)  
f ( a)  
f ( a)  f  (a)  ...
1 2 3 4
For x = 0, we have
x x2 x3 x 4 iv
f ( x)  f (0)  f (0)  f (0)  f (0)  f  (0)  ...
1 2 3 4
x x2 x3 x4
 log cos x  0   0   1  1   1  ...
1 2 3 4
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
x 2 x3 x 4
log cos x      ... Answer
2 6 24
Example 6 :Using Taylor series find the value of loge(1.1) correct upto three decimal place.
[RGPV Dec. 2018]
Solution: Suppose f  x   log x

Successive differentiation w.r.t., x, we get
1 1 2 6
f   x   , f   x    2 , f   x   and f iv  x   
x x x3 x4
f 1  log1  0, f  1  1, f  1  1, f  1  2 and f iv 1   6
We know that Taylor series in power of (x–1), we get
f  x   f 1 
x 1
f  1 
 x  1 f  1   x  1 f  1   x  1 f iv 1  ...
2 3 4
  
1 2 3 4
x 1  x  1 2
 x  1
3
 x  1
4
 log x  0  1   1   2   6   ...
1 2 6 24
 log x   x  1 
 x  1
2

 x  1  x  1
3

4
 ...
2 3 4
Putting x = 1.1, we get
log 1.1   0.1 

 0.12   0.13   0.14  ...
2 3 4
  0.1  0.005  0.00033  0.000025
 log 1.1  0.095305 Answer
Applications of Taylor Series:

1. We can approximate solutions to differential equations this way: For example, if we have
y  x2 y  e x
To solve this for y would be difficult, if at all possible. But by representing y as a Taylor series  an x n , we can
shuffle things around and determine the coefficients of this Taylor series, allowing us to approximate the
solution around a desired point.
It's also useful for determining various infinite sums. For example:
 
1 1
  x n and   (1) n x n
1 x 0 1 x 0
(1) n x n1

Integrate: log(1  x)  
0 n 1
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
Substituting x=1 gives

1 1 1
log 2  1     ...........................
2 3 4
2. Taylor Series also has applications in physics. If a system under a conservative force (one with an
energy function associated with it, like gravity or electrostatic force) is at a stable equilibrium point x0x0, then
there are no net forces and the energy function is concave upwards (the energy being higher on either side is
essentially what makes it stable). In terms of taylor series, the energy function U centred around this point is of
the form
U ( x)  U 0  k1 ( x  x0 )2  k2 ( x  x0 )3 ....................
Where U0 is the energy at the minimum x=x0. For small displacements the high order terms will be very small
and can be ignored. So we can approximate this by only looking at the first two terms:
U ( x)  U 0  k1 ( x  x0 )2  k2 ( x  x0 )3 ....................
Now force is the negative derivative of energy (forces send you from high to low energy, proportionally to the
energy drop). Applying this, we get that
F  ma  mx  2k1 x  x0 
Rephrasing in terms of y  x  x0
my  2k1 y
Which is the equation for a simple harmonic oscillator. Basically, for small displacements around any stable
equilibrium the system behaves approximately like an oscillating spring, with sinusoidal behaviour. So under
certain conditions you can replace a potentially complicated system by another one that's very well understood
and well-studied. You can see this in a pendulum, for example.
3. Taylor series are useful in determining limits:
1 1
(x  x 3  x 5 .........)  x
sin x  x 3! 5! 1
lim  lim 
x0 3 x0 3 6
x x
which otherwise would have been relatively difficult to determine. Because polynomials behave so much more
nicely than other functions, we can use taylor series to determine useful information that would be very
difficult, if at all possible, to determine directly.
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
Q.1 IF loge secx  x2 / 2  Ax4  Bx6 Find A & B . RGPV. DEC 2004,June 2015(2)
Q.2 Expand exsinx in power of x by Maclaurin’s theorem as far as xm . RGPV-FEB 2005
Q.3 Expand log(1+ ex) in ascending power of x as far as the term containing x4.
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
[JUNE 2005, FEB 2008]

Q.4 Prove by Maclaurin’s theorem that esinx = 1+x+x2/2-x4/8 …[RGPV-JUNE 2002 , APRIL 2009]
Q.5 Expand tanx by Maclaurin’s theorem & hence find the value of tan46030’ upto four decimal places.
1
Q.6 Expand ea sin x
by Maclaurin theorem. and prove that
1 2
e  1  sin   sin 2   sin 3   ..... Where   sin 1 x . [ RGPV-FEB 2004 , APRIL 2009]
2 3
Q.7 State and prove Taylor’s theorem . [RGPV-DEC 2010]

Q.8 State and prove Taylor’s theorem and expend logex in powers of (x-1) also find log (1.1)
 x  12  x  12  x  12

Ans : log x  ( x  1)     ........ , log(1.1) =0.095308
2 2 2
[JUNE 2003,DEC 2006,2007, 2010,MAR 2010, May2019]
Q.9 State and prove Taylor’s theorem. Prove log (x+h) = logh+x/h-x2/2h2+x3/3h3+…
[DEC 2010 FEB 2007, June 2015(2)]
Q.10 Expand tan(x+ /4) as far as the term x4 and evaluate tan46.50 up four significant digits.
Ans : tan 46.5o =1.05375 [RGPV-FEB 2006]
Q.11 State and prove Taylor’s theorem and expend logex in powers of (x-1) also find log (1.1)
[ RGPV-JUNE 2003,DEC 2006,2007, 2010,MAR 2010 ]
Q.12 Prove log (x+h) = logh+x/h-x2/2h2+x3/3h3+………. [RGPV-FEB 2007]
Q.13 Expand tanx in power of (x- /2) by Taylor’s theorem. [RGPV-JUNE 2004 ]
Q.14 Expand sinx in power of (x- /2) by Taylor’s theorem [RGPV-DEC 2005]
Q.15 Find the Taylor’s theorem of the function about the point /3, f(x)=log cosx [RGPV-DEC 2003]
Q.16 Expand tan(x+ /4) as far as the term x4 and evaluate tan46.50 up four significant digits.
[FEB 2006]
Q.17 Prove that, tan-1(x+h)= tan-1x+h(sinz)sinz/1-(hsinz)2sin2z/2+(hsinz)3sin3z/3+……………….

Where, z=cot-1x
Taylor Series for Two variables:

If f (x, y) is continuous function of two variables and it can be partially differentiate upto nth order, then
Taylor’s expansion of function f (x, y) is
2
1   1  
f  x, y   f  a , b     x  a    y  b   f  a , b     x  a    y  b   f  a , b 
1 x y  2 x y 
3
1  
  x  a    y  b   f  a, b   ...
3 x y 
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
Note: 1. Taking a = 0, b = 0, then Taylor’s series at origin i.e. (0, 0) is

2
1    1   
f  x, y   f  0, 0    x  y  f  0, 0    x  y  f  0, 0 
1  x y  2  x y 
3
1   
  x  y  f  0, 0  
3  x y 
1 2
Or f  x, y   f  0, 0    x f x  0, 0   y f y  0, 0    x f xx  0, 0   2 xyf xy  0, 0   y 2 f yy  0, 0    ...
2  
2 The Taylor’s series is also defined as
2 3
1    1    1   
f  a  h, b  k   f  a, b    h  k  f   h  k  f   h  k  f  ...
1  x y  2  x y  3  x y 
Where, a  x  a  h, b y bk
Example 1: Expand ex siny in powers of x and y, x = 0, y = 0 as far as terms of third degree.
Solution: Suppose f  x, y   e x sin y
Successively partially differentiate w.r.t. x and y, we get
x = 0 and y = 0
f  x, y  e x sin y 0
f x  x, y  e x sin y 0
f y  x, y  e x cos y 1
f xx  x, y  e x sin y 0
f xy  x, y  e x cos y 1
f yy  x, y  – e x sin y 0
f xxx  x, y  e x sin y 0
f xxy  x, y  e x cos y 1
f xyy  x, y  – e x sin y 0
f yyy  x, y  – e x cos y –1
We know that Taylor’s series at (0, 0) is

2
1    1   
f  x, y   f  0, 0    x  y  f  0, 0    x  y  f  0, 0 
1  x y  2  x y 
3
1   
  x  y  f  0, 0   ...
3  x y 
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
1 2
f  x, y   f  0, 0    x f x  0, 0   y f y  0, 0    x f xx  0, 0   2 xyf xy  0, 0   y 2 f yy  0, 0  
2  
1 3
 x f xxx  0, 0   y 3 f yyy  0, 0   3x 2 y f xxy  0, 0   3xy 2 f xyy  0, 0    ...
3  
1 1
e x sin y  0  x  0   y 1   x 2  0   2 xy 1  y 2  0     x3  0   y 3  1  3x 2 y 1  3xy 2  0    ...
2  3 
x2 y y3
 e sin y  y  xy 
x
  ... Answer
2 6
Example 2 Find the first six terms of the expansion of function e x log 1  y  in a Taylor’s series at (0, 0).
Solution: Given: f  x, y   e x log 1  y 

x = 0 and y = 0
f  x, y  e log 1  y 
x 0
f x  x, y  e x log 1  y  0
f y  x, y  ex 1
1 y
f xx  x, y  e x log 1  y  0
f xy  x, y  ex 1
1 y
f yy  x, y  ex –1

1  y 2
We know that Taylor’s series at (0, 0) is

2
1    1   
f  x, y   f  0, 0    x  y  f  0, 0    x  y  f  0, 0   ...
1  x y  2  x y 
1
f  x, y   f  0, 0    x f x  0, 0   y f y  0, 0     x 2 f xx  0, 0   2 xyf xy  0, 0   y 2 f yy  0, 0    ...
2 
1 2
e x log 1  y   0   x  0   y 1   x  0   2 xy 1  y 2  1   ...
2  
y2
 e x log 1  y   y  xy   ... Answer
2
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
 
Example 3: Expand sin(xy) in power of (x – 1) and  x   as far as the terms of second degree.
 2
Solution: Given: f  x, y   sin  xy 

x = 1 and y =
2
f  x, y  sin  xy  1
f x  x, y  y cos  xy  0
f y  x, y  x cos  xy  0
f xx  x, y   y 2 sin  xy  2

4
f xy  x, y   yx sin  xy   cos  xy  
–
2
f yy  x, y   x 2 sin  xy  –1
We know that Taylor’s series in power of (x – a) and (y – b) is

2
1   1  
f  x, y   f  a, b    x  a    y  b   f  a, b    x  a    y  b   f  a, b   ...
1 x y  2 x y 

Here a  1 and b 
2
          
 f  x, y   f 1,    x  1 f x 1,    y   f y 1,  
 2   2  2   2 
1   
2
       
  x  1 f xx 1,   2  x  1  y   f xy 1,    y   f yy 1,    ...
2
2
  2  2  2  2  2  
   1 2  

2
 
2
      
 sin  xy   1   x  1 0    y    0     x  1     
          ...

 4    
2 x 1 y y 1
  2  2
    2  2   2  
2
2   
 x  1  y     y    ...
1
sin  xy   1   x  1 
2
 Answer
8 2  2  2 2
Example 4 Expand x2 y  3 y  2 in powers of x – 1 and y + 2 using Taylor’s series.

Solution: Given: f  x, y   x 2 y  3 y  2
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
x = 1 and y = –2
f  x, y  x2 y  3 y  2 –10
f x  x, y  2xy –4
f y  x, y  x2  3 4
f xx  x, y  2y –4
f xy  x, y  2x 2
f yy  x, y  0 0
We know that Taylor’s series in power of (x – a) and (y – b) is

2
1   1  
f  x, y   f  a, b    x  a    y  b   f  a, b    x  a    y  b   f  a, b   ...
1 x y  2 x y 
Here a  1 and b   2
 f  x, y   f 1, 2    x  1 f x 1, 2    y  2  f y 1, 2  
  x  1 f xx 1, 2   2  x  1 y  2  f xy 1, 2    y  2  f yy 1, 2    ...

1 2 2
2 
 x 2 y  3 y  2   10   x  1 4    y  2  4     x  1  4   2  x  1 y  2  2    y  2   0    ...

1 2 2
2  
 x 2 y  3 y  2   10  4  x  1  4  y  2   2  x  1  2  x  1 y  2 
2
Answer
oint (3, 4, 12) from the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 1
Partial Differentiation
Recall: ordinary derivatives If y is a function of x then dy/ dx is the derivative meaning the gradient (slope of
the graph) or the rate of change with respect to x.
Functions of Two or more variables:
Functions which have more than one variable arise very commonly. Simple examples are
1
• Formula for the area of a triangle A  bh is a function of the two variables, base b and height h
2
1 1 1
• Formula for electrical resistors in parallel R  (   ) 1 is a function of three variables R1, R2 and R3,
R1 R2 R3
the resistances of the individual resistors.
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
Let’s talk about functions of two variables here. You should be used to the notation y = f(x) for a function of
one variable, and that the graph of y = f(x) is a curve. For functions of two variables the notation simply
becomes z = f(x, y)
where the two independent variables are x and y, while z is the dependent variable.
Partial Derivatives
a partial derivative of a function of several variables is its derivative with respect to one of those variables,
with the others held constant (as opposed to the total derivative, in which all variables are allowed to vary).
Partial derivatives are used in vector calculus and differential geometry.
Notations For Partial Derivatives

Suppose z = f(x, y) be any two variable function of x and y, where the two independent variables are x and y,
while z is the dependent variable. if we want to differentiate we have to decide whether we are differentiating
with respect to x or with respect to y (the answers are different). A special notation is used. We use the symbol
∂ instead of d and introduce the partial derivatives of z, which are: then the standard notation of partial
derivatives is,
z f ( x  h, y )  f ( x, y )
p  f ( x, y )  f x ( x, y )  lim = Partial derivative w.r.t. x keeping y constant.
x h 0 h
z f ( x, y  h )  f ( x , y )
q  f ( x, y )  f y ( x, y )  lim = Partial derivative w.r.t y keeping x constant.
y h0 h
Second order partial derivatives:
We can apply the partial derivative multiple times on a scalar function or vector. For example, given a
multivariable function, f x, y  , there are four possible second order partial derivatives:
2 z
r  f ( x, y )  f xx ( x, y ) = Second order Partial derivative w.r.t. x.
x 2
2 z
t  f ( x, y )  f y y ( x, y) = Second order Partial derivative w.r.t. y.
y 2
  f   2 f   f   2 f
s    ; or s     = Second order Partial derivative w.r.t. x and y.
x  y  xy y  x  yx
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
2 f 2 f
The last two partial derivatives, and are called “mixed derivatives.” An important theorem of
xy yx
multi-variable calculus is the mixed derivative theorem. The proof is beyond the scope of this course and
only the results are stated.
Mixed derivative Theorem: If a function f x, y  is continuous and smooth to second order, then the order of
2 f 2 f
operation of the partial derivatives does not matter. In other words:  for a continuous and smooth
xy yx
(to second order) function f x, y  .
2 z 2 z
Note:   f x y ( x, y)  f y x ( x, y)
x y y x
Example : Let z  x   3xy  y  1 then

z
 2 x  3 y ( differentiate with respect to x keeping y as a constant)
x
z
 0  3x  1 ( differentiate with respect to y keeping x as a constant)
y
1
Example : Calculate ∂z/ ∂x and ∂z/ ∂y when z  1  x  y . Interpret your answers .
2
z z 1
Solution:  1 and 
x y 2
Interpretation: ∂z/ ∂x is the slope you will notice if you walk on the surface in a direction keeping y coordinate
fixed. ∂z /∂y is the slope you will notice if you walk on the surface in such a direction that x coordinate
remains the same. There are, of course, many other directions you could walk, and the slope you will notice
when walking in some other direction can be worked out knowing both ∂z /∂x and ∂z /∂y . It’s like when you
walk on a mountain, there are many directions you could walk and each one will have its own slope.
2 z 1
Example 1: If x x y y z z  c , then prove that    x log (e x) , when x = y = z
x y
[ RGPV Dec. 2004, 06, 2013, June 2008]
Solution: Given x x y y z z  c … (1)

Taking log on both sides, we get
x log x  y log y  z log z  c … (2)
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
Partially differentiate w.r.t. x, we get
2 z x2  y 2

xy x2  y 2
z 1  log x
 … (3)
x 1  log z
Similarly equation (2), partially differentiate w.r.t. y, we get
z 1  log y

y 1  log z
It is partially differentiate w.r.t. x, we get
  z    1  log y 
   
x  y  x  1 log z 

   (1  log y) 1log z 1
x
  1  z 
   (1  log y )  (1 log z )2  0   
  z  x 
1 log y z 1 log y  1  log x 

     1  log z 
z 1 log z 2 x z 1 log z 2  
1 log y  1  log x 

 
z 1 log z 3
Putting x = y = z, we get
2 z 1 log x  1 log x  1
 
x y x 1 log x 3 x 1 log x 
1 1
  
x  log e  log x  x  log ex 
2 z
    x log (e x)1 Proved
x y
2
     9
Example 2 If u  log ( x3  y3  z3  3xyz) , show that     u
 x y z  ( x  y  z )2
[ RGPV June 2005, 07. Feb. 2008, 10 ]
Solution: Given: u  log ( x3  y3  z 3  3xyz ) … (1)

Partially differentiate w.r.t x, y and z respectively, we get
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
u 3x 2  3 yz
 … (2)
x x3  y3  z3  3xyz
u 3 y 2  3xz
 … (3)
y x3  y3  z3  3xyz
u 3z 2  3 yx
and  … (4)
z x3  y3  z3  3xyz
Adding equation (2), (3), (4) we get
  
2 2

u u u 3 x  y  z  xy  yz  zx
2

x y z x3  y3  z3  3xyz
3 ( x 2  y 2  z 2  xy  yz  zx)
 
( x  y  z ) ( x 2  y 2  z 2  xy  yz  zx )
u u u 3
    … (5)
x y z x  y  z
2
             
L.H.S =     u      u
 x y z   x y z  x y z 
     u u u 
=      
 x y z  x y z 
    3  3 3 3
=       
 x y z   x  y  z  ( x  y  z) 2
( x  y  z) 2
( x  y  z )2
9
=  = R.H.S Proved
( x  y  z )2
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
1. 
x

If z  x 2 tan 1 y  y 2 tan -1 

x 2 z
 , prove that xy  2 2
y x y
x2  y 2
[RGPV June 2010]
3u
2. If u  e
xyz
, then prove that  e
xyz  13 xyz  x2 y2 z 2 
xyz
 2u  2u
3. If u  x y , then prove that 
xy yx
4. If V  ( x 2  y2  z 2 )-1/2 Prove that [ RGPV Dec. 2002 , 07, Feb. 2005, 07 ]
V V V  2V  2V  2V
(i) x  y  z  V and ( ii )    0
x y z x 2 y2 z2
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
2 2
2 2 2  u  u f ( r )
5. If u  f ( r ), where r  x  y , show that   f ( r ) 
2 2 r
x y
x2 y2 z2
6. If   1, prove that
a 2 u b 2 u c 2 u
Homogeneous Function: [RGPV June 2014]
Homogeneous Functions: A polynomial in and is said to be homogeneous if all its terms are of same degree.
For example, f ( x, y)  x 2  3xy  2 y 2 is homogeneous. It is easy to generalize the property so that functions
not polynomials can have this property.
Definition: A function f(x,y) is homogeneous of degree n iff, for every positive value
k  I  f (kx, ky)  k n f ( x, y)
OR
A function f(x, y) is said to be homogeneous if it is power of each terms are equal.
Example: f ( x, y)  a0 xn  a1 xn  1y  a2 xn  2 y2  a3 xn  3 y3  ...  an yn
Homogeneous Functions: A polynomial in and is said to be homogeneous if all its terms are of same degree.
For example, f ( x, y)  x 2  3xy  2 y 2 is homogeneous. It is easy to generalize the property so that functions
not polynomials can have this property.
Definition: A function f(x,y) is homogeneous of degree n iff, for every positive value
k  I  f (kx, ky)  k n f ( x, y)
t–test for Homogeneity of function:

Suppose z = f(x, y) be any two variable function in x and y with degree n, then x and y replace by tx and ty
respectively such that
f (t x, t y)  t n f ( x, y)
Euler Theorem: [RGPV June 2014]
Suppose u = f(x, y) be any two variable Homogeneous function in x and y with degree n, then
u u u u  f u  
x y  n u and x  y  n 
x y x y  f  u  
Corollary of Euler theorem:
Suppose u = f(x, y) be any two variable Homogeneous function in x and y with degree n, then
u u  f (u ) 
1. x y  n  where f (u)  v ( x, y)
x y  f (u ) 
 2u  2u  2u
2. x 2 2 x y  y 2 2  n (n  1) u
x 2 x y y
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
 2u  2u 2 u
2  f u  
3. x 2
 2 x y  y  g (u )  g  (u )  1 , where g (u )  n u or n  
x 2 x y y 2  f  u  
u u
If u  f   , then show that x  y  0
y
Example 1: [RGPV Dec. 2014]
 x x y
Given: u  f  
y
Solution:
x  
Partially differentiating w.r.t x and y respectively, we get
u  y y  u y  y
 f       x   f   ….. (1)
x   x 
x 2 x x  x
u  y1 u y  y 
and  f      y  f   ….. (2)
y  x x y x  x 
Adding (1) and (2), we get
u u
x y 0 Answer
x y
 x3  y3  2 u
2
 2u 2  u
2
Example 2: If u  tan 1   , then show that x  2 xy  y  2cos3u sin u
 xy   2 x y  2
  x y
[RGPV June 2015]

 x3  y3 
Solution: Given u  tan 1  
 xy 
 
x3  y3
 tan u 
xy
Suppose z = tanu
(t x)3  (t y)3 2  x3  y3  2
 t-test: z ( xt , yt )  t    t z ( x, y)
(t x)  (t y)  xy 
 
Therefore, z be homogeneous function in x and y with degree 2, then by Euler theorem, we get
z z
x  y  2z
x y
 
 x (tan u)  y (tan u)  2(tan u)
x y
 u u 
 sec 2 u  x  y   2 tan u
 x y 
u u sin u
 x y 2  cos2 u  sin 2u
x y cos u
Suppose g (u)  sin 2u and g (u )  2cos 2u
By Corollary of Euler theorem, we have
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
 2u  2u  2u
x2  2 xy  y2 2  g (u )  g (u )  1
x 2 x y y
  sin 2u [2cos 2u  1]  2sin 2u cos 2u  sin 2u
  sin 4u  sin 2u
 4u  2u   4u  2u 
  2cos   sin  
 2   2 
 2u  2u  2u
Thus x2  2 xy  y2 2  2cos3u sin u Proved
x2 x y y
 x3  y 3  u u
Example 3 If u  x, y   tan 1   , then prove that x  y  sin 2u
 x y  x y
 
 x3  y 3 
Solution: Given u  x, y   tan 1 
 x  y 
 
x3  y 3
 tan u 
x y
Suppose z = tanu
(t x)3  (t y )3 2  x3  y 3  2
 t-test: z ( xt , yt )  t   t z ( x, y )
(t x)  (t y )  x  y 
 
z z
x  y  2z
x y
 
 x (tan u )  y (tan u )  2(tan u )
x y
 u u 
 sec2 u  x  y   2 tan u
 x y 
u u sin u
 x y 2  cos 2 u  sin 2u
x y cos u
u u
Hence, x y  sin 2u Proved
x y
 x2  y 2  u u
Example 4: If u  sin 1   , then show that x y  tan u
 x y  x y
 
 x2  y 2 
Solution: Given u  sin 1 
 x  y 
… (1)
 
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
x2  y 2
 sin u 
x y
Suppose z = sinu
(t x)2  (t y)2  x 2  y2 
 t-test: z ( xt , yt )  t    t z ( x, y)
(t x)  (t y)  xy 
 
z z
x y z
x y
 
 x (sin u)  y (sin u)  2(sin u)
x y
 u u 
 cos u  x  y   2 sin u
 x y 
u u sin u
 x y   tan u
x y cos u
u u
Thus, x y  tan u Hence Proved
x y
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
 x 2  y2  u u
1. If u  sin 1   , then prove that x y  tan u [ RGPV Dec. 2007, 2018, June 2009]
 xy  x y
 
 x 4  y4  u u
2. If u  loge   , then prove that x y 3
 xy  x y
 
 x3  y3  u u
3. If u  tan 1   , then prove that x y  sin 2u [ RGPV Dec. 2002 ]
 xy  x y
 
x yyz x z u u u
4. If u  sin 1   , then prove that x y z  2 tan u
a x b yc z  x y z
x 2 y2 u u
5. If sin u  , then prove that x  y  3tan u [ RGPV June 2008 ]
xy x y
 x y 
6. If u  sin 1  , then prove that [RGPV Sept. 2009]
 x y 
u u tan u  2u  2u  2u sin u cos 2u

(i). x y  (ii). x2  2xy  y2 
x y 2 x 2 x y y 2
4cos3 u
 y2 
7. If u  tan -1   , then prove that [RGPV Dec. 2008]
 x 
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
u u sin 2u  2u  2u  2u
(i). x y  (ii). x2  2xy  y2   sin 2u. sin 2 u
x y 2 x 2 x y y 2
 y x  2u  2u  2u
8. If z  x 2 tan -1    y2 tan -1   , evaluate: x2  2 xy  y2
 x  y x2 xy y2

  (2 x  y  x z )
2 2 1/ 2 

9. If v  loge sin  , then prove that
2 1/ 3 
 2( x  x y  2y z  z ) 
2
 
u u u 
10. x y z  at x = 0, y = 1 and z = 2
x y z 12
y y  2u  2u  2u
11. If u  x       , prove that x 2 2 x y  y2  0
x x x 2 x y y2
Lagrange Sufficient Condition of Maxima and Minima of Two variables:

Working Rules:
1. suppose u = f (x, y) be any function say equation (1)
u u
2. Find ….. (2) and … (3)
x y
u u
3. Taking,  0 ….. (4) and 0 … (5)
x y
4. Solve equation (4) and (5), find the possible real values of x and y say x = a, y = b
Then point (a, b) is called stationary point.
5. Again Equation (2) partially differentiate w.r.t. x and y respectively we get
 2u  2u
r and s 
x 2 x y
 2u
6. Equation (3), partially differentiate w.r.t. y , we get t 
y 2
7. Find the value of r, s and t at point (a, b) and examine the following:
(i). If r t  s 2  0 and r  0 , then the function u (x, y) have Minimum value.
(ii). If r t  s 2  0 and r  0 , then the function u (x, y) have Maximum value.
(iii). If r t  s 2  0 , then function neither maximum nor minimum and point (a, b) is called Saddle point.
(iv). If r t  s 2  0 , then the case is doubtful and no further investigations.
Example 1 Discuss the maximum and minimum of x3  y3  3x y [RGPV June 2015]
Solution: Suppose u  x3  y3  3x y
Partially differentiate w.r.t. x and y respectively, we get
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
u
 3x 2  3y …. (1)
x
u
and  3y2  3x …. (2)
y
u
Taking,  0  3x2  3y = 0 i.e. x2 = y …. (3)
x
u
and  0  3y2  3x = 0 i.e. y2  x …. (4)
y
Squaring both sides of equation (4), we get
y4  x2
 y4  y [From (3)]
 y (y3  1)  0 i.e. y (y  1) (y 2  y  1)  0
 y  0, 1
Putting the values in equation (3), we get
x 2  1  x  1,  1 and x = 0
The require stationary points are (1, 1), (–1, 1) and (0, 0)
Again equation (1) partially differentiate w.r.t x and y respectively, we get
 2u  2u
r  6 x and s   3
x 2 y x
Equation (2) partially differentiate w.r.t. y, we get
 2u
t  6y
y 2
Case 1: at (1, 1)
r = 6 > 0, s = –3 and t = 6
 rt  s 2  (6)(6)  (3) 2  36  9  27  0
Therefore, u is minimum at (1, 1) and minimum value is umin (1, 1)  1  1  3   1
Case 2: at (–1, 1)
r = –6 > 0, s = –3 and t = 6
 rt  s 2  (6)(6)  (3) 2   36  9   45
Therefore function neither maximum nor minimum at (–1, 1) and point is called saddle point.
Case 3: at (0, 0)
r = 0, s = –3 and t = 0
 rt  s 2  (0)(0)  (3)2  0  9   9
Therefore function neither maximum nor minimum at (0, 0) and point is called saddle point.
Example 2 Examine the function x3 + y3 – 3axy for maxima and minima.

[RGPV Dec. 2013, 14, 2018 ]
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
Solution: Suppose u  x3  y3  3ax y

u
 3x2  3ay …. (1)
x
u
and  3y2  3ax …. (2)
y
u
Taking,  0  3x2  3ay = 0 i.e. x2 = ay …. (3)
x
u
and  0  3y2  3ax = 0 i.e. y2  ax …. (4)
y
Squaring both sides of equation (4), we get
y4  a 2 x2
 y4  a3 y [From (3)]
 y (y3  a3 )  0 i.e. y (y  a) (y 2  ay  a 2 )  0
 y  0, a
Putting the values in equation (3), we get
x2  a2  x  a,  a and x = 0
The require stationary points are (a, a), (–a, a) and (0, 0)
2u 2u
r  6 x and s    3a
x 2 y x
 2u
Equation (2) partially differentiate w.r.t. y, we get t   6y
y 2
Case 1: at (a, a)
r = 6a > 0, s = –3a and t = 6 a
 rt  s 2  (6a)(6a)  (3a)2  36a 2  9a 2  27 a 2  0
Therefore, u is minimum at (1, 1) and minimum value is umin (1, 1)  1  1  3   1
Case 2: at (–a, a)
r = –6a > 0, s = –3 a and t = 6 a
 rt  s 2  (6a)(6a)  (3a)2   36a 2  9a 2   45a 2  0
Therefore function neither maximum nor minimum at (–a, a) and point is called saddle point.
Case 3: at (0, 0)
r = 0, s = –3a and t = 0
 rt  s 2  (0)(0)  (3a)2  0  9a 2   9a 2
Therefore function neither maximum nor minimum at (0, 0) and point is called saddle point.
Example 3 Find maxima or minima of the function u = sin x + sin y + sin (x + y)
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
Solution: Given: u = sin x + sin y + sin (x + y) … (1)

u
 cos x  cos( x  y) … (2)
x
u
and  cos y  cos( x  y) … (3)
y
u
Taking  0  cos x  cos( x  y)  0
x
i.e. cos x   cos( x  y) … (4)
u
and  0  cos y  cos( x  y)  0
y
i.e. cos y   cos( x  y) … (5)
From equation (4) and (5), we get
cos x  cos y  x  y
Putting in equation (4), we get
cos x   cos( x  x)  cos x  cos(  2 x)
 
 x    2 x i.e. x  and y 
3 3
  
The require stationary point is  ,  .
3 3
 2u  2u
r   sin x  sin ( x  y ) and s    sin ( x  y )
x 2 yx
Equation (3) partially differentiate w.r.t. y, we get
 2u
t   sin y  sin ( x  y )
y 2
  
At point  ,  ,
3 3
 2u    3 3
r   sin  sin (  )   30
x 2 3 3 3 2 2
 2u    3
s   sin     
yx 3 3 2
 2u    3 3
and t   sin  sin (  )   3
y 2 3 3 3 2 2
2
 3
Now,  
rt  s   3 .  3   
2
 3 9
  3    0
 2  4 4
  
Therefore, u is maximum at  ,  and maximum value is
3 3
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
          3 3 3 3 3
umax  ,   sin    sin    sin       
3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2
Example 4 Find maxima and minima of the function x3  4 xy  2 y 2
Solution: Given: f  x, y   x3  4 xy  2 y 2 … (1)
Partially differentiating both sides, w.r.t., x and y , we get
f
 3x 2  4 y … (2)
x
f
and   4x  4 y … (3)
y
f
Taking,  0  3x 2  4 y  0 … (4)
x
f
and  0   4x  4 y  0
x
 x y … (5)
Putting in equation (4), we get
3x2  4 x  0
4
 x  0 and x 
3
4
 y  0 and y  [From (5)]
3
4 4
Thus the required stationary points are  0, 0  and  , 
3 3
Again equation (2), partially differentiating w.r.t., x and y, we get
2 f f
r  6 x and s   4
x 2 xy
Equation (3), partially differentiating w.r.t., y, we get
2 f
t 4
y 2
4 4
Case 1: at point  , 
3 3
4
Here r  6    8  0 , s   4 and t  4
3
 r t  s 2  8 4   4  32  16  16  0
2
4 4
Therefore f (x, y) is minimum at  ,  .
3 3
Case 2: at Point (0, 0)
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
Here r  6  0  0 , s   4 and t  4
r t  s 2   0 4   4  0  16   16  0
2
and
 point (0, 0) is saddle point.
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
1. Find the maximum or minimum value of x3 y2 ( 1 – x – y ).[ RGPV Dec. 2002, Feb. 2007, June 2010 ]
1 1 1
[Ans: umax  ,   ]
 2 3  432
2. Discuss the maximum or minimum value of the function u = x y + ( a3/x ) + ( a3/y )
[Ans: (0, 0), (a, a) ]
3. Discuss the maximum or minimum values or saddle point of the function
4 4
f (x, y) = x3 – 4xy + 2y2 [Ans: (0, 0) and  ,  ]
3 3
4. Find all the maximum or minimum value of the functions u = x y ( a – x – y )
a a
[Ans: (0, 0),  ,  , (0, a), and ( a, 0) ]
3 3
5. If x, y, z are the angle of triangle then discuss the maxima or minima of
  
u = sin x sin y sin z or u = sin x sin y + sin ( x + y ) [Ans: (0, 0) and  ,  ]
3 3
6. Show that the rectangular solid of maximum volume that can be inscribed in a given sphere is cube.
[RGPV June 2002 ]
 3 1
7. Discuss the maxima or minima of the function u  x4  2 x2 y  x2  3 y 2 . [Ans:   ,  ]
 2 4
5.3 Maxima and Minima of three variables function

Working Rule:
Suppose u = 𝑓(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) is a given function of three independent variables 𝑥,𝑦 and 𝑧.
u u u
1. Find , and
x y z
u
2. Taking, 0 … (2)
x
u
0 … (3)
y
u
and 0 … (4)
z
Solving equations (2), (3), (4) and finding all possible real values of x, y and z, say x = a, y = b, z = c
Therefore required stationary point is (a, b, c).
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
3. To discuss the maximum or minimum value of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) at an any point (a, b, c), then find the following
derivatives as
 2u  2u  2u  2u  2u  2u
A , B , C , F ,G  and H 
x 2
y 2
z 2 yz zx xy
A H G
A H
4. Calculating, D1  and D2  H B F
H B
G F C
5.(i). If A > 0, D1 > 0 and D2 > 0 then the function is minimum at (a, b, c).
(ii). If A > 0, D1 > 0 and D2< 0 then the function is maximum at (a, b, c).
(iii). If above conditions are not satisfied then the function neither maximum nor minimum.
Example 1: Discuss the maximum and minimum values of u  x2  y 2  z 2  x  2z  xy
Solution: Given: u  x2  y 2  z 2  x  2z  xy … (1)
Partially differentiating w.r.t., x, y and z respectively, we get
u u u
 2x 1 y ,  2 y  x and  2z  2
x y z
u
Taking,  0  2x  y  1 … (2)
x
u
 0  2y  x  0 … (3)
y
u
and  0  2 z  2  0 i.e., z  1 … (4)
z
Solving equations (2) and (3), we get
2 1
x , y
3 3
 2 1 
 The required stationary point is   ,  , 1 
 3 3 
 2u  2u  2u
Now, A  2  0, B   2, C  2
x 2 y 2 z 2
 2u  2u  2u
and F  0, G   0, H   1
yz zx xy
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
A H 2 1
Now, D1    4 1  3  0
H B 1 2
A H G 2 1 0
and D2  H B F  1 2 0  2  4  0   1 2  0   0  6  0
G F C 0 0 2
Clearly, A  2  0, D1  3  0 and D2  6  0
 2 1 
 the function has a minimum value at   ,  , 1 
 3 3 
2 2
 2 1   2  1 2 2  2  1  4
and umin   ,  ,1          1   2 1         Answer
 3 3   3  3 3  3  3  3
5.4 LAGRANGE’S METHOD OF UNDETERMINED MULTIPLIERS

Concept: To find the maximum or minimum values of a function of three (or more) variables, when the
variables are not independent but are connected by some given relation, we try to convert the given function to
the one, having least number of independent variables with the help of the given relation.
Note: When this procedure is not practicable, we use Lagrange’s method.
5.5 Method of undetermined multipliers:

Let f (x, y, z) be a function of x, y,z which is to be examined for maximum or minimum value.
Let the variables x, y, z connected by the relation  (x, y, z) = 0 ... (1)
For f (x, y, z) to have a maximum or minimum value, the necessary condition is
f f f
 0,  0, 0
x y z
f f f
 dx  dy  dz  0 … (2)
x y z
By total differentiation of (1), we get
  
dx  dy  dz  0 … (3)
x y z
Multiplying (3) by a parameter  and adding to (2), we get
 f f f      
 dx  dy  dz     dx  dy  dz   0
 x y z   x y z 
 f    f    f  
    dx      dy      dz  0
 x x   y y   z z 
This equation will hold good if
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
f 
 0 … (4)
x x
f 
 0 … (5)
y y
f 
 0 … (6)
z z
On solving (1), (4), (5), (6), we can find the values of x, y, z and  for a maximum or minimum.
Lagrange’s method does not enable us to find whether there is a maximum or minimum. This fact is
determined from the physical consideration of the problem.
Note: The above equations can be easily obtained by considering Lagrange’s function
F  x, y, z   f  x, y, z     x, y, z 
and considering the stationary values of P(x, y, z). For stationary values of F(x, y, z), dF = 0
 f    f    f  
    dx      dy      dz  0
 x x   y y   z z 
f  f  f 
   0,   0,  0
x x y y z z
Example 1 Show that the rectangular solid of maximum volume that can be inscribed in a given
sphere is a cube.
Solution: Suppose 2x, 2y, 2z be the length, breadth and height of the rectangular solid and r be the radius of the
sphere.
 Volume V    2 x  2 y  2 z   8xyz … (1)
and x2  y 2  z 2  r 2 … (2)
By Lagrange’s function, we have

F  x, y, z   8xyz   x 2  y 2  z 2  r 2  … (3)
For stationary values,
dF = 0
 8 yz  2 x  dx  8xz  2 y  dy  8xy  2z   0 Z
Equating on both sides, we get
8 yz  2 x  0  2 x2   8xyz … (4)
8 xz  2 y  0  2 y 2   8xyz … (5)
2z
8 xy  2 z  0  2 z   8xyz
2
… (6) 2y
O Y
From (4), (5) and (6) we get r
2 x2  2 y 2  2 z 2 2x
 x2  y 2  z 2 i.e. x  y  z X
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
Hence rectangular solid is a cube.
Example 2 Find the volume of the largest rectangular parallelopiped that can be inscribed in the
x2 y2 z2
ellipsoid 
1 
a 2 b2 c2
Solution: Suppose (x, y, z) be a vertex of the parallelopiped then it lies on the ellipsoid
x2 y2 z2
  1 … (1)
a2 b2 c2
x2 y2 z2
   x, y , z    
1 0
a 2 b2 c2
Let 2x, 2y, 2z be the length, breadth and height of the rectangular parallelopiped inscribed in the ellipsoid.
 Volume V    2 x  2 y  2 z   8xyz … (2)

 x2 y 2 z 2 
F  x, y, z   8 xyz    2  2  2  1 … (3)
a 
 b c 
dF = 0
 2x   2y   2z 
 8 yz  2   dx  8 xz  2   dy  8 xy  2    0
 a   b   c 
2x 2 x2
8 yz   0     8 xyz … (4)
a 2
a2
2y 2 y2
8 xz   0     8 xyz … (5)
b2 b2
2z 2z2
8 xy   0     8 xyz … (6)
c 2
c2
Adding equations (4), (5) and (6) we get
 x2 y 2 z 2 
2  2  2  2    24 xyz
a c 
 b
 2 1   24xyz [From (1)]
    12xyz
Putting the value of  in equation (4) we get
2x
8 yz  2 12 xyz   0
a
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
3x 2
 1 0
a2
a
 x
3
Similarly from (5) and (6) we get
b c
y and z 
3 3
 Volume of the largest rectangular parallelopiped  8xyz
 a  b  c  8abc
 8    Answer
 3  3  3  3 3
Example 3 Find the minimum value of x2 + y2+ z2, given that ax + by + cz = p.
Solution: Suppose u  x2  y 2  z 2 … (1)
and   x, y, z   ax  by  cz  p  0 … (2)
F  x, y, z   x 2  y 2  z 2    ax  by  cz  p  … (3)
dF = 0
  2 x  a  dx   2 y  b  dy   2 z  c   0
2 x  a  0 … (4)
2 y  b  0 … (5)
2 z  c  0 … (6)
Equations (4), (5) and (6) multiplying by x, y and z respectively and adding, we get
 
2 x2  y 2  z 2    ax  by  cz   0
 2u   p  0 [From (1) and (2)]

2u
 
p
Putting the value in equation (4), (5) and (6), we get
au bu cu
x ,y and z 
p p p
Putting in equation (1) we get
u
 a 2  b2  c 2  u 2 p2
 u 2 2 2
p2 a b c
MODULE-I E-Notes
E-Notes
p2
Thus umin  Answer
a 2  b2  c2
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
1. Expand x2 y  3 y  2 in powers of x – 1 and y + 2 using Taylor’s series.
2. Find an approximate value of 1.02 3  1.97 3 by Taylor’s series at two place of decimal.
 
3. Expand e x cos y in power of x and  y   upto terms of degree 3.
 2
4. The sum of three positive numbers is constant. Prove that their product is maximum when they are equal.
5. Find the minimum and maximum distance of the point (3, 4, 12) from the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 1

Calculus 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Calculus 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Calculus 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Engineering Mathematics-I

Mathematics-I [BT-102] [BT-102] MODULE–I

Rolle's Theorem states:

If a function satisfies the following conditions

1. The function is continuous in a closed interval [a, b],

then there is a point between a and b such that its derivative is 0.

This theorem can be better understood by examining the following cases:

2. f (x) is a continuous function in the closed interval [a, b] i.e. a  x  b

Example 2: Verify Rolle’s Theorem for the function f ( x)  x3  6 x2  11x  6 in [1, 2]

(ii). Since f (x) is a polynomial function in x, then f (x) is continuous in   2, 2 

(ii) Test the differentiability at x = 1

IMPROVE YOUR SELF

Q.3 Verify Rolle’s theorem for 2 x3  x 2  4 x  2 Ans : Interval: [ 2, 2 ] ,c=-1 , 2/3]

[CBCS, Dec. 2016(3 marks)]

be applied, find all values of c in the interval  a, b  such that f '(c)  0 .

Q.5 Verify Rolle’s theorem for f ( x)  x 2  2 x, 0, 2 Ans : c=1

Mean Value Theorem ( Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem)

1. The function is continuous on the closed interval [a, b],

then there is a point c in the open interval (a, b) such that

Mean Value Theorem Explanation Graphic

change of f x  ) at least at one point c between a and b.

2. f (x) is continuous function in the closed interval [a, b] i.e. a  x  b

Where  is a constant (real number) such that

f (1)  1  2 1  1  3  1

IMPROVE YOUR SELF

Verify Mean value theorem for . f ( x)  x 3 ,  0,1

Q.9 Let f be continuous on  a, b  and differentiable on  a, b  . If there exists c in  a, b  such

that f '(c)  0 , does it follow that f (a)  f (b)? Explain.

Taylor series and Maclaurin Series

f x  cosx ,  at x=0 f 0  1

f x   sin x ,  at x=0 f 0  0

f x   cosx ,  at x=0 f 0  1

0.25 2 0.253 0.25 4

 y2  sec2 x  1  tan 2 x  1  y12 … (3)

 y5  2  y1 y4  y2 y3  2y2 y3   2  y1 y4  3y2 y3  … (6)

and y6  2  y1 y5  y2 y4  3y2 y4  3(y3 ) 2   2  y1 y5  4y 2 y 4  3(y3 ) 2  … (7)

The Maclaurin’s series in ascending power of x, is

Putting the values, we get

Example : Expand sin–1x is power of x by Maclaurin’s theorem. [RGPV Dec. 2017]

We know that by Maclaurin’s series

IMPROVE YOUR SELF

a sin 1 x a 2 x 2 (12  a 2 ) . a 3 (22  a 2 ). a 2 4

8. Expand log (1 + ex ) in ascending power of x as the term containing x4.

[ RGPV June 2008 ]

10. 10.Expand e sin x

Taylor’s Series or Theorem:

Since fourth and higher derivatives of f x  are zero at x  4 .

 11  3  0.3333  0.01851  0.002057  ...  3.3168

Thus, 11  3.3168 Answer

f (0)    1  1, f iv (0)  1

[RGPV Dec. 2018]

Solution: Suppose f  x   log x

log 1.1   0.1 

Applications of Taylor Series:

Substituting x=1 gives

IMPROVE YOUR SELF

[JUNE 2005, FEB 2008]

Q.7 State and prove Taylor’s theorem . [RGPV-DEC 2010]