How igneous rocks are formed Rocks and minals me

le

Liquid magma from the mantle cools to form solid crystalized rock -

Quick cooling forms small crystals while slow cooling forms large crystals
Rocks
Eg : basalt and granite -

How sedimentary rocks are formed

They are formed at the earth surface by the weathering of rocks

Particles of mud , sand that settle in the bottom of oceans or lakes are called sediments
Sediments accumulate in forms of layers , layers get pressurized due to the newer deposits above them
Eg : limestone , shale , sandstone

How metamorphic rocks are formed

Tectonic activity beneath the earth surface convert sedimentary and other existing rocks after getting exposed
to high temperature and pressure into metamorphic rocks
Eg : marble and slate
Prospecting
A process of searching for minerals by examining the surface of the rocks

Remote sensing
Aerial photography maps a large area and can cover more ground
Exploring for rocks Aerial photography reaches inaccessible areas

Radiation detection

Mineral deposits are weathered at the earth surface forming mineral oxides and they
can be detected by their unique radiation pattern

Satellite signals
Some satellites send signals to the earth surface and collect the reflected signals , indicating
Geophysics the presence of minerals

A series of vibrations are sent through the earth surface

sensors are placed at different distances form the source of vibration on the surface
Vibrations create shock waves that travel down into rock layers
The waves reflected back to the sensors on the surface
 Extraction methods Advantages of surface mining :
• easier to discover and access
• Cheaper to extract
• Less risk of injury

Sub surface mining • Quicker

Surface mining
Disadvantages of surface mining :
A. Open pit mining : Vertical shaft is sunk down to rock layer containing minerals • visual pollution

Horizontal tunnel is made , following the mineral layer • Noise pollution

The vegetation is cleared and top soil removed
Rocks are broken up and loosened using explosives
Mining down as series of layers
Loose rocks are removed using diggers
Rock or mineral is tipped into trucks to be transported away
B. Strip mining :
The overburden is removed as thin strip
It is mainly used to mine coal
• Destroys habitat so reduces biodiversity
Mineral is extracted by digging
• Large waste
Minerals are brought to the surface and transported in trucks
Why surface mining causes more damage than sub surface mining ?
• natural vegetation is cleared
• More habitat are lost and less biodiversity
• More dust , surface run off causing water pollution
• Large area of land is used in surface mining

What are the factors that affect the decision to extract rocks and minerals ?

• exploration and cost of extraction were open pit mining is cheaper than shaft so only deposits of higher value can be mined
this way
• Geology were rocks might not be in high concentration to be extracted
• Accessibility were the mining company must be given a license before extracting a deposit
• Environmental impact were habitat can be lost and reduces biodiversity
• Supply and demand were increase in the world demand for any mineral will elevate the prices

Impact of rock and mineral extraction :

Positive :
• employment opportunities were jobs are created
• improvement in local and national economy were they can earn foreign exchange by increase in exportation
• Improvements in facility and infrastructure were transportation and roads are improved
negative :
• loss of habitat so reduced biodiversity
• Water pollution were water supplies may be polluted due to leaching of heavy metals
• Noise pollution due to machinery and explosives
Bioaccumulation : organisms ingest toxin , the concentration of toxin increases in the body. The pollutant excretion rate is less than ingestion rate
Biomagnification : concentration increases higher up the food chain and cause death of top consumers

Managing the impact of rock and mineral extraction :

• safe disposal of mining waste

• Land restoration were mine waste can be covered by a layer of soil that can be enriched with fertilizers
• Bioremediation were we use living organisms to remove pollutants . Microorganisms like bacteria can absorb pollutants and metabolize them into less harmeful substances
• Tree planting help ecosystem to be reborn
• Making lakes and natural reserves
• Using mining area as landfill site

Strategies for the sustainable use of rocks and minerals :

• increased efficiency of the extraction of rocks and minerals through using better performance machinery
• Recycling reduces pollution as it requires less energy than extracting new ore
• Legislation were governments should interfere to pass laws that ensure reusing and recycling
• Increasing the efficiency of the use of rocks and minerals using engineering solutions that would save rocks and minerals
 Non renewable Engy and the envonment
fossil fuels formed over millions of years ago from the decay of living matter
Coal ,Gas Coal
Energy sources
Oil
The vegetation of the forests dies
Renewable Formation of Plant decay forming a layer named peat

Bio fuels , hydroelectric powers , tidal power ,

Peat is pressurized between sediments with high pressure and
geothermal power , solar and wind power temperature to form coal

Why the demand of energy
is increasing worldwide ?
Increasing population size
Increase in wealth
Improvements in standards of living
Increasing industrialization
Fossil fuels
Advantages
No CO2 produced so no global warming
How energy sources are used to generate electricity ? Oil and gas
Turbine machine containing fins made to revolve steam Millions of years ago plants and animal died and fell to the bottom of
gas or water and connected to generator that converts the ocean
mechanical energy into electrical energy Their remains are covered with sediments
Advantages The heat and pressure turn the remains into crude oil and natural gas.
Plentiful supply How fossil fuels ( oil , coal , gas ) produce electricity ?
Provide job opportunity
They produce massive amount of energy during combustion that is used to
Coal is the cheapest source of fossil fuel
heat water and convert it to steam
Coal is easy to store
Steam drives the turbine that turns the generator to convert mechanical
Disadvantages energy to electrical energy
Non renewable
Damage local area How nuclear power produce electricity ?
Risk of oil spills
Uranium releases huge amount of energy when nuclear fission occurs
Carbon dioxide emission is polluting to the atmosphere
Water is pumped into reactor
Energy from uranium is used to heat water to produce steam
Steam turns the turbine and the turbine turns the generator which generates

Nuclear power Provide job opportunity the electricity

Small volume of waste

Disadvantages
Risk of radiation leakage
Visual pollution
Expensive and technically difficult to build
 Advantages How hydroelectric power produces electricity ?
Renewable Uses a dam on a river to store water in a reservoir
Biofuels Growing more plants takes more CO2 Water released from the reservoir that flows through the turbine rotating it
Lower level of air pollution Turbine activates the generator that generates electricity

Disadvantages Advantages

CO2 released when burnt so contributes to global warming Renewable

Shortage of land for agriculture Growing more plants takes more CO2
Hydroelectric power
Reduce biodiversity and loss of habitat Provide more job opportunity

Disadvantages
How geothermal power produces electricity ?
Dams might relocate local people
Cold water is pumped underground into layer of hot rocks
Expensive to install
Rocks heat the water
Dams effect natural flow of water
Water converted into steam and steam is piped to the geothermal power station
Steam moves the turbine which turns the generator to generate electricity How solar power produces electricity ?

Uses photovoltaic cells that produce a small electric charge when exposed to light
Advantages
A bank of cells organised into solar panels produce a significant amount of electricity
No CO2 produced
Geothermal power Renewable Advantages
Renewable
Disadvantages
Solar power No CO2 produced
Only certain areas have suitable conditions No fuel cost
Expensive to install and need high level of technology
Disadvantages

How tidal power produces electricity ? Solar cells are expensive

Energy only produced in day light
When the levels drop water is held back by a tidal barrage which is a small dam that Not reliable in some places
releases water back through a turbine that turns the generator to generate electricity
Why do some countries refuse to invest in renewable source of energy Why does the world relay on oil as a form of energy ?

1. Expensive due to prices of new power plants • it is easier to store and transport
2. Less energy yielded from renewable resources • Extraction from the ground is easier than solids such as coal
3. Some countries are rich in fossil fuels • It can be processed into many products
4. Some countries don’t think pollution issue is priority • It is less polluting when burnt compared to coal

Describe and explain ways in which governments can conserve fossil fuels What are the main causes of marine oil spills ?

1. Improving public transport so it is easier and cheaper than using cars • leakage from the rigs
2. Taxation on fuels • Leaks in the oil pipework
3. Use renewable biofuels instead of fossil fuels • Risk of collision or damage to oil tanks during shipping
4. Scrapping older inefficient car that emit more pollutants

Energy from waste cooking oil

1. Breaking down of organic matter using bacteria anaerobically

2. In a sealed container releases methane which is a biofuel
3. It is used to heat water and turn it into steam that rotates the turbine and t
turbine rotates the generator to generate electricity

Strategies for efficient management of enerfy resources

<<<<Fracking >>>>
Is obtaining oil or gas from shale rock by splitting them open using water , sand and chemicals
• A vertical hole is drilled to reach the shale rocks
• Water , sand and chemicals are pumped down under high pressure into the shale rock layer
• This causes the rock to fracture , releasing oil and natural gas which are forced back to
surface and collected

Advantage Disadvantage minerar

a
n o
rene

• access to more oil and gas • land and air pollution

• Provide job opportunity • uses lots of water so it may cause water scarcity
•Less pollution than burning coal • Toxic chemical from fracking might enter the water sources
 Management of oil pollution

Reducing oil spills in marine environment :

• increased use of GPS and development of more clearly defined shipping routes to reduce risk of collision
• Use of double hulled oil tanks can reduce oil spills , if one of the compartments damaged , the contents of the whole ship are still secure by the inner plate
• MARPOL were all tankers must be certified to show they have appropriate system in use

Minimizing the impact of oil spills :

• use of floating booms which are floating barriers that are used to trap oil slick preventing it from spreading
• Detergent sprays help break down the oil slick into smaller droplets that eventually degrade and disperse
• Skimmers removes oil from seawater surface whic is then scrapped of into a container
 Mineral particles
Agriculte and envonment
Soil Organic content
Agriculture types
Air

Water Subsistence Pastoral

• production of animals or
• practiced on small patches
The proportions of soil components depend on animal related products
• Production is low Arable
• type of soil • Cultivation of crops provide
• Local climate conditions • production of plants for
enough food for farmers and
• Size of the mineral particles Commercial consumption by humans
their families
• practiced on large scale
Sand
• Modern technology is used
2-0.02 mm • High production
• Cultivation of crops with the aim of
Types of soil Silt
Increasing agriculture yield selling them
0.02-0.002 mm
1. Crop rotation
Clay growing different types of plants in different plots each year
2. Fertilizers
<0.002 mm
They contain nitrogen , potassium and phosphorus which increases the rate of growth
3. Irrigation
Compare sand and clay
Essential for cell activity
4. Pest control
Sand Clay
Use of insecticides and herbicides will kill insects and useless weed
• has larger air spaces • poor air spaces 5. Mechanization
• Has low water content • High water content Larger area can be cultivated
• Easier to cultivate • Hard to cultivate 6. Controlled environment
• Less fertile • More fertile Use of green houses to ensure optimum conditions for plant to grow
• Drains well • Poor drainage 7. Selective breeding
Choose parents with desired features and raise offspring from parents then select the best offspring with thge best features
Increasing agriculture yield
Water application methods
1. Crop rotation
Overhead sprinklers
growing different types of plants in different plots each year
Clay pot irrigation system
2. Fertilizers
Trickle drip system
They contain nitrogen , potassium and phosphorus which increases the rate of growth
Flood irrigation
3. Irrigation
Essential for cell activity
4. Pest control
Use of insecticides and herbicides will kill insects and useless weed
5. Mechanization
Larger area can be cultivated
6. Controlled environment
Use of green houses to ensure optimum conditions for plant to grow
7. Selective breeding
Choose parents with desired features and raise offspring from parents then select the best offspring with thge best features

Advantages of crop rotation

• diseases in the soil affecting the plant are left behind

• Pests need to find new site
• The soil in the plot is likely to have essential nutrients
• Crops ready to harvest at different times

Over head sprinklers

Advantages Disadvantages

• Easy to set up • large droplets may cap the soil

• Can cover a large area • Small droplets may be blown away by
wind
• Water lands on leaves which evaporates
quickly

Clay pot irrigation system

I
Advantages Disadvantages

• simple technology • only suitable for permanent plants

• Easy to check the amount of • Large labour cost
water
Trickle drip system

Advantages Disadvantages

• reduces risk of leaching • expensive to install

• Correct volume of water • Inflexible
supplied • Grit can block tubes so
• Water placed directly at the filter is needed
base of the plant so only
crop plants receive water

Flood irrigation

I
Advantages Disadvantages

• inexpensive • damage soil structure

• Can cover • Inefficient use of water
large areas
quickly

Why weed must be controlled

• weed compete with crops for light , water and nutrients

• Might be poisonous
• Make cultivation difficult
• Can be source of pests
• Can block drainage systems

Advantages of herbicides

• cheap
• Rapid effect
• Easy to manage
 Hydroponics : Growing plants without soil , with the nutrients plant needs dissolved in water
Why weed must be controlled

I
Advantages Disadvantages
• it will compete with crops for light , water and nutrients
• Make cultivation difficult
No need for soil Expensive to set up
• Can be source of pests and diseases Easy to harvest Suitable for small production
• Might be poisonous Can be used anywhere areas
Reduce number of pests Disease may spread rapidly
Advantages of herbicides Water is recycled Technical knowledge required
• cheap
• Easy to manage
• Effect is rapid
• Results are predictable

Selective breeding

• choose parents with the desired characteristics

• Allow them to breed and obtain their offspring
• Select the offspring that show the desired characteristics
• Repeat the process

Genetically modified organisms : the DNA is extracted and inserted into another organism

I
Advantages Disadvantages

• higher yield from lower inputs • Reduction in gene pool

• Crops can be made resistant to drought • Reduce biodiversity
• Less area needed to produce a crop • Products are not natural so unknown impact
• Crops can be made with longer storage lives of the new characteristics on human health
 Impacts of agriculture
Overuse of herbicides Overproduction and waste
and insecticides

Management of irrigation causing

Overuse of fertilizers salinization and water logging

Soil erosion Exhaustion of mineral ion content

Cash crops replacing food crops

Impact of overuse of herbicides and insecticides

• food web is disturbed and biodiversity is decreased

• Can cause resistance within the pest population increasing number of pests
• Toxic effect on marine life
• Over use of pesticides cause air pollution
• Can remain in the environment for generations

Impacts of overuse of fertilizers

• excess water containing dissolved fertilizers leach into nearby lakes and rivers leading to eutrophication
• Causes increase of algae growth
• Sunlight is blocked and photosynthesis is reduced
• This causes the algae to die
• Cause increase in bacterial count to decompose dead algae
• Bacteria increases and use oxygen so aquatic organisms die due to lack of oxygen

Over production and waste

• waste from overproduction

• Waste of storage space
• Waste of transportation
• Waste of labor

Mismanagement of irrigation causing salinization and water logging

• death of plant roots because water logged soils prevent plant roots from getting enough oxygen
• Salts are toxic so land becomes unusable and lower crop yield is produced
• damage to soil structure as soil is compacted
• Loss of nutrients as they are dissolved and leached with water
• Surface run off increases soil erosion
Soil erosion : wearing away of the top soil by the force of water or wind
Interception : precipitation that doesn’t reach the soil but is instead intercepted by the leaves and branches of
plants
Infiltration : the process by which precipitation water soaks into soil
Surface run off : water from rainfall that flows over the ground

Causes of soil erosion

1. Removal of natural vegetation:
• no interception happens to precipitation
• No more roots to bind soil together
• The infiltration decreases so flash flooding and surface run off pick the soil and carry it away
2. Over cultivation :
• ploughing breaks the soil into smaller and lighter particles which are more easily carried away by wind
3. Over gazing :
• livestock reduces the vegetation to nearly ground level , sometimes leaving no roots to hold the soil
4. Wind erosion :
• deforestation increases the probability of soil getting eroded by wind
5. Water erosion :
• on a slope , excess run off water that can be absorbed by soil transports the soil from that area
• Soil compaction reduces infiltration
• Gully erosion forms deeper and deeper cracks

Impacts of soil erosion Aims of sustainable agriculture

1. Loss of habitat 1. Meeting the needs of the population for agricultural products
2. Desetrtification 2. Making efficient use of non renewable resources
3. Silting of rivers 3. Supporting the natural ecosystem by following natural
4. Displacement of people processes with farming techniques
5. Malnutrition and famine
How to maintain sustainable agriculture
Managing soil erosion
1. Organic fertilizers
1. Terracing 2. Managed gazing
2. Contour ploughing 3. Crop rotation
3. Bunds 4. Use of pest and drought resistant varieties of crops
4. Windbreak 5. Trickle drip irrigation
5. Maintaining vegetation cover 6. Rainwater harvesting
6. Addition of organic matter to improve soil structure
7. Planting trees
8. Mixed cropping
9. Intercropping
10. Crop rotation
Terracing :

• flat platforms made on hillside

• Slows surface runoff of water
• Thus slowing soil erosion down hill

contour ploughing :

• plough perpendicular to slope

• Which slow water runoff
• Thus slowing soil erosion downhill

wind breaks :

• trees planted in rows

• To protect from
• Soil erosion by wind

mixed cropping :

• planting rows of trees acts as windbreaker

• Tree canopy can provide shade for smaller plants that dont thrive for sunlight
• Provide a natural habitat for animals that feed on pests
• Tree leaves fall to the ground and add on to the organic matter

mixed cropping :

• growing more than one type plant in the same area where resources in the soil like nutrients are
used more efficiently

crop rotation :

• diseases in the soil affecting the plant are left behind

• Pests need to find new site
• The soil in the plot is likely to have essential nutrients
• Crops ready to harvest at different times
Global water distribution
97.2% in oceans and seas
0.6% ground water
2.1 % snow and ice
0.1% in rivers and lakes
Water cycle Wat and it's management
1. Sun heats earth surface including oceans , rivers and lakes so water is evaporated from them
2. Plants do transpiration so water evaporates from plant leaves
3. Warm air rise above
4. Condensation happesn
5. Precipitation when water vapor cools and droplets get bigger and heavier

Precipitation - moisture that reaches the surface in the form of rain or snow
Surface run off - precipitation that flows over the ground surface , eventually finding its way into stream and rivers
Interception - precipitation that doesn’t reach the earth surface due to being obstructed by trees
Infiltration - precipitation soaks into sub surface soils and moves into rocks through cracks and pore spaces
Through flow - infiltrated water flows through soil
Ground water flow - infiltrated water flows through the rocks

Surface water - water in lakes , rivers and swamps

Water supply Ground water - water in soil and rocks under the ground

Portable water - safer to drink Artesian aquifer

Aquifers - water stored in porous rocks under ground • water is under pressure
Desalination plants - removal of salt from seawater by distillation or reverse osmosis • Water from well sunk into artesian aquifer will rise to the surface without
pump
Reservoirs - artificial lake used as a source of water supply , created behind dam
Distillation
How water is gained from aquifers
• water is boiled and released as vapor leaving salt behind
• layers of permeable and impermeable rocks trap the water in permeable rocks • Vapor is condensed as liquid water and can be used
• Permeable rocks on the surface receive new supplies of rain water • Require a lot of energy
• Water is stored in the limestone and sandstone rocks below the water course
• Mechanical pumps or human labor are used to raise water to the surface Reverse osmosis

• pumping water at a high pressure through a fine membrane

• It requires less energy than distillation
Advantages of desalination Water quality and availability
• reduces the risk of water borne diseases
• Provide job opportunity Water rich countries
• Well known technology • countries with plentiful fresh water supplies
• Huge supply as salty water cover 97% of earths water • High precipitation
• It is safe as there are no heavy metals or water pollution • Low population so low demand for water
• Countries with big areas are really usually rich as they have plenty of land for rain to fall
Disadvantages of desalination
• very expensive Water poor countries
• Process needs a lot of energy • lack of rain
• Requires skilled workers • Water might be frozen
• Greenhouse gas emission happens if fossil fuel is used • High population so high demand on water
• Some marine species are killed in desalination plants • Rocks maybe impermeable so no ground water
• Drought
Water usage
Unlike rural areas , urban areas have higher access to safe drinking water because
Domestic use
• cities are more wealthy places with factories and offices
• at home for drinking and cooking • On average peoples’s income are higher
• Washing and flushing toilets • Wealthy people are more likely to live in cities
• Washing clothes • Tourists are more likely to visit if clean water is available
• Gardening • Population density in urban areas are high so water pipes are easier and cheaper to build when a lot of people live close together

Industrial use
• power generation
• Cooling
• Mixing and making products
Agricultural use
• mainly for irrigation
• For domestic animals
Multipurpose dam - constructed for multiple use eg : irrigation and electricity
Dams
Single purpose - constructed for particular use might be irrigation or electricity
Choice of site
• high precipitation to provide sufficient water
• Low temperature to prevent evaporation
• Rivers and lakes nearby to provide water
• Built high up to have good potential for hydroelectric power
 impacts of dam

Advantages
• generation of electricity in hydroelectric power plants which is renewable source of energy and doesn’t produce green house gas
• Flood control
• More job opportunity Sustainability of dams
• Sustainable irrigation • alternative for burning of fossil fuels as no green house gases are produced
• Creates land for tourism • Have negative effect on fish population
• Dam structure under a lot of pressure so may deteriorate and eventually fail
Disadvantages
• Reservoir can become silted due to material carried into it by rivers
• relocating people
• Dam may break causing flooding Domestic waste
• Noise , air , visual pollution when being built • untreated sewage
• Loss of habitat so loss of biodiversity • sewage carries many pathogenic micro organisms
• Very expensive to build • Detergents , metals and manufactured products containing traces of toxic chemicals

Industrial processes
Water pollution • use of chemicals
• Processing of metal ores
• Gases from factories enter the atmosphere where they dissolve in water forming acid rain
• Leaching of metals from waste heaps and dumps causes the presence of metals in water course
Agricultural practices

• surpluses of phosphorus and nitrogen

Impacts of water pollution • Pesticides , herbicides and fertilizer will be washed from the land into ground water

• risk of water borne diseases which are caused by drinking contaminated water
• Accumulation of toxic substances from industrial processes in lakes and rivers cause death of fish
• Nutrient enrichment leading to eutrophication
• Bioaccumulation of toxic substances in food chains will cause increase in concentration of toxic substance in tissues of organisms causing illness
• Global inequalities in sewage and water treatment
• Formation of acid rain
 Formation of acid rain Impacts of acid rain

• when volcanos erupt or fuels burn , sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are released • acidification of water bodies
• They are blown long distances and react with water in atmosphere • Causes damaging of crops
• SO2 dissolve in water forming sulfuric acid and oxides of nitrogen dissolve in water forming nitric acid • Causes damaging of buildings
• Falls in the form of rain having low pH this is called acid rain • lower pH makes the environment intolerable for aquatic life so
reduce fish population
How fertilizers can lead to eutrophication
Life cycle of malaria
• excess water containing dissolved fertilizers drain into nearby lakes and rivers leading to eutrophication
• Which causes the increase of algae growth so sunlight is blocked and photosynthesis is reduced • female anopheles mosquito that is infected with malaria parasite
• This causes algae to die and cause increase in bacterial count to decompose the dead algae • The mosquito bites human
• This bacterial increase uses up oxygen so aquatic organisms die due to lack of oxygen • The human gets infected with malaria that targets liver cells
• Another mosquito bite the infected human
Strategies for improving water quality • The second mosquito becomes vector

• improve sanitation by separating human wastes from water source and Strategies to control malaria
it can be removed by connection to a system of sewer pipes that collects
human wastes • using antimalarial drugs to kill malaria parasite
• Sewage treatment • Avoid contact with mosquito by sleeping under mosquito nets
• Pollution control and legislation • Wear long sleeves
• Kill mosquito using insecticides
Treatment of sewage • Use vaccinations and educate people on the risks of malaria

• waste water is taken to sewage treatment plant • Draining stagnant areas of water to prevent breeding

• In a screening tank large objects are removed from the waste

Cholera caused by
• Solid organic matter settles at the bottom of the tank
• water is pumped into a tank where oxygen is bubbled through it • person infected with the bacterium the sewage from this infected person is
• This encourages the growth of bacteria and microbes that break down organic matter leaked into water supply
• chlorination of water • Water supply gets contaminated
• People drink this contaminated water so they get infected
Factors increase the risk of getting infected with cholera Why might the water from rivers and lakes not be safe to drink

• poor sanitation • contain toxic wastes or pollutants

• Contamination of water and food • Contain heavy metals
• Disruption of piped water after a natural disaster • Contain remains from sewage
• Water borne diseases
Strategies to control cholera

• do not use contaminated water to wash food

• Water should be treated before delivered to homes
• Boiling water and chlorination
• Vaccination to allow human to fight the infection
• Ensure sewage and drinking water are kept separate to ensure safety of potable water

Why is it difficult to eradicate malaria

• mosquitos have large population and breed rapidly

• Many sources of stagnant water
• High population makes the spreading faster
• Need money to apply control methods

Government strategies that can help people to have access to safe drinking water

• education regarding sanitation

• Improving water quality by improving water sanitation and treatment of sewage
• Fines against water pollution
Oceans as a resource Oceans and fishies
• food as fish
• Wave energy
El Nino ENSO
• Tidal energy
• Tourism In El Nino year :

• Potential for safe drinking water • change in prevailing winds that leads to change in the

• Transport pattern of currents in the ocean of south pacific

• warm nutrient poor water comes into the region
Distribution of major ocean currents • No upwelling of the cold nutrient rich water that supports
the fishery
Surface currents : movement of the surface water of the sea in constant direction
• No nutrients mean phytoplankton doesn’t grow well so less
Prevailing wind : the direction from which the wind nearly always blows in a particular area
food for the fish
• Currents in the southern hemisphere are generally anti-clockwise • So fish migrate or die
• Currents in the northern hemisphere are generally clockwise

Distribution of major marine fish populations

1. Main fisheries are located on continental shelves were water is shallow

2. Allowing light and oxygen to penetrate for phytoplankton to produce their own food by photosynthesis
3. Herbivore fish rely on primary producers like phytoplankton
4. Carnivore eat herbivore fish
5. Food web starts with phytoplankton . Thus fish are found were there is plentiful phytoplankton
6. Phytoplankton produce their own food by photosynthesis which require light , water and CO2
7. upwelling : areas were minerals at the ocean floor are brought up to the surface by currents
8. Wind moves surface water away from the coast and cold water from the deep in the ocean rises up and takes its place and
this cold water is rich in nutrients
 Use of technology in fishing
Causes of over fishing of marine fish species

• demand for fish as food due to increasing world population

Advantages
Huge nets catch large quantities of
fish
Ships freeze fish at sea
Modern ships are mechanized and
stay at sea for longer time
Sonar locate fish and warn from
underground dangers
Disadvantages
Overfishing causing worldwide
decline in fish number
Loss of biodiversity
Huge nets catch unwanted fish
Causes unemployment
• creation of huge nets that scoop up everything in an area often half of which is
discarded as bycatch
• Finding fish easily by using sonar
• Much bigger boats which can work a long way
Overfishing :when the number of fish that is caught is
greater than the rate at which the fish reproduce leading to
a fall in fish numbers in an area

Impact of overfishing
Management of the harvesting of marine species
• decline in fish stocks that causes reduction in marine biodiversity
1. Net types and mesh size were we use larger mesh size and smaller net size • Death of bycatch that causes disturbance in food chain
2. Qoutas were governments set limits on how many and what type of fish can
be caught
Advantages of fish farming
3. Closed seasons were governemnts can pass laws that can close fisheries
down for part of the year • fish easier to catch and growth of fish is more controlled
4. Protected areas and reserves by preventing fishing in certain areas • Production is constant and less predation
5. Conservation laws • Controlled breeding , feeding and harvesting
6. International agreements • provides employment and ability to meet increase in demand
• Health of fish is managed so less risk to human life
Effectiveness of these strategies

1. Accurate reporting of bycatch Problems with fish farming

2. Fishing in breeding seasons
3. Qoutas can be avoided by simply not declaring the number of fish being caught • increase risk of disease
4. Using of illegal large nets • Use of antibiotics is required
5. Monitoring organizations based in ports have more success • Water pollution from increased antibiotics and fertilizers