UNI

TCODE:
AGE303

UNI
TTI
TLE:
GEOGRAPHYOFDEVELOPMENT

Pur
pose

Toint
roducestudent
stot
hebackgr
oundandpr
ocessesofeconomi
c,pol
i
tical
,cul
tur
al
andsoci
alchange.

Cour
sedescr
ipt
ion

Int
roduction:Definit
ions and scope;changi ng conceptofdev elopment :Effi
ciency-
Equit
ydebat e.Measur i
ngdev elopment;indicatorsofdev elopmentbot hquantitati
ve,
composi tequal
itativ
e:Thenat ureofdev elopmentandunder development .Theoriesof
Development :My rdal,Hir
schman,Rost ow andFr i
edmann:Geogr aphicv ari
ati
onsi n
developmentatagl obal,regionalandl ocallevels.Decentrali
zat
ionanddev elopment -
Majorf ormsofdecent ral
izati
onandgov ernance;poweral levi
ati
onanddev el
opment
(EastAfrica)
.Thest ruct
ure,planningprocesses, fi
nancialdecentr
alizati
on,parti
cipati
on
ofpeopl e and pov ert
y alleviati
on strategi
es undert he decent ral
i
zation system.
Sustainabledevel
opment .

Expect
edl
ear
ningout
comes

Att
heendoft
hiscour
se,
lear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
eto:

1.Measurecharact
eri
sti
csofdevel
opmentthr
ougheconomi c,pol
iti
calandsoci
al
di
mensions.
2.Descr
ibebot
ht hegeogr
aphi
cal
causesandconsequencesofvar
yingdevel
opment
.

Modeofdel
iv
ery

Lect
ures,
discussi
on,
groupwor
k,pr
act
ical
exer
cises

Readi
ngmat
eri
als

1.All
en,J.S.andGioacchino,G.(2007)
.Developmentont heGr ound.Routl
edge.London.
2.Gore,C.G.,Kohl
er,G.,Reich,U.P.andZiesemer,T.(1996) .Questi
oningDev el
opment:
Essaysont heTheor y,Poli
ciesandPracti
ceofDev elopemntI nter
venti
on.Met r
opoli
s-
Verl
ag.Mar bur
g.
3.Peet,R.(1999)
.TheoriesofDev el
opment.TheGuilf
ordPr ess.NewYor k.

LESSON1

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Scopeofgeogr
aphyofdev
elopment
Geogr aphyofdev el
opmenti sa br anch ofgeographyt hatisclosel
yr el
ated wi
th
resourcedi st
ributi
onandconsumpt i
on,demography,soilqual
i
ty,t
opography,cl
imate
andnat uraldisaster
s.Iti sfocusedont hestudyofear thinrel
ationtoeconomi c
development .Thust heregionsoft hewor l
dar edividedonthebasesofeconomi c
developmenti ntothef ol
l
owi ngcategor i
es.
 TheMor eEconomi call
yDev elopedCountri
es(MEDCs)/Dev el
opedCount r
ies/
Fi
rstWor ldCountri
es/I ndustri
ali
sedNati
ons
 TheLessEconomi callyDev elopedCountri
es( LEDCs)/Developi
ngcount r
ies/
Thi
rdWor l
dCount r
ies/NonI ndustr
ial
i
sedNations.

Ascouldbeder ivedfr
om theabov ecategori
es,
theWEALTH( bothmoneyandmat erial
resour
ces) is unequally distri
buted among wor l
d popul
ati
on leading to large
consequencesonpeopl e’
slifestyleandtheenvironment
.TheconcernofGeogr aphers
i
ndev el
opmentgeogr aphyisther ef
oretostudy
 Patternsindevel
opment
 Measur ablechar
acteri
sticsofeconomi cdevel
opment
 Understandgeographical causesandconsequencesofvar
yingdevelopment

Def
ini
ti
onsoft
ermsandconcept
s

Change:Accordi
ng t
o Wor
dWeb,change r
efer
sto:make di
ff
erent
;cause a
tr
ansfor
mat
ion

Dev
elopment
:Thet
erm dev
elopmentmeansdi
ff
erentt
hingst
odi
ff
erentpeopl
e.

Developmentineconomicsense
Asoci et
ydev el
opseconomicall
yast heirmember
sincreasejoi
ntl
ythei
rcapaci
tyf
or
deali
ngwi t
htheenvir
onment.Thisdependson:
1.Theext entt
owhichtheyunderstandthel
awsofnature(
sci
ence)

2.Theextentt
owhi
cht
heyputt
hatunder
standi
ngi
ntopr
act
icebydev
isi
ngt
ool
s
(t
echnol
ogy)

3.Themanneri
nwhi
chwor
kisor
gani
zed

Hi
stor
ical
ly,economicdevel
opmentofhumansoci
etyhasbeenon-
goi
ngasev
idenced
by
:
a.Pr ogressfrom cr
udest
onetool
stometal
s

b.Shi
ft
ing f
rom hunt
ing and gat
her
ing t
o domest
icat
ion ofani
mal
sand cr
op
cul
ti
vat
ion

c.Impr
ov edor
ganizat
ionofworkf
rom ani
ndi
vi
dual
i
sti
cact
ivi
tyt
oonet
hati
s
soci
etal(
par
ti
cipant
saremany
)

Tradi
ti
onall
y,devel
opmentwasviewedi
neconomi cter
msandi tmeantthecapaci
tyof
anationaleconomywhoseini
ti
aleconomicconditi
onsweremor eorlessstat
icf
ora
l
ongtimet ogenerat
eandsust
ainanannuali
ncreaseinit
sgrossnat
ionali
ncome(GNI)
atarateof5%t o7%ormore.
Acommonal ter
nati
vetoeconomici
ndexofdev el
opmenthasbeentheuseofratesof
growthofincomepercapitatotakeintoaccounttheabi
li
tyofanati
ontoexpandits
outputatarat
ef ast
ert
hanthegrowt
hr at
eofitspopul
ati
on.

Economi cdevel
opmenti nthepasthasal sobeenseent y
picall
yi ntermsofpl anned
al
terati
onofthest ruct
ureofproduct
ionandempl oy
mentsot hatagricul
tur
eshar eof
both decli
nes and thatofmanuf actur
ing and servi
ce i
ndust r
ies i
ncreases.Thus,
developmentstrat
egiesareai
medonr apidindust
ri
ali
zati
on.

Theabov edef ini

ti
onsorv iewsofdev elopmenthav ef acedcr i
ticism andar eseenas
shallow.Thi scamet olightinthe1960swhenmanydev elopingnat i
onsachievedtheir
economi ct argetbutthel evel
sofl ivi
ngofmassesofpeopl eremai nedf ort
hemostpar t
unchanged( low).Consequent ly,devel
opmentmustbeconcei vedasamul t
idi
mensi onal
processi nv olv
ingmaj orchangesi nsoci alst r
uctures,popul arat tit
udesandnat i
onal
i
nstitutionsaswel last heaccel erati
onofeconomi cgr owt h,t
her educti
onofi nequali
ty
and t he er adicati
on ofpov erty.Dev elopmentmustr epresentt hewhol egamutof
changebywhi chanent i
resoci alsystem t unedt othedi versebasi cneedsanddesi res
ofindiv i
dual sandsoci algroupswi t
hint hatsy st
em mov esawayf rom acondi t
ionofl i
fe
widelyper ceivedasunsat isfactorytowar dsacondi ti
onorsi tuat i
onofl i
fer egar
ded
mat eriall
yandspi rit
uallybetter( contributionsbysuchpeopl easDenni sGoul etand
DudleySeer s).Thust herear et hreegener algoalsorcor ev al uesofdev elopment
namel y :

1.Sustenance-t hisr eferstot heabili

tyt omeetbasi cneeds( food, shelter
,security
etc.
).Whenanyoft hesei sabsentori ncr i
ticallyshor tsupply ,acondi ti
onof
absol uteunder dev elopmentexi sts.Abasi cf unct i
onofal leconomi cactivi
tyi s
theref oretopr ovideasmanypeopl easpossi bl ewi t
ht hemeansofov er
comi ng
thehel plessnessandmi seryarisingf rom al ackofshel ter,food,heal thand
protect ion.Economi c developmenti st hus a necessar y condi t
ion fort he
i
mpr ov ementint hequal i
tyoflif
ei.e.,development .
2.Self-
est eem -i
tref erstoasenseofwor thandsel frespect.
3.Freedom f rom ser vit
ude-humanbei ngsshoul dbeabl et omakechoi cesinlife.
Ther eexi stsast rongr el
ati
onshipbet weeneconomi cgr owthandf reedom from
servitude.Weal t
hcanenabl epeopl et ogai ngr eatercont r
olov ernat ureandt he
physi calenv i
ronment .E.g.throught hepr oduct ionoff ood,clothi ngandshel ter.
Economi ccapabilityalsogivespeopl et hefreedom t ochoosegr eaterlei
sure.

Thesecor
eval
uescanbeampl
i
fiedas:

(1)Aheal thful
,balanceddi etinal l
seasons;
(2)Adequat emedi calcar ethroughoutl i
fe,wi thspecialat t
entiontot heear l
yy earsof
l
ife;
(3)Envi
r onment alsanitati
onandcont rolofdi sease;
(4)l
abouroppor tunit
iesofsuf fici
entvarietytohar nesst hev ari
edtalentsofindiv
iduals;
(5)Adequat eoppor tuniti
esforl earni
ngusef ul ski
ll
sandf ordev el
opingthemi nd;
(6)Safet yofper son,f reedom ofconsci ence,i ncludi
ngr eligi
ousbel i
ef,andf reedom
from anxietyaboutpossessi onsandt hef uturewel l-
beingofone’ schi l
drenandt heir
descendant s;
(7)Adequat ehousi ng;
(8)Systemsofeconomi cproduct i
onwhi char einlinewi ththeenv i
ronment; and
(9)Asoci alandpol it
icalenv ir
onmentwher einpeopl eenjoyandwher ediffer
entiati
on
accor
dingt
ocl
ass,
weal
th,
sex,
col
our
,andr
eli
gioni
sabsent
,oratl
eastnotdegr
adi
ng.

NB/Dev
elopmenti
sbot
hagoal
andapr
ocess.

Measur
ingDev
elopment

Theconceptofdevel
opmentunder
pinstheworkofint
ernati
onalorgani
zati
onsuchas
theWorldBankandmanynati
onalgover
nments.Geographer
shav eadoptedanumber
ofmethodsofqual
i
fyi
ngandcomparingdevel
opmentbetweencountri
es.

1.ECONOMI
CWEALTHCRI
TERI
A

a.Gr ossDomesticProduct(
GDP)
GrossDomest icProduct( GDP)measuresthev al
ueofal
lthegoodsandserv
ices
produced wit
hin a par
ti
cularcount
ry.An economicgr
owthrat
e of8% t
o 10% is
consider
edgood.

b.Gr ossNati
onalPr
oduct(GNP)/Gr ossNat ionalI
ncome( GNI
)
GrossNat i
onalPr
oduct(
GNP)measur est hevalueofal l
thegoodsandserv
icesenti
tl
ed
toresident
sofaparti
cul
arcountr
y,includingproduct i
onwithi
nandoutsi
dethatcount
ry.
I
ti stherefor
etheGDPpl usthei ncomer ecei
v edf r
om abroad(suchasr epat
ri
ati
on
profi
ts).

Li
mit
ationsofuseofGDPandGNP
 Thei ruseisl i
mi t
edt oeconomi ct r
ansactionswher egoods,ser vicesandl abour
canbemeasur edast heypasst hroughamar ketplace.Wher emar ketsar eless
wel ldevelopedandt r
adingi sdonei nformallyort hroughbat t
eringandwher e
muchpr oduct i
ont akespl aceinthehomef orper sonalsubsistence, GDPf igures
arenotr eli
able.
 Compar i
sonofGDPi saffectedbyf l
uctuati
onswi tnessedincur rencyexchange
rates.
 TheGDP i sacr udeav erageandhi deext remesandunev endi str
ibutionof
i
ncomebet weenr egionsandacr osssoci o-economi cgroups.Thi sisespeci all
y
so i nlessdev el
opedcount ri
eswher et heremaybev er
yext remel yweal thy
peopl eandal argemaj ori
typoor .
 Comput i
ngGDP andGNP r equir
equant i
tati
v edat a.Thereexi stpr oblemsof
comput i
ngGDPandGNPappr opriatelyduet olackofupt odat equant i
tati
ve
data.
 TheGNPpercapi taisal wayscomput edont hebasi soft hepopul ati
onsi zeand
thi
smayi nfluencet hev al
ue.

Despi
tetheabov
epr obl
ems,t
hesemeasuresar
eusedtor
epresentthedev el
opmentof
aregi
onontheassumptiont
hatwit
hgoodeconomicgr
owth,
thebenefitscanspr eadt
o
thewholepopul
ati
on.Suchbenefi
tsi
nclude;i
mpr
ovedhospit
als,schools,roadsand
gener
alqual
it
yofli
fe.

3.Composi
tei
ndi
ces

Composi
tei
ndi
cescombi
nesev
erali
ndi
cat
orst
opr
ovi
deamor
ebal
ancedv
iew ofa
count
ry.

(
i) TheHumanDev
elopmentI
ndex(
HDI
)

Human Dev el
opmentIndex(HDI)i
sameasur edevi
sed bytheUnit
ed Nati
ons
Devel
opmentPr ogr
amme( UNDP)i
nthe1980s.TheHDIdependsont
hreevar
iabl
es
ori
ndicat
orsnamely:

 Lifeexpect ancy
 Literacy
 Pur chasingpower .
The HDIi s comput ed annually si
nce 1990 by t
he UNDP.The UN dev el
opment
progr
amme( HDI)givesev erycountryascorebetween0and1basedoni t
sciti
zen’
s
l
ongevit
y, educati
onandi ncome.Usingthescor
es4categor
iesar
eident
if
iedasfol
lows;
a.0.800–1. 000( veryhigh)
b.0.700–0. 799( high)
c.0.555–0. 699( medium)
d.0.350–0. 554( l
ow)
e.<0.554( dataunav ai
l
able)

 Longevi
tyismeasur edbyav erageli
feexpectancyatbi rt
h.Forinst
ance,Kenya’s
l
ifeexpectancyatbi rt
his49. 0yearsandunder5mor tal
it
yr at
eper1000i s120
(TheWor l
dBank, 2008)
 Educati
oni sder
ivedf r
om theadul tl
it
eracyrat
eandt heav eragenumberofy ears
ofschooling.Fori nstance,adultli
teracy77.7Men,70. 2womenandannual
growthrat
e1. 1(TheWor l
dBank, 2008).
 IncomeisbasedonGDPpercapi taconvert
edtopur chasingpowerparit
ydol l
ars
andisadjustedaccor dingtot helaw ofdiminishi
ngr eturnsi.
e.whatanact ual
i
ncomewi llbuyinacount ry.

Generally,t
hedevelopingcountr
ieshavemadesignifi
cantgai nsindevelopi
nghuman
resourcessince1945.I nt
he1950st hedeat
hrateperyearwas25- 30per1000.I nthe
1980s, t
hedeathratewas10- 15per1000.Li
feexpect
ancyonav erageis62y ear
sf r
om
40y earswhatwasi n1945.Ther eisawidespreadincreasesi nli
ter
acyrate.Thereis
howev er,enor
mousdi spar
ityi
ndev el
opi
ngcountr
iesinthesuccessi nmeet inghuman
needs.Thi sisinrelat
iontocountryandwithi
nthecount ry,betweenurbanandr ural
regi
ons.

St
rengt
hsofHumanDev el
opmentIndex
 I tall
owscompar i
sonwithothercount
ri
es
 I tfocusesoncapabili
ti
esfortheindiv
idualr
athert
hant
hesum t
otalofgoods
andser vi
cesav
ailabl
e.

WeaknessesofHumanDev el
opmentIndex
 Itcontainsnomeasur eofhumanright
sandfreedom.
 Theav eragefiguresforeachcountr
ydisguiseimport
antdi
spari
ti
esbetween
urbanandr ur
alareas,
betweentheri
chandthepoor,bet
weenethni
cgroupsand
maleandf emale.

(
ii
) I
nequal
it
y-adj
ust
edHumanDev
elopmentI
ndex(
IHDI
)
TheIHDIistheactuallevelofhumandev elopmentaccounti
ngforinequalit
y.TheHDIi
s
anindexofpotential
humandev elopmentorthemaximum IHDIthatcouldbeachieved
i
ftherewerenoi nequali
ty.TheIHDIcombi nesacountr
y’saver
ageachiev ementsi
n
healt
h,educati
onandi ncomewi thhowt hoseachi
evementsaredistri
butedamong
country
’spopulat
ionbydi scount
ingeachdi mensi
on’
sav er
agevalueaccor di
ngtoit
s
l
evelofinequal
ity.

TheIHDIisdi
str
ibut
ion-sensi
ti
veaveragelevel
ofHD.Twocountri
eswi t
hdiff
erent
di
stri
buti
onsofachiev
ement scanhav et
hesameav erageHDIv
alue.Underperfect
equal
ityt
heIHDIisequal t
otheHDI,butfall
sbelowt
heHDIwheni nequali
tyr
ises.

ThedifferencebetweentheIHDIandHDIisthehumandev el
opmentcostofinequali
ty
orthelosst ohumandev el
opmentduet oi
nequal
ity
.TheIHDIall
owsadirectli
nkto
i
nequaliti
esindimensions,
itcaninfor
m pol
ici
estowardsi
nequali
tyr
educti
on,andleads
tobett
erunder st
andingofinequal
it
iesacr
osspopulat
ionandthei
rcont
ri
butiontothe
overal
lhumandev el
opmentcost.

3.OTHERCRI TERIA
 Energyconsumption
 Densityofcommunicati
onnetwor
k
 Unempl oymentandunderempl
oyment
 Circul
ati
onofnewspapers
 Etc.

Act
ivi
ty:Di
scusst
hei
mpor
tanceofl
inki
ngeconomi
cgr
owt
htohumandev
elopment
.

TheMi
ll
enni
um Dev
elopmentGoal
s(MDGS)

Giventhepr obl emsencount er

edi nunderstandingt heexactnatureofdevel
opment,a
mor eappr opr i
at emet hodi st oidentif
yspeci fi
cgoalst hatshouldbeachievedasa
measur eofdev el
opment .InSept ember2000,189membercount ri
esoftheUnited
Nationsagr eedt oadoptanumberofgoal sreferredtoast hemill
enni
um devel
opment
goals.Therear eei ghtgoal swi theachhav i
nganumberoft ar
getsandindi
cator
s.The
ei
ghtgoal sar e:
 Er adicat ionofext remepov ert
yandhunger
 Achi ev inguni versalprimar yeducati
on
 Pr omot inggenderequal ityandempower ingwomen
 Reduci ngchi l
dmor t
ality
 Impr ov i
ngmat ernal health
 Combat i
ngHI V/ ai
ds, mal ar
iaandot herdiseases
 Ensur ingenv i
ronment al sust
ainabil
it
y
 Dev el opinggl obal partnershi
pf ordevelopment

I
nordertoachievethesegoalstheUNsetanumberoft argetsthatweret
obeachiev
ed
byeachcountrywit
hinspecifi
edper
iodsuchas:
 r educi
ngbyhal ftheproport
ionofthepopulati
onwhosei ncomei
slessthan1
doll
arperdayandt hosewhosufferf
rom hungerbetween1990and2015
 r educi
ngbyt wo-
thir
dst hemortal
it
yrateamongchi l
drenunderfiv
ebetween
1990and2015
  reducingincidencesofmal ari
aandot herdi seasesbyhal fbetween1990and
2015.I naddi
tion,begintoreversethespreadofHI V/AI
DSandot herdiseases.
 reducingbyahal fthenumberofpeopl ewi t
houtsustainabl
eaccesst osaf e
dri
nkingwat erby2015andachi evesignif
icantimprovementint hel
ivesoft he
l
east100mi l
lionslum dweller
sby2020.
 reducingbythr ee-
quarter
sther at
ioofwomendy i
nginchil
dbirt
hby2015.
 eli
minat i
nggenderdi spari
ti
esi nprimaryandsecondar yeducationby2005and
atalll
ev el
sby2015.

NB/Theabov eMDGSwer edevelopedinconsult

ati
onwi t
hthedevel
opingcountri
esto
ensurethattheyaddressedtheirmostpr essi
ngprobl
ems.Keyi nt
ernati
onalagenci
es
i
ncluded United Nat
ions,The Wor ld Bank,The Int
ernati
onalMonetaryFund,The
Organi
sation ofEconomi c Cooper at
ion and Devel
opmentand t he Wor l
d Trade
Organi
zati
on.

AsSachs( 2012)obser v
es, t
heendedMi l
l
ennium Dev el
opmentGoal s( MDGs)mar keda
histori
candef fecti
vemet hodofglobalmobil
i
sationt oachieveasetofi mportantsocial
priori
ti
eswor l
dwi de.Theyexpressedwidespr
eadpubl i
cconcer naboutpoverty,hunger,
disease,unmetschool i
ng,genderi nequal
ity
,and env ironmentaldegr adati
on.By
packagingt hesepr ior
it
iesi nt
oaneasi l
yunder standablesetofei ghtgoal s,andby
establi
shingmeasur abl
eandt imeboundobj ect i
ves,theMDGshel pedt opr omote
globalawar eness,pol i
ticalaccount
abil
it
y,impr oved met ri
cs,socialfeedback,and
publicpressures.

Sust
ainabl
eDevel
opmentGoals(SDGs)
Sour
ce:htt
p:/
/www.un.
org/
sustai
nabl
edev
elopment
/sust
ainabl
e-dev
elopment
-goal
s/

Byt heendoft heMDGper iod, somegoalshadbeenachi evedbutmanywer esti

lloutof
reach.Thus, buil
dingont heMDGst heSDGswer er ati
fi
edby194count r
iesandadopt ed
bywor l
dl eadersatt heSust ainableDevel
opmentSummi tinNewYor kinSeptember
2015.Thesust ainabledevelopmentgoal s(SDG’s)aimst oendpov ert
y,promot e
prosperit
yandpeopl e’swell-beingwhil
eprotecti
ngt heenv i
ronmentby2030. TheUN’s
17SDGsencompassessi xthemes–Di gni
ty,People,Prosperit
y,Pl
anet,Justi
ce,and
Partnership.Asout l
inedinEl sev i
er(
2015),wit
hinthesixt hemesofsust ai
nable
developmentar e17goal s.Theyi ncl
ude:

1.Endpov er
tyi nallit
sf ormsev erywhere
2.End hunger ,achi evef ood secur i
ty and i mpr oved nutri
ti
on and pr omote
sustainableagr i
culture
3.Ensureheal thyli
v esandpr omot ewell
beingf orallatal
lages
4.Ensurei nclusiveandequi tablequalit
yeducat i
onandpr omoteli
fel
ongl earni
ng
oppor t
uniti
esf orall
5.Achievegenderequal it
yandempoweral l womenandgi rl
s
6.Ensureav ailabi
li
tyandsust ainablemanagementofwat erandsanit
ati
onf orall
7.Ensureaccesst oaf fordable,rel
iabl
e,sustainableandmoder nenergyforall
8.Promot e sust ained,i nclusive and sust ainable economic growth,f ul
land
productiveempl oy mentanddecentwor kforal l
9.Buil
dr esil
ientinfrastructure,promoteinclusi v
eandsust ainabl
eindustr
iali
zati
on
andf osterinnovat i
on
10.
Reducei nequal i
tywi thi
nandamongcount r
ies
 11.
Makeci tiesandhumanset t
lement sincl
usive,safe,resili
entandsust ai
nable
12.
Ensuresust ainableconsumpt ionandpr oductionpat terns
13.
Takeur gentact i
ont ocombatcl imatechangeandi t
si mpact sundert heU. N.
Framewor kConv entiononCl i
mat eChange
14.
Conser ve and sust ainablyuse t he oceans,seas and mar ine resources for
sustainabledev elopment
15.
Protect,r estore and pr omot e sustainable use of t err
estrialecosy st
ems,
sustainablymanagef orests,combatdeser ti
ficati
on,andhal tandr eversel and
degradat i
onandhal tbiodiversit
yloss
16.
Promot epeacef ulandi nclusivesocieti
esf orsust ainabledevelopment ,prov i
de
accesst ojusticef orallandbui l
def f
ecti
ve,account ableandi nclusi
veinstit
utions
atalllevels
17.
Strengthent hemeansofi mpl ementati
onandr evi
tali
zet heglobalpar t
nershipfor
sustainabledev elopment

Reference
Sachs,J.D.( 2012)
.Sustainabledevel
opmentforhealt
h:Rioandbey ond.TheLancet
,
Volume379, Issue9832,9–15June2012, Page211.www.thel
ancet.
com
El
sev i
er( 2015).Sustai
nabil
ity Sci
ence i
n a GlobalLandscape:Dignit
y/ Peopl
e/
Prosperit
y/Planet/Justi
ce/Par tner
shi
p.Elsev
ier

UNDERDEVELOPMENT
Accor dingt
oWor dWeb, underdevelopmentr ef er
st oast at
eofi nadequatedev el
opment .
Under devel
opmenti sat erm usedt odescr ibet hecondi t
ionofpov ertyandeconomi c
stagnat i
oncharact
eri
sticofmanyt hir
dwor ldsoci et
ies.
The t erm is rel
ated wi th dependency and col onial
i
sm concept s. Ther ef
ore
r
d
underdev el
opmentimpl i
esthat3 wor ldsoci eti
esar enotsimpl ysuff
eringf rom lackof
developmentbutt heyhav enotachi ev edtheexpect edl evel
sofdev elopmentwhi ch
woul dhav eoccurr
edhadt heynotbeenexpl oi
tedbyt headvancedcapi tal
istsociety
.
Under devel
opmentwi llthusber eflectedwher eeconomyi smadeupofsect orsthat
carryoutmostoft heirexchangeswi tht heout si
dewor ld–anel ementofcol onial
ism.

Causesofunder development
a)Under developmentasanaggr egateofli
mi t
ingf actors
Perhapst heear li
est,butst i
llcommon,expl anationofunder developmenti stor egardi t
asaconsequenceofauni quecombi nati
onofnat uralandhumanr esourcesconsi dered
bothi nt hei
rquant itati
ve and qual i
tat
ive aspect s.Among t he factorst ypicall
y
considered,geogr apher sgivepriorit
yofattentiont onatur alendowmentandpopul ati
on
growth.Gour ou( 1953)set soutt obuildacumul ativ
epi ct
ureofunf avourableness;
unhealthi
ness oft he hotwetr egions,pov ertyand f ragil
i
tyoft ropicalsoi l
s,l ow
productivi
tyofi ndigenousagr i
cul t
ure,i
nstabil
ityofset tlement s,unsuitablecondi ti
ons
forstockr ai
sing,problemsoff oodsuppl yandl imitedpossi bil
it
iesofindust r
ial
izati
on.

Secondl
y,populati
onisadducedasacausalf act
orofunder dev
elopment.Byt hisis
i
mpl i
ednotthesi zeordensit
yofpopulati
on,buttherateofpopulati
ongr owth(asa
resul
tofadeclineinmortal
i
tywhil
eferti
li
tyhasremainedunchangedorr i
sen(sli
ghtly
)
andespecial
l
yoft henumberandproport
ionofyoungdependentsinagivenpopulati
on.
Theperspecti
veoftheprobl
em isdi
ffer
entindenselypopul
atedfr
om sparselypeopled
count
ries,sothatwhil
einthefor
mercasepopul at
iongr
owt
hmaycheckeconomi
c
devel
opmentinthelat
teri
tcan,
onthecont
rar
y,st
imulat
eit
.

b)Under dev el
opmentast heoperationofav iciouscir
cle
Sinceli
mi ti
ngf actors,eit
herindiv
iduallyorintheaggr egatecannotbehel dtoprovidea
sati
sfactoryexpl anati
onofunder development ,thenextlogicalstephasbeent oargue
thatthelimit
ingf actor
sar einterr
elated,thatt
her eisaspeci fi
cform ofmoti
onwhi chby
regul
arlyreturningt oitsiniti
alpoint,makeanyr ealdevelopmenti mpossi
ble.Among
manyv ariantsoft hecl osedcy cl
esofpov ert
yi sthefoll
owi ng:lowoutputpercapita–
l
owr ealincome-l owsav ingandl imiteddemand-l it
tl
ecapi talfor
mation-lowout put
percapita.

c)Under dev el
opmentast hei niti
alst ageint heNor malPr ocessofDev elopment
Under dev elopmentmaybet akenasast agei ndev elopment .Itpr esent sli
mitationt o
theadv ancementofpeopl el i
v i
ngi ndev elopingnat i
ons.Fori nstance,t het ropi cal
envi
ronmentof fersobst aclest odev elopment .Soi lsar epoor ,rainfallisunr el
iable,and
numer ous endemi c,debi l
itating di seases r ei nforce l ow l ev els of pr oduct i
v i
ty.
Developi ngsoci etiesar ei gnor antofsci ence,t echnol ogy,andt hear tsofpol it
icsand
admi nistration.Theymustdependont headv ancedcount ri
esf ornear lyeverything.
Most of t he i nfrastructur e—rail
way equi pment , airplanes, t elecommuni cat ions
equipment ,pr i
ntingpr esses,gasol i
nepumps,di eselengi nes—hast obei mpor t
ed,and
ther
ear esof ewadequat el
yt rainedpeopl et hatt hest affofmostoft hecomponent sof
thei nfrastructur emustbei mpor ted,t oo.Poornat i
ons,howev er ,cannotaf for dt o
i
mpor tallt het echni calequi pment ,al lt
hei nfr
ast ructuralelement sneeded,andhence
arel ocked i ntoav i
cious cy cle ofpov er t
y,i gnor ance,and di sease whi ch keeps
developmentf rom t akingpl ace.Theonl ywayouti sf orr ich,dev eloped,indust r i
al
nati
onst opr ovideai dandt echnicalassi st anceasgi f
tsandl oans,atl eastunt ilthe
count r
yi n quest ion has r eached t he Rost owi an st age cal led “ take of f
.”* to be
emphasi zedunderRost ow’sTheor y .

d.Col
oni
zat
ionasacauseofunder
dev
elopment

Col
onizationhasbeeni dentifi
edasacauseofdi sint
egrati
onanddecl inedev elopment
i
nunder dev el
opedcount ri
es.Mostpeopl epoi ntoutt hatthecol oni
zingcount ri
eshav e
hadnumer ousdisastrousef fectsont hecolonies.Thesedi sastrouseffectsinclude:
i) Landcl assi
ficati
onandr egulati
onofi tsuse.
ii
)Mobi li
zat i
onofAf ri
canl abourt oserv etheneedsoft hecolonialpower
ii
i)Taxat i
onandf orcedlabour
iv)Lowwages
v)Monopol yoft hehi ghpot enti
alland,agr i
cult
urallabour,governmentser v
ices,
mostpr ofit
ablecr opsandt r
ansportation
vi)Landal i
enation( especiallyinKeny a)br oughtthepr obl
em ofsquat ti
ng.
vii)Unequal inf
rast r
ucturaldev elopment

e.Ther oleofther uli

ngel i
tes
Lacostear guesthatbackwar dnessandunder devel
opmenthav eoftenbeencausedby
theselfishbehaviourofthei ndi
genousel i
tesi.e.abj
ectpov er
tyamongt hemaj ori
tyof
thepopul ati
onwasbr oughtnotonl ybyext er
nalcolonial
i
sm but“inter
nalcoloniali
sm”
characteri
zedbyf eudal(socialsy stem inEur opeint he8th C)l
ikeformsoft ribut
e
appropriati
ons.Hear guedt hatsincet hepeasant slackedt hemeansandi ncent i
veto
rai
set helevelofagr i
cult
uralproduct iv
ityandt heupperstratadi
dnotuset heirweal t
h
producti
v ely,thesesoci etiesdi dnotpossesst hedy namism necessar yf orsust ai
ned
growth.
Lacostei dent ifi
edhi ghr atesofpopul ationgr owt handt hesel fishbehav iouroft he
i
ndigenousel it
esast hemaj orcausesofunder dev elopment .Henot est hati nt he
underdevel oped count ries,bi rthr ateshav er emai ned hi gh due t ot he absence of
economi c dev elopment .Due t ol ow economi c dev elopmentpeopl e are unabl et o
educatet heirchi ldren.Lacost ear guest hatt hepr ivil
egedel i
teshav einv ari
abl eenr i
ched
themselvesatt heexpenseoft hesoci etyatl arge.
Themi nor ityel it
esi ncl udeabr oadspect rum ofpeopl esuchasl argel andowner s,
moneyl ender s,t rader s,i ndust r
ialists,mi neowner s,hi ghl evelci vi
lser vant s,pol i
ti
cal
l
eadersandev ensomemember soft hecl ergy .Theseel i
tesappr opriatelar gepor ti
ons
oflandmaki ngot hersl andl ess.Theyal soexpl oitlabourandgi vet het enant sv erylow
wages.Thi sresul tst owi despr eadpov ert
yandl itt
lesoci almobi l
i
ty.
Accordingt oLacost e,t heot herway st hr oughwhi cht her uli
ngel itescont ributet o
underdevel opmenti ncl ude:
i
) Nat ureofl eader shi p:Theyr ulebyt hest i
ckandanycr i
ti
cism i snotwel come;
theyal way sgetf irstpr ioritywheni tcomest ogov er nmentspendi ng
i
i)St if
lingt hei nt el l
ect ualdev elopmentoft hemassesbynotsuppor t
ingorby
deliberat elyopposi ngt hei mpr ov ementandexpansi onofeducat ion
i
ii)By bad gov er nance t hey cause unempl oy mentand under empl oy ment ;
i
lli
teracyi s hi gh and t his means t hatpr oduct ion isl ow and economi c
moder nizat ionbecomesv i
rtual l
yi mpossi bl e.
i
v )Theypr actisecor rupt i
on,nepot ism andt ribali
sm:anyqui ckdi sbur singai d
meantf ort hepoorf indsi t
swayi ntot hei rpocket s
v)Theyar er esponsi bl ef ort hef lowofcapi talabroadwher ei nvest ment smay
besagerormor epr ofit
abl e
vi)Theypr ev entt hemassesf rom or gani singt hemsel vespol i
ticall
y

TheAt tr
ibutesofUnder development
The at t
ributes ofunder dev el
opmentar e many and t hey cutacr oss economi c,
demogr aphic,cultural,pol it
icaland t echnol
ogicalspher es.They i nclude:gender
i
nequal i
ty;highill
iter
acy ;agricult
ur albasedeconomy( agricul
turecont ributesatleast
50% oft heGDP) ;maj orit
yoft hepopul ationareempl oyedi ntheagr i
cul t
uralsector;
poorinfrastruct
uresuchasr oads, elect
ri
cit
yetc.
;poorsoci alfaci
li
ti
es; highdeat hrat
es;
malnutri
tion;polit
icalinstabili
ty;low GDP;hi ghlevelsofpov ert
y;highunempl oy
ment
andunder empl oymentl evels;highr atesofcorr
uption;hi
ghf er
ti
li
tyrate;dependenceon
exportsofr awmat erial
set c.

TheRoleofAgr i
cul
tureinDev elopment
Mostdev elopingcountri
espayexpl ici
tat t
enti
ont otheneedt ot r
ansf
ormtradit
ional
agri
cul
ture.Agr i
cul
turecontributest oeconomi cdevel
opmenti nthefoll
owi
ngmaj or
ways;
 Ani ncreaseinfoodsuppl yfordomest icconsumption
 Ther eleaseoflabourforindust r
ialemployment
 Anenl argeddomest i
cmar ketfortheoutputofmanuf act
uring
 Ani ncreaseinthesuppl yanddomest i
csav i
ngs
 Earningsofforeignexchangef oragri
cultur
alexpor
ts.
Indevelopingcount r
iesthef ollowingcondi t
ionexistsinr el
ati
ont ot
heagricul
tural
sect
or.
  Aposi ti
ver elationshi pbet weent hegr owthofGNP,t hegr owt hofi ndust ryand
thegrowt hofagr i
culture.Thus,count rieswi thhi ghi ndustrialgr owt hhav ehi gh
agri
culturalgr owt handcount ri
eswi t
hl owi ndust rialgrowthhav el owagr i
cultural
growth.
 Asignificantpr oduct ivi
tydi f
ferentialbet weeni ndust r
yandagr iculturewhi chi s
wideningt hr ought imee. g.i nthe1960spr oduct ivityinnon- agricul t
uralactiviti
es
i
ndev elopi ngcount rieswas4. 7t imespr oduct ivityinagr i
cul t
ur ecompar edt o
1980swher eitr oset o7t imes.
 Percapi taf oodpr oductioni ndev elopingcount rieshasgr ownatnear ly3%per
annum si nce1960s.Thi sdoesnothowev err eflectt herealt rendi ni ndi
v i
dual
countri
ese. g.int hesub- Sahar anAf rica,percapi taf oodpr oduct i
onhasdecl ined.
 Insomedev elopingcount ries,therehav ebeeni nadequat ecal or i
esuppl iesfrom
l
ocall
ypr oducedf oodst uffst omeett her equirement soft hepopul ati
on.Thi s
hasprompt edf oodi mpor tswhi char er i
singwi tht ime.
 Thereisal otofcul tivat
abl elandpot ent i
all
yav ailableinAf ri
caandLat inAmer i
ca
butitsexpl oi tationr equiressubst ant i
alinv estment sininfrastruct ure,irri
gat i
on
andreclamat i
on.
 The gap bet ween agr iculture’s economi c pot entialand i t
s per f
or mance i n
devel
opi ngcount ri
esi ssi gnifi
cante. g.t hepot ent i
alannualgr owt hr ateofI ndian
agri
culturei sappr oximat ely5%butt heact ualgr owt hr at
eov ert hel astnumber
ofyearshasbeenl essthan3%perannum.

Act
ivi
ti
es:1.Wit
hrefer
encet
oAf
ri
ca,di
scusst
heef
fect
sofhi
ghr
atesofpopul
ati
on
gr
owthondev el
opment.

2.Substant
iat
et herol
eofagr
icul
tur
eindev
elopmentofanySub-
Sahar
anAf
ri
ca
count
ryofyourchoi
ce

Assi
gnment
:Cr
it
ical
lyexami
net
hecausesofunder
dev
elopment

LESSON2:
Classi
calandneo-
li
ber
aldev
elopmentt
heor
ies

Vi
ewpoi
ntsofconser
vat
ives,
li
ber
alsandr
adi
cal
s
1.Conser
vat
ivev
iewpoi
nt
Thi
svi
ewoft
hewor
ldi
sinher
it
edf
rom i
deasofAdam Smi
th,Dav
idRi
car
doandt
hei
r
f
oll
ower
s.Conser
vat
ivesar
econv
incedt
hatacapi
tal
i
stf
reeent
erpr
iseeconomyal
l
ows
i
ndi
vi
dual
sto achi
eve maxi
mum per
sonall
i
ber
tyand mat
eri
alwel
lbei
ng.Mar
ket
mechani
sm ofdemandandsuppl
ywor
ktosat
isf
yconsumerpr
imar
yser
vices.Ther
ole
oft
hegov
ernmentshoul
d bel
i
mit
ed t
o mai
ntenanceofl
aw and or
derso t
hata
capi
tal
i
stcanoper
atef
reel
y.Theyar
eal
sooft
hev
iewt
hatf
ewgov
ernmentr
egul
ati
ons
andpr
ogr
ammeswoul
dsol
vemanyoft
henat
ional
andi
nter
nat
ional
probl
ems.
2.Li
ber
alv
iewpoi
nts
Shar
ewi
thconser
vat
ives’f
ait
hincapi
tal
i
sm.Howev
er,unl
i
keconser
vat
ivest
heypl
ace
gr
eatemphasi
soni
ndi
vi
dualequal
i
tyandsoci
alj
ust
ice.Tot
hem,t
hest
atemust
i
nter
veneonbehal
fofev
eryci
ti
zenwhent
hemar
ketmechani
sm f
ail
stomeetev
ery
per
sonalneed.West
ernnat
ionsmustbepr
epar
edt
oassi
stt
hepoornat
ionsi
nfor
m of
ai
ds,
loanset
c.
3.Radi
calv
iewpoi
nts
Radi
cal
smai
ntai
nthatschol
arsmustl
ookatt
heMar
xist
stheor
ytoi
nter
preteconomi
c
pr
obl
ems.Theycr
it
ici
zeconser
vat
ivesandl
i
ber
alsbecauset
hei
ranal
ysesofeconomi
c
pr
obl
em donotgot
other
ootoft
hepr
obl
em.Theyar
guet
hatt
hedy
nami
csofsoci
al
economi
cor
gani
zat
ioni
ncapi
tal
i
stsoci
etypr
oducepar
ti
cul
arki
ndofcl
assesand
i
nst
it
uti
onalst
ruct
ure.Thesecl
assesandi
nst
it
uti
onsf
ormedbyt
hecapi
tal
i
stmodeof
pr
oduct
ioncannotbesol
vedwi
thoutchangi
ngt
hef
orm ofsoci
o-economi
cor
gani
zat
ion
atbot
hthenat
ional
andi
nter
nat
ional
lev
els.
Moder ni
zat
ion
Whati smoder ni
zati
on?
Ineconomi cterms,i timpliesindustr
iali
zat i
onandur banizationandt het echnological
transformati
onofagr icult
ure.Social
ly,itinvolv
est heweakeni ngoftraditi
onalt i
esand
the rise ofachievementas t he basisf orpersonaladv ancement.Cul tural
ly,itis
representedbyincreasedsecul ari
zati
onofsoci et
yar i
singfrom thegrowt hofsci enti
fi
c
knowl edge.Poli
ti
cally,itreferstother ati
onali
zationofaut horit
yandt hegr owt hof
bureaucracy.Thus,moder nizati
onist hepr ocessofchanget owardst hoset ypesof
economi candpol i
ticalsystemst hatdev elopedinWest er
nEur opeandNor thAmer i
ca
i
nt he18thand19thcent uri
es.

I
n“theGeogr aphyofmoder ni
zationi nKeny a”,Sojaassumedt hedegreeandspreadof
modernizationi nKeny atobeaf unctionof :
 t hedev elopmentoft ranspor tnetwor k
 i mpr ovement sincommuni cationsandexpansi onofintercommunicat
ionsmedia
 i ncreasedur banizationandi ncr easingintegrati
onofthespaceeconomy
 det ribalizati
on
 t hespr eadofmar ketpr i
nciple
 t heexpansi onofeducat ionandr isi
nglevelsoff ormall
ear ni
ng
 t heext entofpar ti
cipati
oni nnon- localactivi
tiesandorganizati
ons
 pr oximi ty and accessi bili
ty t o, and i nteracti
on wi th major cent
ers of
moder nizati
on.

St
rengt
hs
 Mostpeopl eindev elopingcountriesseemoder ni
zationasrepresenti
ngnati
onal
strengthandpr esti
ge.I thasanideaofpr ogress
 Moder nizati
onhasdel iveredtangiblebenef i
ts.Peoplearefreet ochoosewhat
theybelieve,whichv aluest oadoptandhowt oliv
e.Ithasbeenr esponsi
blefora
highdegr eeoftoleranceofdi versi
t yinrel
igi
on,cultur
eandattit
udes.
 Technol ogi
calpr ogresshasf r
eedpeopl efrom timeconsumi ngandphy si
call
y
burdensomet asksleadi ngtomat erialgai
ns.

Cr
it
icsofmoder
nizat
ion
Hirschman( 1981)ar guest hatmoder nizat
ioni sr esponsiblefort hef oll
owi ngint he
dev el
opingnat ions;
 hi ghl evelsofconf l
ictandt ensionsuchaswar s,civi
lunrest,ethnicv i
olenceand
political repression
 unev en r ecord ofdev elopmenti n whi ch pov er
tyand unempl oymentper sist
amongt hepoor esti nAf ri
ca,AsiaandLat inAmer icadespi t
er i
singl evelsof
affluencei nmanydev elopingcount ri
es.
 i tisassoci ated wi th ecol ogicalproblemssuch ast he lossoft he tropical
rainfor ests,t ransfor mationofsubsi stencel andt odeser tandt hehi ghener gy
cost sofmoder nt echnol ogy
 Moder ni
zat i
ondoesnotexpandchoi cee. g.theel derl
yindev elopednat i
onscan
onlychoosebet weennur si
nghomesunl ikei npoorcount ri
eswher et heycan
chooset ol i
vewi t
hr elati
v es.
 I ti snott r
uet hataspeopl ebecomemor emoder ni
zed and educat ed they
becomemor ewest ernized
NB/ Therei sapr oblem ofdef iningwhati stradit
ionalandwhati smoder ne. g.thinkof
theMasai ‘shuka’ –woul dy oudescr i
beitasmoder nort radit
ional?

Moder
nizat
iont
heor
ies(
backwar
dnesst
heor
ies)

Moder nizati
onhadprior20thcenturybeenwi delyviewedasauni quel yWest er
nprocess
thatnon- Wester
nsocieti
escoul dfoll
owi npursuantofdev el
opment .Non-western
societi
eswer eexpectedtoabandont heirt
radit
ionalcult
uresandassi milate
technological
lyandmor al
ly"superi
or"West ernway s.Thus,accordingtoBr adshawand
Wal l
ace( 1996),
moder ni
zati
ont heori
stsassumedt hatunderdevelopedsoci et
ies
neededt oadopt" modern"valuesandi nsti
tut
ionstobecomedev elopedsoci eti
es.

Accordingtomoder ni
zati
ontheori
es,inter
nal f
act orsinthecountr
ies,suchasil
l
iter
acy,
tr
aditi
onalagrari
anstr
ucture,
thetradit
ionalatt
itudeoft hepopulati
on,thelowdivi
si
on
oflabour,t
helackofcommuni cati
onandi nfrastructure,
etc.
,areresponsibl
efor
underdevelopment.Di
ffer
encesinstructur
eandhi stori
calori
ginareconsider
edoflit
tl
e
i
mpor tantandinter
nati
onaldependenciesarenott akenint
oaccount .

Thet heoriesar eofthev i

ewt hatthereisacont i
nuum bet weenthel eastandthemost
developedcount ryandeachcount r
yhasi tsposit
ionont hisl
ine.Thedi ff
erenceas
compar edt ot heindustri
ali
zedcount r
iesisthedegr eeofbackwar dnesswhi chhast o
bemadeupf or.Suit
ablemeasur esaret hemoder nizati
onofthepr oducti
onappar atus,
capit
al aid,t
ransf erofknow-how, sothatthedev elopingcountri
escanr eacht hestage
ofindustrial
izedcount ri
esassoonaspossi bl
e.Dev elopmentisseenasani ncreaseof
productionandef fi
ciencyandmeasur edprimari
lybycompar i
ngthepercapi taincome.

Not
e:Industr
ial
i
zat
ioni
sacent r
alel
ementofamoder
nizat
ionpr
ocesst
hataf
fect
s
mostotherel
ement
sofsoci
ety
.

Mostmoder ni
zat
iontheor
iestendt
oassumethatallsoci
eti
es’pr
ogr
essi
nali
near
fashi
onfrom atradi
ti
onalst
atetomoder
nit
y.A goodexampleisaModelbyW.W.
Rostow.

W.
W.Rost
owModelofeconomi
cgr
owt
h
Rost ow i nhi sbookent it
led“ Stageofeconomi cgr owt h:Anon- economi stmani fest o”
(1960) ,i dent i
fied v ar ious st ages whi ch a soci et y must under go i n achi ev i
ng
dev elopment .Thest agesar eor gani zedi nasuccessi onwhi chi suni di r
ect i
onal .He
i
dent if
iedf i
vehi st or i
cal stagesofdev elopment .
1st:Tr adit i
onal soci ety
Theknowl edgeofmoder nt echnol ogyandsci encei sl acki ng.Thel ev elsofpr oduct iv i
t y
aregener all
yl owsot hatov er75%oft hepopul at ioni sengagedi nf oodpr oduct ion.The
uppercl asswi thint hissoci et yspendst heav ailablecapi talonunpr oduct iveends.The
soci etyi sconser vat iveandr esist antt ochange.Thesoci etyi shi erarchi callyor gani zed
andpol itical poweri scent ral i
zed.
2nd:Pr econdi t i
onf ort akeof f
Inthi sst agecer tainr ev olutionar ychangesov ercomet heexi stingobst acl est ochange.
Suchchangesar enor mal lyst imul atedbyanout sidei nf l
uencewhi chmayl eadt osuch
product ivei nv est mentsuch as const ruct i
on ofr oads,r ailway s et c.Agr icultur e
surrender si t
sdomi nancet omanuf act uringandt er t
iar yact i
v iti
es.Thesoci etydev elops
newment ali
tyi nwhi cht her ei sani ncr easei nt hepr opensi tyt oacceptchanges.New
elit
eofbusi nessmenemer ge.
NB/Rost owassoci at edt hisper i
odt ot he17thand18thcent ur i
esi nWest ernEur ope.I n
dev elopi ngcount ries,howev er,t hisi sachar act erist i
coft heper i
odoft hecomi ngof
coloni alist s.I nt hisst aget het radi tionalv al
uesar er epl acedbydi f ferentv aluesof
west erncul ture.
3rd:Takeof fstage
Thisst agewi tnessesadeci sivet ransi tioni nsoci et ywhi chi schar acter izedbyacr i
tical
l
ev eli nt hescal eofpr oduct ioni neconomi cact ivity.Thet akeof fstager equi real lthr ee
oft hef ol lowi ngr elat edcondi ti
ons:
 t her eshoul dbear iseori ncr easei nt her ateofpr oduct i
v ei nv estment .To
Rost ow,t hi sshoul di ncr easef rom appr oxi mat ely5% t o10% oft henat i
onal
i
ncome.
 t hedev el opmentofoneormor esubst ant i
almanuf act ur i
ngsect orwi thahi gh
rat eofgr owt h.Tohi m,f oracount rytoachi ev edev elopment ,amanuf act ur i
ng
i
ndust ryshoul ddomi nat e.
 exi stenceorqui ckemer genceofapol it
ical ,soci alandi nst i
tut ionalf r
amewor k
thatexpl oitst hei mpul sest oexpansi oni nt hemoder nsect orandt heemer gence
ofapot ent ialext er naleconomy .Thus,t her eshoul dbeav eryhi ghl ev elof
pol iti
cal st abi lit
y .
4th:Dr ivet omat ur i
t y
Thisst agef ollowsal ongi nter valoff l
uct uatingpr ogr ess.Thesoci et yi nt hi sst age
becomesaf or cei nt hei nter nationaleconomyandbegi nst oi mpor trawmat er i
al sand
expor tfini shedgoodsorpr oduct s.Theeconomi cgr owt hext endst oal lsect or swhi l
e
technol ogi callycompl exi ndust riesemer ge.About10%t o20%oft henat i
onali ncomei s
reallocat edf ori nv est menteachy earper mi tti
nganout putoft heov er allpr oduct iont o
outst rip popul ation gr owt h.The soci etyhas t he t echnol ogi calski l
land i ndust rial
l
eader shi pt riest opr oduceal mostev ery t
hi ngt hati sr equi r ed.
5th:Hi ghmassconsumpt ion
Thel eadi ngsect oroft hemat ur esoci et yshi f
tst owar dsdur abl econsumergoods.The
percapi tai ncomei sso hi ght hatal ar genumberofpeopl egai ncommandov er
consumpt i
onwhi chi sabov et hatofbasi cneeds.Asar esul tt heyt endt ogi vepr iorityt o
theconsumpt i
onofaut omobi lese. g.car s, comput er s, el ect ri
cgar get set c.Thesoci et y
turnsi tsat tent iont osuper iorobj ectivessuchashi ghr esour ceal locat i
ont osoci al
wel
far
eandsecur
it
y.

Crit
icism ofRost ow’sTheor y
 I tassumes, i
ncor r
ectl
y,thatal
l countriesstartoffatt hesamel evel
 Capi tali sneededt oadv anceacount ryfrom tradi
tionalsocietybutinjecti
onof
aidhasbeenov ershadowedbydebtr epay ments
 I tunder esti
mat edtheeffectsofgl obalisati
on
 Themodelhasnotbeenappl i
cableuni v
ersall
y,i tist ooEurocentr
ic( Barke&
O’Hare, 1984)
 I t
s appl i
cabil
it
yi s also quest i
onable because dev el
opmenti s mor e
evolut
ionaryasopposedt ost agesgi ven
 The t heorydoes nott ake into consi derati
on the r egi
onalv ar
iat
ions wi t
hin
countries.
NB.Despi tet heweaknesses,t hi
stheor yist heonlymaj orexampl eofaconcept ual
modelwhi chat t
empt st of i
tal lcountries.I thasst imul at
edenor mousamountof
researchwhi chhasl edt otheconst ruct
ionofnew model susedi nspecifi
ccount ri
es.
Thet heor yisal sousef ulf
orcompar isonpur poses.

Socialpsy chol ogicalt heori

esofdev elopment
Social-psy chologicalt heori
esconsi deri ndi
vidualorgroupv aluesandmot i
vationsas
mai ndet erminant sofunder developmentanddev el
opment .Suchtheoriestendt oar gue
thatunder dev elopmenthast odowi thal otofthewayofl ifei
nasoci et
y.Soci ologi
sts
associ ateunder dev elopmentwi ththebackwar dnessofthepeopl ee.
g. ,t
heyl ookatt he
tradit
ionalsoci etyasonewhi chl acksi ncenti
vesorasoci etywhichi sconser vativeor
l
acksmot i
vationorpr opensityt osav e.
Exampl es:
i.H.Lei benst ern( 1957)‘ Economi cbackwar dnessandeconomi cgr owth’.Hear gues
thatdev elopmenti nanysoci etyshoul dbeassoci atedwit
ht hefoll
owingat t
itudes:
 Ast r
ongpr ofitincenti
v e

 Awi
l
li
ngnesst
otakeent
repr
eneurr
isks

 Aneager
nesst
obet
rai
nedi
nindust
ri
alj
obs

 Aneager
nesst
oengagei
nandpr
omot
esci
ent
if
icandt
echni
cal
progr
ess

Allt
hesev ar
iabl
esarelacki
nginunder
dev
elopedcountr
ieswhereact
ivi
ti
esaredir
ect
ed
towards mai nt
enance of economi
c pr
ivi
leges,conserv
ati
sm and curtai
lmentof
opportuni
ti
es.

i
i
. HagenE.E.( 1962)‘ Ont hetheor yofsoci alchange’ .Hehasat tempt edt o
explorethepsy chol ogi
calrootorcausesofcul t
ur alchangeandgr owthand
theunder lyi
ng causesofr esist
ancet o change.Hehasemphasi zed t he
environmentofchi l
dhood,thepar entalatti
tudet owardschi l
drenandt he
personalit
ytraits.Theset wof actorscauseunder development .Accordingt o
Hagen,t hefami lyandt hesocialstructur
ei nfl
uencest hei ndi
vidual’
sattitude
towar dschange.Tosuppor tthishehasanal ysedtheef fectofcolonial
ism on
personalit
yfor mationandsubsequentbehav iour.Hear guest hatthedi verse
reactions t
o col oniali
sm included:r age ofadul ts;dependencyat t
itudes;
 ri
tuali
sm;i dentifi
cat ion wi ththe aggr essor;and messianism.Itist hese
conditi
ons t hat ar e not usef ul f or dev el
opment of cr eati
vi
ty and
i
nnov ati
veness.Col oni ali
sm causedal eader-
serv
antrel
ationshi
pandt husit
i
sr esponsibl
ef ort heat t
it
udesoft headul t
swhol ookdownupont heyouths
whoexpectt hey out hst ofol
l
owsomel ai
ddownr egulat
ions.Inret
urnyouths
l
eav eev er
y t
hing tot headul tsto do.Peopl elookupont hei
rleadersas
savioursand t hel eader shavet heirownendst heyaim t o meetatt he
expenseoft hef oll
ower s.

i
i
i. Thet heor yofsoci aldual
ism whi chor i
ginat edwi ththewor kofaDut ch
economi stcalled J.Boeke (1953)i n his book ent it
led ‘economi c and
economi cpoli
cyofdualsoci et
ies’.Hear guest hatsocialdualism i st he
clashingofani mpor t
edsocialsystem wit
hani ndi
genousonewhi chl eadst o
adi si
nt egr
ati
onofsoci ety
.Accor dingtohi mt hi
sclashst il
lcontinuesand
sincet hetwosoci eti
esareopposedi nchar acteritisdiffi
culttoestablisha
singlepol i
cyforawhol ecountrye. g.
,aMasaii sworthylefttohisl i
v estock
ratherthanest abli
shi
ngschools,healthcent res,andr oadswhi chmaymean
l
ittl
etot hem.

LESSON3.MARXI
STTHEORI
ESOFDEVELOPMENT

Mar
xism

Theor iginal
theoryofMar xism revol
vedaroundscientificsocial
ism.Marxi
sm wasboth
aneconomi candpol i
tical
theory.KarlMarxandFr i
edrichEngel sweretheori
ginal
creatorsofthistheory.Thet heorycal
lsforsocialr
eform ofasoci et
yaswell.Marx
establi
shedt hatall
throughhumanhi stor
yhegemony( leadershi
porauthori
ty)hasbeen
determi nedbycontrolofthemeansofpr oductionandexpl oit
ati
onofthewage
l
abour ers.ToMar x,thebour geoisi
eruleovertheproletari
at.

Marxarguesthatthereissocial
changeinsoci et
ybutiti
srootedi
nclassrel
ati
ons.I
n
ot
herwor ds,f
orMar x,changestemsfrom stablecl
assrel
ati
ons.Marxdevel
opedclass
warandsocialchanget heory
,part
icul
arl
yfrom economicdetermi
nism.Hefocusedon
Wester
nEur ope.

Marxexplai
nshistheor
yofsoci
alchangetoclassrelati
onsonl
y.Hesayst
hatt
he
mobil
izat
ionofprol
etar
iatwoul
dcommi ttorevol
uti
onandf i
nal
lyther
ewoul
dbe
soci
ali
sm.Therootcauseofconfl
i
ctisclassantagonism.

Sociali
sm
AccordingtoHoppe(2010),sociali
sm isaninsti
tuti
onali
zedpolicyofr
edistr
ibut
ionof
propert
ytit
les.Morepr
ecisely
,itisat r
ansferofpropert
ytit
lesfr
om peoplewhohav e
actual
lyputscarcemeanst osomeuseorwhohav eacquir
edthem contract
uall
yf r
om
personswhohav edonesopr eviouslyontopersonswhohav eneit
herdoneany t
hing
withthethi
ngsinquesti
onnoracqui redthem contract
uall
y.

Kar
lMar
x,i
nadv
anci
ngsoci
ali
sm i
nthe19thcent
urywasal
mostexcl
usi
vel
yconcer
ned
withtheanaly
sisoftheeconomi candsocialdefectsofcapi t
ali
sm.Social
izati
onofthe
meansofpr oducti
onhasbeenadv ocatedbyal lsociali
stsoforthodoxMarxist
persuasioneversi
nce.Sociali
zati
onoft hemeansofpr oduct
ionhasbeent r
iedoutin
theSov i
etUni
onandl aterinalloftheSoviet
-domi natedcountri
esofEasternEurope,as
wellasinanumberofot hercountri
esalloverthewor l
d.

Thepropert
yrulesthatar
eadoptedunderasocial
i
zat
ionpol
i
cyandwhichconsti
tut
e
thebasi
clegalpri
ncipl
esofcountr
iesl
ikeRussi
aarechar
act
eri
zedbyt
wof eat
ures.
Thesefeat
uresare:

1.Nobodyownst hesocial
izedmeansofpr oduction.Theyare“ soci
all
y”owned, i
.e.
,no
person,ornogr
oupofper sons,oral
ltakentogetherisall
owedt oei
theracquir
ethem or
sel
l t
hem andkeepthereceipt
sf r
om thei
rsaleprivatel
y.Theiruseisdeterminedby
peoplenotint
heroleofanownerbutofacar etakerofthings.

2.Noper sonorgr oupofpersonsoral ltakentogetheri sal

lowedtoengagenewl yi
n
privateinvestmentandcreatenewpr iv
at emeansofpr oducti
on.Theycannei t
herinvest
byt ransformingtheexist
ing,non-productiv
elyusedr esourcesint
opr oducti
veones,by
originalsaving,bypool
ingresourceswi thotherpeopl e,norbyami xt
ureofthese
techniques.I nv
estmentcanonl ybedonebycar etaker softhi
ngs,neverforpri
vateprofi
t,
alway sonbehal fofthecommuni tyofcar etaker
swi thwhom t hepossibleprof
itsfr
om
i
nv estment swoul dhavetobeshar ed.

Source:Hoppe,Hans-Her
mann( .At
2010) heor
yofsocial
ism andcapi
tal
i
sm:
economics,poli
ti
cs,
andethics.Auburn,Alabama:LudwigvonMi sesI
nst
itut
e.
htt
p://
creat
ivecommons.org/l
icenses/by
/3.0/

Neo-
Mar
xism

Neo-
Marxi
sm i
saterm usedgenerall
ytodescri
beav ar
ietyof20t
hcent
uryapproaches
t
hatext
endtheMarxism t
heory.Neo-
Marxism i
ncor
porateselement
sfr
om other
i
ntel
l
ect
ualwaysofthinki
ng,suchaspsychoanal
ysi
s.

Neo-Marxi
stt
heori
esstr
essthemonopoli
sti
cr at
herthanthecompeti
ti
venat
ureof
capi
tal
ism.Peopl
ewhoconsiderthemsel
vestobeneo- Marxi
stt
ryt
oadd
suppl
ementarymater
ial
totheort
hodoxMarxism theor
ies.

STRUCTURALI SM
Thereexi stsacl earpat t
ernofchangingeconomicstructur
einthecour seofeconomic
development .Thi si
s, aspercapit
aincomer i
ses,theshareofindustr
yingrossnational
productal sorises.Ev erycountr
ythathasachievedahi ghpercapitaincomehasal so
experiencedapopul at i
onshif
twheret hemajor
it
ymov esfrom r
uralareasandfarming
tociti
esandi ndustrialjobs.Thi
ssituati
onissupportedbyt hefoll
owingtwopr i
ncipal
reasons( Ayres,1995: 128)

Engel’
slaw.Inthe19thcentur
yEr nstEngeldiscov
eredthatasi ncomesoff amil
i
esrose,
thepropor
ti
onoft heirbudgetspentonf ooddeclined.Thisimpliesthatsincet
hemai n
functi
onoft heagricul
turalsectorist oproducef ood,thendemandf oragr
icul
tur
al
outputwouldnotgr ow asr api
dlyasdemandf orindustri
alpr oduct
sandser vi
ces.
Consequentl
y,t
heshar eofagr i
cult
ureinnati
onalproductdecli
nes.
Product iv
ityintheagri
cultur
alsectorhasr i
senasgr owt
hhaspr ogressed.I
nt hecour se
ofdevel opment ,i
ncreaseduseofmachi neryandot hernew methodsofr aisingcrops
havemadei tpossibl
eforani ndiv
idualfarmert oproduceenoughf oodt ofeedhi msel f
andsev eralother
s.Thiscreatesachancef orotherstoproduceoutsidetheagr i
cult
ur al
sector
.
NB/Ev ent hought heri
singshareofmanuf act
uringingrossnationalproductandt he
decli
ningshar eofagri
cultur
ei sapatter
ncommont oal
lnati
ons,itdoesnotf oll
owt hat
theratesofchangear ethesamei neachcount r
y .

LESSON4:THEGEOGRAPHI
CALPERSPECTI
VESOFDEVELOPMENT

GunnarMy
rdal
’
spr
inci
palofci
rcul
arandcumul
ati
vecausat
ion

GunnarMy r
dal ,aSwedi shschol ar,dev elopedt hetheor yofcumul ati
vecausat ionin
1957.Hebasedhi sar gumentonaf reeeconomywher et hedev i
ati
onampl i
f yi
ngf orces
ratherthandev iati
oncount eractingf orcesi ncr easethedi fferencesbet weent hecor e
andt heper iphery.Heappl i
edhi sideaofcumul ati
vecausat i
ont ot hepr oblem of
economi cdev elopmentwi t
hincount riesandconcl udedt hatt heplayoff orcesi nthe
mar ketnor mal lyt endst oi ncrease r athert han decr ease t he inequalit
iesbet ween
regions.
Onceapar ti
cul arregi onhasbyv irt
ueofsomei niti
aladv antagesmov eaheadofot hers,
newnumberofact i
vityandgr owt hwi lltendt obeconcent r
at edt her
e.Fori nst ance,the
l
ocat i
onofani ndustr yatapoi ntwi l
lat tractpopul ati
onandempl oymenti nt hatr egi
on.
Theempl oymentwi l
li ntur nat tractcapi talandot herent erprisesatt hesamepoi ntto
exploitthedemandcr eat edbyt hepopul ati
on.Thi sleadst ot heexpansi onofot her
consumerser vicei ndust riest o servet hel ocalmar ket .Ev entual
ly,ther ewi l
lbea
generalincreasei ntheweal t
hoft hepeopl eliv i
ngher eandf undsgener atedf r
om t hi
s
populati
ont hrought axationcanbeusedf ort hei mprov ementofi nfr
ast r
uct urei nthe
samear ea.Thel ocat i
onofani ndustrywi l
lalsol eadt oani ncreaseint hel ocalsuppl y
ofskill
edl abour .Thisf av our sthel ocat ionofmor eandmor ei ndustri
est obenef itfr
om
economi cscal es.

Besidest heconceptofcumul ati

vecausati
on,My r
dal’
smodell ooksatther elati
onship
betweent hecor eandt heperi
phery.Hearguesthatoncegr owthhasbegunatt hecor e,
thespat i
alfl
owofl abour
,capit
alandcommodi ti
esdev el
opspontaneouslytosuppor tit.
Suchf l
owsoper ateasbackwashef fect
sont heperi
phery.Sucheff
ectsinclude:
 Theper ipherymayl osenotonlythei
rmor eskil
l
edent er
pri
singwor kersbutev en
theirlocall
ygener ated capi
taltothecor e.Thecor enormall
yof f
ershi gher
retur
ns.

 Thegoodsandser v
icesoriginati
ngfrom thecor
efloodsthemarketofthe
per
ipheryput
ti
ngoutofbusi nesswhat ev
erli
tt
lel
ocalsecondar
yandter
ti
ary
i
ndustri
esmayhav
ealreadydev el
oped.

 None conomicfaci
li
ti
essuchasheal
thandeducat
ionalser
vicest
endt
obe
concent
ratedi
nthecore.

Allt
hesenegat
iveef
fect
sfrust
rat
ethegrowt
hintheper i
pher
yandret
ardi
ttosust
ain
devel
opmentwit
hinthecor
e.Inmostcasest
herelat
ionshi
pbetweent
hecoreandthe
peri
pheryisenhancedbytransportl
inks.Themor ethel i
nksattheinit
ialst
agesthe
moret henegat
iveeff
ect
s( backwasheffects)
.Theperipheryi
sbeingunderdevel
oped
bythedev el
opmentofthecor e.Myrdalarguesthatifeventsfol
low anuncontr
oll
ed
course,thebackwasheffectsperpetuat
egr owthatt hecor eand ret
ardinatt he
peri
phery.

Healsoi denti
fiedt heroleofcer t
ainforcesofeconomi cexpansi onwhi chher ef
erredt o
asspreadef fects-t hesear eposi ti
veimpact swhichadevelopedr egionmayhav eov er
thesurroundingr egions.Fori nstance,
Ift
heimpact soft hespreadef fectsarestr ongenoughtoov ercomet helocalbackwash
eff
ects,apr ocessofcumul ati
v ecausationmaywel lbegi
nl eadingtodev elopmentof
newcent ersofsel fsustainedeconomi cgr owt h.Thi
sdependsont hefoll
owingfact or
s;
 Av ail
abi l
it
y of ef ficient transport and communi cation system linking the
peri
pher yandt hecor e
 Educat ionl evelofthei nhabitant
s
 Inhabitantsat ti
tudest owar dsnewi deas
 Thel ev elofnat i
onalism

ILLUSTRATI ON
Thelocat ionofanewi ndustryatapoi ntwil
lattr
actpopul at
ionandempl oy mentt ot his
point( see f i
gure bel
ow).The empl oy mentwi llint urn attr
actcapi taland ot her
enter
pr isesatt hesamepoi nttoexploitthedemandscr eatedbyt hepopul ati
on.Thi s
l
eadst oexpansi onofot herconsumerser v
icei ndust
riest oservet hel ocalmar ket,
eventual l
ytherewi l
lbeagener alincr
easei ntheweal t
hoft hepopulationl iv
ingher e.
The f unds gener at
ed fr
om t he populati
on through taxation can be used f ort he
i
mpr ov ementofi nfr
astr
uctureinthatsamear ea.Thesef acil
iti
esfavourthel ocati
onof
newi ndust r
iesatthesamepoi nt.

I
nfr
ast
ruct
ur
e
Fundsgener
atedt
hrough
Locat
ion taxat
ion
Ski
l
led General
incr
ease
wealt
h
Populat
ion
employment Ser
vice
i
ndustr
ies

Thelocati
onofani ndust
rywi
llal
soleadtoanincr
easei
nthelocalsuppl
yofskil
led
l
abour.Thisfact
orfavour
sthelocat
ionofmoreandmoreindust
ri
est obenef
itf
rom
economiesofscal
e.

B.Al
ber
tHi
rschman(
1958)andUnbal
ancedgr
owt
h

AlbertHir
schman( 1958)“Thestrat
egyofeconomicdevel
opment”ar guedthatt he
di
ffer
entgrowthbetweenthecentre(
Nort
h)andtheperi
pher
y(Southlaggingareas)is
duetot heirspat
ialint
eract
ion.Thi
sint
eract
ion mayhaveat r
ickl
i
ng downef fect
(spreadef f
ect)orapol arisedef f
ectont heper i
pher y(backwashef fects).Hepoi nted
outt hatthepolarisedef f
ect sarenat uralint heear lystagesofdev elopmentbutata
l
aterst agethedev i
ati
on-count eracti
ngf orceswi llcomei ntooper ationt orestoret he
sit
uat i
onclosertoequi li
brium.Heseemst ojusti
fyt heneedf ormassi veinvestmentat
thecent reattheiniti
alstageswi thexpect ati
onst hatatal aterstaget hebenef i
tswi l
l
tri
ckledownt ot heper i
pher y
.I nhismodelhear guest hatonceani ni
tialdeci
sioni s
madet olocateapar t
icularindustryatapoi nt,itwi l
lalway shav eani niti
almultipli
er
effectont hesurroundi ngr egion.Thi sef fectexistsi nthef or m oft heabi li
tyoft hat
i
ndust rytogener atenew l ocaldemandsandi ncreaset hepur chasi ngpowerofi ts
l
abourf or
ce.Inaddi t
iont hel abourf orcewi l
lcreateademandf orhousi ngandot her
servicesandt hesecondi t i
onsat tractaddi ti
onali ndustriespr oducingcompl ement ary
goods.

Hi
rschmanspeci
fi
cal
l
yident
if
iedt
wot
ypesofi
ndust
ri
all
i
nkagesnamel
y:

i
. Backwar
dli
nkage;

i
i
. For
war
dli
nkage

I
ndustr
ies wi
th backwardl inkages make use of input
sfrom ot
her i
ndust
ri
es.
Aut
omobi l
emanufactur
ing,forinstance,usesthepr
oductsofmachi
ner
yandmet al
pr
ocessingpl
ant
swhichi nt
urnmakeuseofl ar
geamountsofst
eel
.

Forwardl inkagesoccuri ni ndustriesthatproducegoodst hatthenbecomei nputsi nto

otherindust ries.Fori nst ance,i nsteadofst art
ingwi t
haut omobi l
es,planner smi ght
prefertost ar
tbyset ti
ngupast eel mill
.
Thispr ocessal soenhancest hepossi bil
it
yofi nventi
onsori nnovati
onamongstt he
l
ocalpopul ation.Localpopul ati
onbecomemor eandmor eent erpri
singandar ethus
ablet ocomeupwi thi nv enti
onsori nnovati
ons.Ithasacumul at
iveself-generating
moment um butaf t
erthef i
rstcy cleofgrowt hiscompl et
e,anew cy cl
eofgr owthi s
i
niti
ated.Thei niti
almul tipli
eref fectwi l
lstimulatetheexpansi on ofnon- industrial
acti
v i
ti
esandt hesei nt urnwi l
lt ri
ggerasecondar ymulti
pli
eref f
ectwhi chi nduces
furt
hergr owt h.
NB/Thi st heor yismor especi fi
cini denti
fyi
ngthet y
pesofchangest hatcant akepl ace.
Thatis:
i. Ini
tialmul t
ipl
iers

i
i
. Secondar
ymul
ti
pli
erse.
g.,
ser
viceort
ert
iar
yindust
ri
es

Ther ei s always a per

iod afterwhi ch a secondarymul ti
pli
eref f
ectt akes pl
ace.
Hirschmanar guesthati
twasnat uralforent
repr
eneurstoselectandconcent r
atethei
r
activi
tiesatgrowthpoints.Thi
smakesdev el
opmentunbalancedatt heearl
yst agesbut
event ual
lyt hepolari
zat
ionef fectsareof f-
setbyt het r
ickl
ing-downef f
ects.These
i
ncl ude;
i. Wheret he centre purchases goods and commodi ti
es produced int he
peri
phery.Theindiv
idualswi thi
ntheperipher
ygai nfrom thisast hecentre
provi
desamar ket

i
i
. I
tcanal
sohappenwher
esomecapi
tal
isi
nvest
edi
ntheper
ipher
y
 i
i
i. Wheret he pr
oducti
vit
yoflabourint
he per
ipher
yincr
eases due t
othe
acqui
sit
ionofski
ll
sfrom t
hecent
re.

Thist r
ickl
ingdowncanonl ybef el
ti fthecent reneedst heper ipher
yfori t
sown
expansion.Al lacti
viti
est aki
ngpl acei nacent rehav eat hr
eshold( apointwheret he
economi cbenef i
tst heseact i
v i
ti
esder i
vest ar
ttodecl i
ne).Thesebenef i
tsarederi
v ed
from agglomer ati
on.Fori nst
ance, ahospi t
alisaffect
edbyi ncreaseinpopulat
ionsuch
thatatcer tainli
mitssuchahospi talisnotabl etoser vethepeopl e.Att hr
eshol
di t
becomesnecessar yt omov esuchact i
vit
iestootherareas.
Hirschmanf ur
therresumedt hatiftheinequali
tybetweenacent r
eandt heperi
pherydo
notdeclinenat ur
allythrought hefreemar ketforcesthentheinv i
sibl
ehandoft hestate
orthegov ernmentwi l
li
nterveneandi ntroduceremedialmeasur es.

FRIEDMAN’ SMODELOFREGI ONALDEVELOPMENT

Thist heoryi s associ ated wi t
ht he wor k ofJOHN FRI EDMAN ( 1966)‘ REGI ONAL
DEVELOPMENTPOLI CY:ACASESTUDYOFVENZEULA’ .LikeHirschman,heassumed
thatgov ernment ’s act i
on can r educe i ncome di spariti
es.He howev err elated t
he
problem ofunequaldev elopmentt ot hepr ocessofur banizat
ionandt hei nteracti
onof
urban centresand t hesur r
oundi ng ar eas.Accor ding to him socialand economi c
developmentofanyr egioncanber eflectedi nt hepat ternofset tlement sandt he
patternofcommut i
ngandmi grati
onaswel last hei nf
luenceofur bancent r
es.Using
thi
sar gument ,hedev isedaf ourst agemodel ofspat i
alevolut
ionofdev elopmentbased
ontheexper ienceof19thCNor t
hAmer ica.
a. Apr e-industrialphase:Thi sischar acterizedbyanumberofsmal lindependent
urbancent resspr eadt hroughoutal arger egion.Thereisnour banhi erarchy,t
he
possi bili
ti
esf orgr owthar esoonexhaust ed,andt heeconomyt endst ost agnate.
Fri
edmanassumedt hesy stem t obei nbal ance,becauseeachcent reser ves,
by
andl ar ge,onl
yi tslocalarea.

b.Aper iodofi ncipienti ndust ri

alizationi schar act erizedbyapr i
mateci t
ywhi ch
domi natesal arger egi on,andexpl oitst henat ur alr esour cesofi tsperiphery.
Localeconomi esi nt heper i
pher yar eunder mi nedi nconsequenceofamass
mov ementofwoul dbeent repreneur s, i
ntell
ectualsandl abourt ot heprimatecity.
Friedman v iewed t hepr i
mat e-domi nated organi zat ion ofspaceasunst able,
becauset hesy stem isgener atedbyexogenousf orces.
c.Transi t
ional st age;dur i
ng t his st age ( a changeov er t owar ds industrial
mat ur ation)
,thepr i
mat eci tystilldomi natest hel arger egion, butnotasmuchas
previousl y.Theconst ructionofst rategicall
yl ocat edur bancent r
esorgr owth
cent resr educest heinf luenceoft hel argecity.Fr i
edmanr egar dedt hethirdstage
asst illunstable, becausepocket sofbackwar dnessi nper ipher alareaspersist.
d.Thel astst ageconsi st sofaf ull
yf l
edgedspat ialor gani sat ionbasedont he
hierar chy principle whi ch cov erst he entire nat i
onalt err i
tor y.According to
Friedman,t hisf unct ional l
yi nterdependentsy stem ofci tieswi l
lfulf
ilessential
goalsofi nt
ernalspat ialor gani zationsuchasnat ionali nt egr at i
on,eff
ici
encyof
l
ocat i
on, maxi mum gr owt hpot ential andahi ghdegr eeofi nt erregionalbalance.

Citi
esarecentresofinnovat
ionsandf ocalpointsoftr
ansportnetworks.Inaddit
ion,
theyprovi
de locati
ons ofsuperioraccessibil
i
tywhich can enablef i
rms to enj
oy
economiesofscale.Eachagricul
tur
alenter
priseismoreeffi
cienti
nt hevici
nit
yofthe
cit
y.Accordi
ng to Fri
edman anyspace economyorr egion can be looked atas
compr
isi
ngoftwoelement
snamely:
a.Asy stem ofur
bancent
resorgani
sedi
nahi
erar
chyaccor
dingt
othef
unct
ions
perfor
medbyeach.

b.Theareasofurbani
nfl
uenceorur
banf
iel
dssur
roundi
ngeachoft
heur
ban
cent
resi
nthesy
stem.

General
l
y,t
hefoll
owi
ngpatt
ernscanbei
denti
fi
edi
nthesyst
em.
1.Thesizeandf
unct
ionofacit
yandthesi
zeofur
banfi
eldar
epr
opor
ti
onal
.

2.The spati
ali
ncidence oroccurr
ence ofeconomic gr
owthisaf unct
ion of
dist
ancefr
om theurbancent
re.Thatis,
asyoumovefrom t
hecent
re,
thel
evelof
economicdev
elopmenttendstodecrease.

3.Impul
sesofeconomi cchangear etransmittedfrom thehighertothelower
cent
res wi
thi
n an urban hi
erarchy.Lar ge cit
ies ar
et he majorsour
ces of
i
nnovati
onandthushaveacri
ticalrol
et oplay
.

4.Thegr owthpot
enti
alofanar
easituatedalonganaccessbet weentwocit
iesi
sa
functi
onoftheint
ensi
tyofi
nter
actionbetweenthem.Ifcit
iesarei
solat
edanddo
notinter
actnodevel
opmentwil
ltakeplaceinareasbetweenthem.

LESSON5.THEHI
STORI
CALBASESOFREGI
ONALDEVELOPMENT

I
nequal
i
tyisameasureofhowvar
iousasset
sar
edistri
but
edwi
thi
nagi
vensy
stem uni
t.
Ther
eexist
svar
iat
ioni
ndevel
opmentamongcount
ries.

Coloni
alorganizati
oninspace
Coloni
ali
sm isclosel
yrelat
edtotheeraofi
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ioni
nEur
ope.Themai
nreasons
forcol
onial
ism were;
 Adesi r
ef oreconomicexpansi
on

 Pol
i
tical
expansi
on

 I
nfl
uenceofmi
ssi
onar
ies

 Pr
otect
ionofnat
ions

 Gr
eatknowl
edgeoft
hegeogr
aphyofot
herr
egi
onssuchasAf
ri
ca

TheSpani sh,Fr enchandPor tuguesecol oniessuf f

eredwi despreadeconomi cnegl ect
wit
hv eryli
ttleeffortbeingputi ntodevelopingthecol onies.Unli
keEuropeancolonizers,
theUS i nvested moneyon t hei nfr
astructureand educat i
oni nthecount ri
est hey
col
onizede. g.Phi l
ippines.Theywer einterestedint heUSownedpl antat
ionint heir
col
onies.
TheDut chcol onialgov er
nmentencour agedpl antat
ionsbutspentl it
tl
eont hecolonial
i
nfrast
ructureandsoci alwelfare.Japanesecol oni
alism wasv erydevel
opmentor iented.
Theycol onizedTai wanandKor eaandspr eadnew t echniquesintoagr i
cult
ureand
i
nvestedheav i
lyinbothi ndustryandagr icult
ure.Theyemphasi zedonthedev el
opment
ofaskill
edi ndustri
alwor kforce.
Mostcol onizerssawthei
rcoloni
esasmar ket
sformanufactur
edgoodsandassources
forfoodstuf f
sandcheaprawmat eri
als.
Colonial
i
sm i sblamedforslowdevelopmentforsubSaharanAfr
ica.I
tint
roducednew
way softhinkingin:
 educat i
on

 r
eli
gion

 newmet
hodsofpr
oduct
ion

 cashcr
opatt
heexpenseofsubsi
stence

 r
ural
-ur
banmi
grat
ion

 cent
ral
i
sedr
oleoft
hest
ates.

Asar esultt
henat ionaldevel
opmentstrategi
esafterindependencegaveadomi nant
rol
etothest at
e-ownedcompani esandst aterunmarketi
ngboar ds.Thepr
ivat
esector
andemer gi
ngent r
epreneurswerenotencouraged.

Economici nequali
ty
Economici nequali
tyorweal thandi ncomedi f
ferences,compr isesalldispari
ti
esint he
di
stri
buti
onofeconomi cassetsandi ncomeamongi ndiv
idualsandgr oupswi t
hina
soci
etyaswel lasamongcount ri
es.Economicinequalityhasexi st
edi nawi derangeof
soci
eties and histor
icalper i
ods.Fori nstance,a st udybyt he Wor l
dI nst
it
utef or
DevelopmentEconomi cs Research atUni t
ed Nat i
ons Uni versi
tyrepor t
ed thatt he
ri
chest1%ofadul t
sal oneowned40%oft heglobalasset sint heyear2000.Thet hree
ri
chestpeopl epossessmor efinanci
alassetsthant hel owest48nat ionscombi ned.In
2001,46.4%ofpeopl einsub- SaharanAfri
cawer eliv
ingi nextr
emepov erty.

I
n2014,ther
ewere1,
645peoplewereli
stedast
heworld'
swealthi
estpeopl
e.Among
t
hem wereincl
udi
ng a r
ecor
d 172 women.(Amer
ican busi
nessmagazine For
bes,
Mar
ch).

Thef
ollowingare5ri
chestnati
onsofthewor ld.
1.Qat arwhichhaslessthan2mi l
l
ionr esidentsandanappr oxi
mat
ely182bi
l
li
on
USDol l
arGDP.Shereli
esonpetroleum, t
our i
sm andbanking
2.Luxembour g–r el
i
esont el
ecommuni cationandst eel
indust
ry
3.Si ngapor
e–hasabout5. 5mill
i
onpeopl e
4.Nor way–hasabout5mi ll
i
onpeopl e
5.HongKong

Thefoll
owingli
stindi
catesthepoorestnati
onsoftheworld.
1.Congo( DemocraticRepubli
coftheCongo)-$400
2.Niger-$800
3.Burundi-$600
4.Mozambi que-$1,200
5.Chad
Source:Worl
d'sPoorestCountri
es
htt
p://
www. i
nfopl
ease.com/ipa/A0908763.
html
#ixzz3Q1LpEyZv
Causesofeconomi cinequal ity
Therearemanyr easonsf oreconomi cinequali
tywithi
nsocieties.Thesecausesare
oft
eninterr
elat
ed.Theyi ncl ude
 Thel abourmar ket-i nequali
tyiscausedbyt hedif
f er
encesi nthesupplyand
demandf ordi fferentt ypesofwork.Employerswhoof ferabelowmar ketwage
wi l
lfi
ndt heirbusi nessunder st
aff
ed.Theircompeti
torswi llt
akeadvantageof
thesi t
uationbyof feringahigherwaget osnat chupt hebestoft heirl
abour
.
Technologi calchange and popul ati
on growth have been seen bysome t o
contri
butet ot hepr oblem associat
edwithlabourmarket.

 I
nnateabil
i
tye.
g.int
ell
i
gence,str
engt
h,char
isma-i
nnat
eabil
it
iesar
eusuall
yin
hi
gh demand rel
ati
vet otheirsuppl
y.They t
her
efor
e pl
ay a l
arge r
olein
i
ncreasi
ngthewageofthosewhohavethem.

 Educat
ion-thereexist
svari
ati
onsinindi
vi
dual’saccesstoeducat
ion.Educati
on,
especi
allyi
nanar eawher ether
ei sahi ghdemandf orworker
scr eat
eshigh
wagesf ort
hosewhohav eit
.Thosewhoar eunabletoaffordaneducat i
onor
choosetopursueitenduprecei
vi
ngmuchl owerwages.

 Globali
zat
ion-inr elat
iontot r
adeliber
ali
zati
on.Whenri
chcountri
estradewith
poorcountri
es,thelow- ski
l
ledworkersintheri
chcount
ri
esmayr ecei
vereduced
wagesasar esultofthecompet i
ti
onwhi l
elow-ski
l
ledworker
sinpoorcountri
es
mayr ecei
veincreasedwages.

 Gender,race,r
eli
gionandculture-Cult
ureandrel
igi
onmayeitherencourageor
di
scourage wealth acquir
ing behav
ior.They may al
so pr
ovide a basisfor
di
scri
mi nati
on.Inmanycount ri
esindivi
dual
sbelongi
ngto cert
ainraci
aland
et
hnicmi nori
ti
esaremor eli
kel
ytobepoor .

I
nMar ch2017,womenarebeingpaidanaverageof23percentlesst hanmen
promot i
ngacallf
orequalpayforworkofequalval
ue.Accor
dingtot heUNWomen
Executiv
eDirect
or,Phumzi
leMlambo-Ngcuka,“t
hegenderpaygapr eflect
sthe
unjust
ifi
abl
ydimini
shedposit
ionofmanywomeni nsoci
etyandhelpst okeepthem
there”
.

Accordi
ngtogl
obalfi
gur
es,womenmakeonl
y77centsforever
ydol
l
art
hatmenearn
fort
hesameposit
ion.Overt
ime,
thei
ncomei
nequal
i
tyresult
sinmor
ewomenret
ir
ing
i
ntopovert
y.

Oneoft hemainreasonsf
orthegendergapist
hatwomentendtobeconcent
rat
edi
n
di
ffer
entj obst
hanmen–f orexamplei
nteachi
ngorheal
thcar
e–whichtendtobe
underpaid.

Ther
ear
eal
sodi
ff
erencesf
ormenandwomenwhoar
eint
hesamel
i
neofwor
k.

I
nadditi
on,
women’svoi
cesarest
il
lmissi
ngf r
om t
heexecutiv
ebranchesof
gov
ernmentsandpar
li
amentsworl
dwide,sl
owingachi
evementoftheSustai
nabl
e
Devel
opmentGoal
s(SDGs)
,theUnitedNati
onsagencytaskedwi
thsupporti
nggender
equal
i
tyt
odaysai
datt
hel
aunchofav
isual
repr
esent
ati
onofwomen’
spol
i
tical
empower
ment.

ThenumberofwomenHeadsofSt ateorHeadsofGover
nmentfell
from 19i
n2015t o
17in2017andpr ogressinthenumberofwomeni npar
li
amentconti
nuestobesl
ow
(sour
ce: ht
tp:/
/www. un.or
g/sustai
nabledevel
opment
/bl
og/2017/
03/womens-pol
i
tical
-
pari
ty-
slow-to-
grow-as-un-
launches-l
atest
-women-
in-
pol
it
ics-
map/)

 Diver
sit
yofpr eference-itisrelatedtocul t
uralissuessuchthatwhenfacedwi th
thechoicebetweenwor ki
nghar dertoear nmor emoneyorenjoyi
ngmor elei
sure,
equall
ycapablei ndivi
dual
swi thidenticalearni
ngpot ent
ial
oftenchoosedi
f f
erent
str
ategies.Thisl eadstoeconomi ci nequalit
iesev eninsociet
ieswithperfect
equali
tyinabil
it
iesandci rcumst ances.

 Developmentpat terns -Si mon Kuznet s supportst he i

dea thatl evel
s of
economi cinequali
tyar einl ar gepartt her esul
tofst agesofdev elopment .
AccordingtoKuznet s,count r
ieswi thl
ow l ev
elsofdev el
opmenthaver el
ati
vel
y
equaldistri
buti
onsofweal th.Asacount rydevel
ops,itacquir
esmor ecapi t
al,
whichleadst otheowner soft hi
scapit
alhav ingmoreweal t
handi ncomeand
i
ntroducing inequal
ity. Event uall
y,through v ar
ious possibl
e redistri
buti
on
mechani smssuchassoci alwel f
arepr
ogr ams,mor edevel
opedcountriesmov e
tolowerlevelsofi
nequality.

 Wealt
hcondensationtheory-accordi
ngt othistheor y
,t hosewhoal readyhol d
wealt
hhav ethemeanstoinvesti
nnewsour cesofcr eatingweal t
h.Savingsfrom
theupper-
incomegroupstendtoaccumul at
ef asterthansav ingfrom thelower-
i
ncomegr oupsduet othei
rincomedi spar
it
ies.Ov erti
me,weal t
hcondensat ion
cansigni
fi
cantl
ycontr
ibut
etopersist
enceofi nequali
tywi thi
nsociety
.

 Economi cneoli
berali
sm -neoliber
ali
sm isaboutf r
eermov ementofgoods,
resourcesandenterpri
sesinabidtoalway
sf i
ndcheaperr
esourcest
omaximize
profi
tsandeffi
ciency.Itr
equi
restheremovalofbar
ri
erstotr
adesuchastari
ff
s,
regul
ationset
c.

 Ot
hercausesi
ncl
ude;
col
oni
ali
sm,
resour
ceendowment

Miti
gati
ngmeasurest oeconomicinequal
it
y
There are many factorsthatl owerinequal
i
ty.Fori nstance,good governance,
empower ment of disadv
antaged groups i
n societ
y,mi nimum wage l egi
slation,
subsi
dizat
ionofpr oductsinsuchamannert hateventhepoorcanaf fordt hem,
progr
essivet
axati
on,educati
onetc.

Act
ivi
ty:Readanart
icl
eent
itl
ed“Al
ger
ianwomenwor
k,mengett
hepay
”inTheDai
l
y
Nat
ionof27thMarr
ch2017,p34.

LESSON6.KENYA’
SREGI
ONALDEVELOPMENTPOLI
CIES

Thegoalofdev
elopmenti
nKeny
ahasal
way
sbeenseenassy
nony
mouswi
thr
ural
developmentdue t ot he di
spari
ti
es t
hatexi
sted duri
ng t
he ti
me ofcoloni
alrul
e.
Dev el
opmentcanf ur
therbeequatedtopovert
yallevi
ati
on.Povert
ycangeneral
l
ybe
definedast helackofbasichumanneeds.I
terodeshumanr ight
softheaff
ect
edand
subjectsani ndivi
dualtoast ateofpowerl
essness,hopel
essnessandlackofself
esteem, confi
denceandint
egrit
y.

Therear
et wobasict
ypesofmeasur
esofpov
ert
y.Thesear
e;
i
. rel
ati
ve
i
i
. absol
ute

Relativ
epov ert
yisdefi
nedcontext
uallyaseconomi cinequali
tyinthelocati
onor
societyinwhichpeopl
eliv
e.Usuall
y,relat
ivepovert
yismeasur edast hepercent
ageof
thepopul at
ionwit
hincomelessthansomef i
xedpr oport
ionofmedi anincome.There
existsstri
ki
ngdispar
it
yinpercapit
aGNPbet weenandwi thi
nregions.Thereisasoci
al
dispari
tybetweenregi
onsandasoci alorclassdispari
tybetweenpeopl e.

Rel
ati
vemeasureshav
etwomai nadvantages:
a.Ther el
ati
venot
ionunder
lyi
ngthesemeasur
esf
it
swi
thbot
hthehi
stor
icalr
ecor
d
andchangi
ngvi
ewsofpov er
ty;

b. Somet
imesr
eal
needsdoi
ndeedr
isei
nri
chercount
ri
es.

Thesemeasuresaremorer
elev
anti
nweal
thnati
onswher everyextr
emehardshi
ps
suchasstar
vati
oni
sver
yuncommonandt
heref
oreabsol
utesubsi
stencepov
ert
yli
nes
havel
it
tl
emeaning.

Absol
utepovert
yordesti
tuti
onr eferstoi
ncapabil
itytomeetmini
mum humanneeds
suchasadequatef
ood,water,sanitat
ion,
clothi
ng,shelt
er,
heal
thcar
eandeducati
on.I
t
basi
cal
lyat
temptstodefi
neat rulybasicneedsstandardandhasthr
eshol
dsthat
remai
nconstantov
erti
me.

Esti
mat esofabsol ut
epov er
tywer ef i
rsti
ntroducedi n1990, asthedol laradayasa
measur eofpov ert
ylinebythest andardsoft hewor l
d’spoor estcount ries.In2005,
povertylinewasdef i
nedas$1. 25aday( equivalentto$1. 00adayi n1996USpr ices).I
t
wasr ecentlyupdatedtobe$2. 50perdaybyTheWor l
dBank.Theset hresholdswer e
arr
ivedatont hebasi
sofpur chasingpowerpar i
ty(PPP).Eachnat ionhasi tsown
thr
esholdf orabsolut
epov er
tyline;intheUni t
edSt at
es,forexampl e,theabsol ute
povertylinewasUS$15. 15perdayi n2010( US$22, 000pery earforaf amilyoffour),
whil
ei nIndiaitwasUS$1.0perdayandi nChi nat heabsol utepov ertylinewasUS$0. 55
perday ,eachonPPPbasi sin2010.Thesedi fferentpovertyl i
nesmakedat a
compar i
sonbet weeneachnat ion'soffici
alr
epor t squali
tativ
elydifficult.

SpecialRur alDevelopmentPr ogr amme( SRDP)

Sincei ndependence,t hegov ernmentofKeny ahasusedanumberofst rategiesto
reali
zer uraldevelopment .Thef irstmosti mport
antposti ndependencedev elopment
documentwassessi onalpaperNo.1( 1965)onAfricansociali
sm.I tadv
ocat edforthe
needt ousel ocalinputsindev elopment .Thedocumentdef inesAf r
icansociali
sm asa
societywhi chhasadut ytoplan,guideandcont r
oltheusesofal lpr
oducti
ver esources.
In1967,t herewast hef i
rstatt
emptatpl anni
ng.Thiswast hrought hei
ntroductionof
theSpeci alRur alDev el
opmentPr ogramme (SRDP) .TheSRDP had t hef oll
owing
objecti
ves:
 Toi ncreaser ural i
ncomeandempl oy mentoppor tunities
 To dev elop met hodol ogies f ori nduci ng sel fgener ating r uraldev el
opment
act ivit
ieswhi chcoul dber eplicat edany wher ei nt hecount ry
 Toi mpr ov et hecapaci tyofci v i
lser v ant soper at ingi nr ur alar eas.Thi swasby
pr ov i
dingnecessar yinf rastruct ure
 Todev el opr egi onal planni ngt echni quesappr opr iatet ot heKeny ancont ext .
Thisprogr ammepav edwayf orl aterdecent r alizationanddev elopmentoft hepl anning
procedur esi nt hef oll
owi ngway s;
 I tst imul atedt heemer gencyofDi strictDev el opmentCommi t
tee( DDC)ar ound
1967.
 Thear eacoor dinat orbecamet hemodel oft heof f i
ceoft heDi strictDev el
opment
Of ficer( DDO)
 Thedonorai dedpr ogr ammel edt oest ablishmentofRur alDev elopmentFund
(RDF)
 St afff rom HeadQuar terwer esentt ot hef i
el dandmadet owor kwi ththedi str
ict
staf ftopr epareaccept abl elocal pl ans.
By1982, thepr ogr ammewasmar kedbymanyunr esol v edpr oblems.Thesei ncluded:
 I nadequat enumberofdi st
rictdev el opmentof ficer sduet ol ackoft r
aining
 I nabi li
tyofmanyDi strictDev el opmentCommi tteest oi nitiat
eandov erseet he
dist ri
ctpl anningpr ocess
 I nadequat egui delinesf rom t het reasur y
 Poorl iaisonbet weenpl anner sandoper at i
ngmi ni stri
es
 I nsuf ficientdat at ocar ryoutpl anni ngexer cisesanddi fficulti
esi nconv i
ncing
somedepar tmentoroper at i
ngmi nist ri
est opr ov ideorev enshar etheex isti
ng
dat a
 I nsuf ficient par ticipat ion by pr omi nent r epr esent atives i n t he Di str
ict
Dev elopmentCommi ttees.
In1982, awor ki ngcommi tteewasappoi nt edt ol ookatgov ernmentexpendi t
ureandt o
adviceonhowt oincr easei nt hephaseofdev elopmentaswayofsol vingt hepr obl ems
encount ered i nt he pr evious pr ogr amme.The commi ttee not ed a number of
weaknessesandr ecommendedt hatt hedi st rictt eam undert hel eader shipoft heD. C.
should be est ablished as a maj orf or ce and v ehi clef ort he managementand
i
mpl ement ationofr ur aldev elopment .Thi sl edt ot hebi r t
hofDi st ri
ctFocusPol icyf or
RuralDev elopmentSt rategyi n1983.

TheDi
stri
ctFocusf orRur alDev elopmentSt rategy
I
thadt
hef oll
owi ngobj ectives:
 Tomaket hedist r
ictt hef ocalpointfori nit
iati
on,pl
anningandmanagementof
ruraldev el
opment
 Toenhanceacondi ti
onav ail
ablelocallyf r
om t henat
ionalt r
easuryfordistr
ict
speci f
icprojects
 To st i
mul ater apid and pl anned dev el
opmentascr i
ticallyident
if
ied byf i
eld
officersandt hel ocal popul ati
on
 Tomot i
vatethepeopl eandi ncorporat
et heirwishesorpr oposals
 To r elocatet he i dent i
fi
cat i
on ofsui table project
stot he people and local
leadershipar eincl osecont actwithrealpr oblems
Thi
sst
rategyhadt hefollowi ngadv ant
ages
 Broadenedt hebaseofr esponsi bil
i
tyfordev elopmentprogr ammes
  Encour agedandmadeuseofl ocal initi
ati
veandi nvol
vement
 Compl ement eddev elopmenti niti
ativesf r
om t hemi ni
stry
 I
timpr ov edtheef fi
ciencyinwhi chlocal projectswer ei
mpl emented.
I
twasf
acedbyt hefollowi nglimitations
 l
ackofbasi si nanActofPar l
iament
 rel
ianceonani nstit
utionalf ramewor kthatdi dnotf aci
li
tat
emeani ngfullocal
decisionmaki ngandmobi lizationofr esources
 l
ackofadequat ecapaci tyinpar ti
cipatoryplanningamongci vi
lservants
 fi
nanci alal l
ocat ions by mi ni str
ies headquar ters which,though insuff
ici
ent,
j
ust i
fi
edcont inuedcont roloft heirfieldunits
 domi nanceoft hest r
ategybyci vi
lser vants
 l
ackofpeopl e’sawar enessofandpar ti
cipati
oni nplanningandi mplementati
on
ofthest rategy .

EconomicRecov er
yStrat
egyforWeal t
handEmpl oymentCreat
ion(ERS)
TheEconomi cRecover
yStrat
egyforWealthandEmpl oy
mentCreati
on(ERS)was
successf
ull
yimplementedandsawt hecountr
y’seconomybackonthepathtorapi
d
growthsi
nce2002, whenGDPgr ewfrom alowof0.6%andri
singgradual
l
yto6.1%
i
n2006.

Bot
tom-
upst
rat
egi
es

WalterStohrandD.R.F.Tay lor(1981)intheirwork,‘Developmentf r
om aboveorbel ow’
defi
neddev el
opmentf r
om bel ow tobebasedpr i
mar i
lyonmaxi mum mobi l
izati
onof
eachar ea’snatur
al,humanandi nsti
tut
ionalresourceswi ththeprimaryobject
iveoft he
sati
sfactionofthebasi cneedsoft heinhabitant
soft hatar ea.I
nordertoservet hebulk
ofthepopul ati
onandal argerspat i
alter
rit
ory,developmentmustbeor i
entedt owards
problemsofpov ert
yandmustbemot iv
atedandi nit
ial
lycontrol
ledfrom thebot t
om.
Developmentf rom belowstrategiesshouldthereforehav ethefoll
owingcharacteri
sti
cs:
a.Bebasi cneedor i
ented

b.Bel
abouri
ntensi
veor
ient
edandnotcapi
tal
int
ensi
veor
ient
ed

c.Besmal
lscal
eandbasedonexi
sti
ngr
egi
onal
resour
ces

d.Bebasedi
nrur
alar
eas.

Thesestr
ategi
eshaveemergedduetothefol
lowingf
act
ors
a.Fai
lureofpastr
egi
onaldev
elopmentpoli
ciest
oaddr
essr
egi
onal
dispar
it
ies

b.Due to need f
orthe f
ormul
ati
on and i
mplement
ati
on ofv
ari
ous pl
anni
ng
st
rat
egieswhichar
euni
quetor
especti
ver
egions.

c.Duet
oincr
easi
ngdegr
eeofr
egi
onal
andl
ocal
aut
onomy
.

Themain obj
ecti
veofdev elopmentfr
om bel
ow can t
her
efor
ebesummar
ised as
fol
l
ows:
1.Toprov
idebroadaccesstol
and

2.To i
ntr
oduce new t
err
it
ori
ali
tyor
gani
zed st
ruct
ures ofcommuni
tydeci
sion
maki
ng
 3.Togr
antahi
ghdegr
eeofsel
fdet
ermi
nat
iont
orur
alandot
herper
ipher
alar
eas

4.Toal
lowforchoiceofregi
onal
lyadequat
etechnol
ogyi
.e.appropr
iat
etechnol
ogy
asi
tcanservetheregi
onwithouti
nter
fer
ingwit
hthepeople’
scult
ure

5.Togi
vepr
ior
it
ytopr
oject
sser
vingt
hesat
isf
act
ionofbasi
cneedsoft
hepeopl
e

6.Toencour
ageani
ntr
oduct
ionofv
eryl
i
mit
edext
ernal
assi
stance

7.To encour
age the dev
elopmentofproductiv
e acti
vi
ti
es exceedi
ng regi
onal
demandsi.e.peopl
eshouldproducesur
pluseswhichcanbeexpor tedtot he
nei
ghbouri
ngareasandthatofuset
othel
ocals

8.To r
estr
uct
ure ur
ban and t
ranspor
tat
ion sy
stemsand ot
hercommuni
cat
ion
sour
cestoal
lar
eas

9.Tocreateegal
it
ari
ansoci
etalst
ruct
uresandcol
l
ect
iveconsci
ousnessi
.e.equal
oppor
tunit
iesf
oral
l.

Keny
aVi
sion2030

Keny aVision2030i sthecount r

y ’
sdev elopmentbl uepri
ntcov eri
ngtheperiod2008t o
2030.I tai
mst otransform Keny aintoanewl yindust r
ial
isi
ng,“mi ddl
e-i
ncomecount ry
prov i
dingahighqual it
yli
fetoal lit
sci t
izensbyt hey ear2030” .TheVisionwas
dev el
opedt hr
oughanal l
-i
nclusi
v eandpar t
ici
pat orystakeholderconsultat
iveprocess,
i
nv olvi
ngKeny ansfrom allpartsoft hecount ry.Theobj ecti
veofal lt
heconsul t
ati
ons
wast opr ovi
deani n-depthunder standingoft hecount ry’
sdev elopmentproblemsand
thenecessar ystr
ategiestoachi evet he2030goal s.

TheKeny aVi si
on2030al sobenefitedf rom suggesti
onsbysomeoft heleadinglocal
andi nternat
ional expert sonhowt henewl yindustr
ial
isingcountri
esar oundthewor ld
hav emadet heleapf rom pov ert
yt owi dely-
sharedprosper i
tyandequi t
y.Consultat
ions
i
nv olvi
ngor dinaryKeny ansandot herst akeholder
sf r
om al l
level
soft hepublicservi
ce,
thepr i
vatesect or,ci
v i
lsoci et
y,t
hemedi aandnon-gov ernmentalorganisati
ons(NGOs)
wer econduct ed.Inr ural ar
eas,pr
ov incialconsult
ati
vef orumswer eheldt hr
oughoutt he
count r
y .

NB/Newl yindustr
ial
izedcount r
y( NIC)isat erm usedbypolit
icalscient
istsand
economiststodescribeacount rywhosel evelofeconomicdev el
opmentr anksit
somewher ebetweent hedevelopingandf ir
st-
worldclassi
fi
cat
ions.Theyar eal
so
knownas" newlyindustri
ali
zingeconomi es"or"advanceddevelopingcount ri
es”.Such
countr
ieshaveundergoner ecent,rapidindustri
ali
sati
onandexper iencerisingincomes,
highgrowthratesandi nt
ernati
onal i
nv ol
v ement.

Newl yIndustr
iali
zedCount ri
es(NI C)int he1970sand1980s, i
ncludedHongKong,
SouthKor ea,SingaporeandTai wan.Int helate2000s, theyincludedSout hAfr i
ca,
Mexico, Brazi
l,China,I
ndia,Mal aysia,thePhi l
ippines,
Thai l
andandTur key.
Alt
hought heirnumberi ncludesBr azil
,Sout hAf r
icaandMexi co, majori
tyarelocatedi
n
easternandsout h-easter
nAsi a.Encour agedbyJapan’ ssuccess, othergovernmentsi
n
Asia’
sPaci fi
cRi m setouttoimpr ovet heirstandardsofl i
vi
ngt hrough:
1.Encour agingt heprocessingofpr imaryproducts.Processi ngaddedv alueto
 theirexports.
2.Investi
nginmanuf acturingi ndust r
y ,
ini
ti
all
ybydev elopingheav yi
ndustriessuch
asst eelandshi pbuilding, andl aterbyconcent rati
ngonhi gh-techproduct s.
3.Encour agi
ngt ransnat i
onal firmst olocat
ewi thintheirboundar i
es.
4.Groupi ngtogethert ofor m ASEAN( AFTA) ,AsianFr eeTr adeAr ea–Br unei ,
Indonesia,Mal aysia,Philippi nes,Singapore,ThailandandVi etnam,topr omot e
economi cgr owt h.
5.Hav ingadedi catedwor kfor cet hatwasr el
iable,andi ni
tial
ly
, prepar
edt owor k
l
onghour sforr elati
velylittl
epay .
6.Long- t
ermi ndust ri
alplanni ng.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofNI
Cs

1.NICsarecount r
ieswhoseeconomi eshavenotyetreachedadeveloped
country
'sstatusbuthav e,inamacroeconomicsense,outpacedt
heirdevel
opi
ng
counterpar
ts.
2.Thecount r
iesar eundergoingrapi
deconomicgrowth(usuall
yexport-
ori
ent
ed)
.
3.Thereisincipientorongoingindust
ri
ali
zat
ion
4.Highrateofr ural-
urbanmigrati
on
5.St
rongpol
i
tical
leader
shi
p.
6.Aswi t
chfrom agr
icul
tural
t oi ndustr
ial
economies,especi
all
yinthe
manufacturi
ngsector.
7.Largemulti
nati
onalcorporat i
ons( MNC)operati
nginseveralcont
inent
s.
8.Str
ongcapi t
ali
nvestmentfr om forei
gncountri
es.
9.Rapidgrowthofurbancent ersandpopul at
ion.

Tosy nthesisethef indings,

acor eteam compr i
singexper i
encedt echnicaloffi
cer s
drawnf rom thegov ernment,Kenyanresear chinsti
tuti
ons, i
nter
nat i
onal consultants,
andt heprivatesect orundertheguidanceofaNat ionalVisi
onSt eeri
ngCommi ttee
visi
tedv ari
ousf i
rms, invest
ors,far
mer s,andf ormal andinformal busi
nesspeopl einall
themaj orsectorsofourcount rywasf or
med.I nformat i
onfrom theninepr ov i
ncial
forums, duri
ngwhi chwananchi madedirectcont ri
butionstothedev elopmentoft he
Vision,werealsoi ncluded.Further
,theteam hel dout -
of-countr
yconsul tati
onswi t
h
Keny ansov er
seaswhohav eshowngr eati nteresti
nhel pingKeny adev elopintoa
rapidly
-i
ndust r
ial
isingnat i
on.

TheVi
sioni
sbasedont
hree“
pil
l
ars”
:
1.Economic,

2.Soci
al

3.Pol
i
tical
.

Theeconomicpil
lar
I
taimstoimprovet hepr
osperi
tyofallKeny
ansthr
oughaneconomicdevel
opment
progr
amme,coveringall
theregionsofKenya.I
tai
mstoachi
eveanaverageGross
Domesti
cProduct(GDP)growthr at
eof10%perannum begi
nni
ngin2012.

Sect
orstarget
ed:touri
sm,agr
icul
tur
e,tr
ade–wholesal
eandretai
l,
manufact
uri
ngfor
ther
egionalmarkets,
busi
nessprocessoff
shor
ingi
.e.
,I
tinv
olvesprov
idi
ngbusi
ness
ser
v i
cesandf
inanci
alser
vicesv
iat
heI
nter
nett
ocompani
esandor
gani
sat
ionsi
nthe
devel
opedworld.

Thesoci alpi
ll
ar
Itseekstobuildajustandcohesiv
esoci etywithsocialequi
tyinacleanandsecure
envir
onment .
Sectortarget
ed:educati
on;heal
th;waterandsani t
ation;env
ironment;housingand
urbanisati
on;gender
,youthandvulner
abl egroups;equit
yandpov er
tyeliminati
on.

Thepol i
ti
calpi l
lar
Itai
mst or eal
iseademocr ati
cpoliti
calsystem foundedoni ssue-basedpolit
icsthat
respectstheruleoflaw,andprotectsther i
ghtsandf reedomsofev er
yindivi
dualin
Keny ansociet
y .Besi
desbeingissue-based,thepi l
l
arispeople-center
ed,result
-or
ient
ed
andaccount abletothepubli
c.Ani ssue-basedsy stem i
sonei nwhichpoliti
cal
diff
erencesareaboutmeanst omeett hewi destpublicint
erest.

“People-
cent
ered”goalsrefertothesystem’
sresponsi
venesstotheneedsandri
ghtsof
cit
izens,
whosepar ti
cipat
ioninallpubl
icpol
i
ciesandresourceal
l
ocati
onprocessesi
s
bothfull
yappreci
atedandf aci
li
tated.

Aresult
-ori
entedsy st
em isstabl
e,predi
ctableandwhoseper f
ormanceisbasedon
measurableoutcomes.Anaccount ablesystem isonethatisopenandt ransparentand
onethatper mit
sfreeflowofinfor
mat i
on.Itshouldbeasy stem inwhichtheleadersare
accountabletocit
izens.Suchav i
sionwil
lguaranteeKenya’sattainmentofthespecifi
c
goalsoutl
inedunderVi si
on2030’seconomi candsocialpi
llars.

Theeconomi c,
socialandpol i
ti
calpi
ll
arsofKeny aVision2030ar eanchoredon
macr oeconomi
cstabili
ty;conti
nui
tyingov ernancereforms;enhancedequi t
yandwealt
h
creati
onopport
unit
iesf orthepoor;i
nfrast
ructure;energy;
science,technol
ogyand
i
nnov ati
on(STI
);l
andr eform;humanr esourcesdev el
opment ;secur
ityaswellaspubl
i
c
sectorrefor
ms.

Thei
mpl
ement
ationofKeny
aVision2030wasr
oll
edoutcov
eri
ngsuccessi
vef
ive-
year
Medi
um-
Ter
m Planswit
hthefi
rstbei
ngbet
ween2008and2012.

Transnational(
Mul ti
nat i
onal
)Cor porations
At r
ansnat i
onalcorpor ati
onisonet hatoper atesi
nmanydi f
fer
entcountr
iesregardless
ofnationalboundaries.Thehead- quar tersandmainfactor
yareusuall
ylocat
edi nan
economi call
ymor edev el
opedcount r
y .
Transnational
s,witht heircapi
talandt echnology,
hav
et hepowertochoosewhatt hey
considertobeideal locat i
onsforthei
rf actori
es.

Adv
ant
agesofTr ansnat i
onal(Multi
national )Cor porati
ons
1.Bringswor ktot hecount ryandusesl ocal l
abour
2.Local workforcer eceiv
esaguar ant eedi ncome
3.Impr ovesthelev elofeducationandt echnicalskil
lsofthelocalpeopl
e
4.Bringsinwar dinv estmentandf oreigncur rencytothecount r
y
5.Compani espr ov i
deexpensi vemachi ner yandi nt
roducemoder ntechnol
ogy
6.Per sonali
ncomecanl eadtoi ncreaseddemandf orconsumergoodsandt he
growt hofnewi ndustri
esandser vices
7.Leadst odev elopmentofmi neral weal thandnewener gyresources
 8.I
mpr ov
ementinr
oads,ai
rpor
tsandser
vices
9.Widenseconomi
cbaseofacountry

Di
sadv
antagesofTr ansnationalCor porations
1.Thenumber sempl oy edar esmal lcompar edwi t
ht heamountofinvestment.
2.Locallabourf orceusuallypoor l
ypai dandhav et owor klonghour
s.
3.Veryfewl ocal ski
ll
edwor kersempl oyed.
4.Mostoft hepr ofit
sgoov erseasi .
e.,outf
lowofweal t
h
5.Mechani zationr educessi zeoft helabourf orce.
6.GNPgr owsl essqui cklythant hatofpar entcompany ’
sheadquart
ers,wideni
ng
thegapbet weendev elopedanddev el
opingcount ri
es.
7.Decisi
onsar emadeout sidethecount r
yandt hefirm couldpul
loutanyti
me.
8.Insuff
icientat t
enti
ont osaf etyandheal t
hf actorsandt hepr ot
ecti
onoft he
envir
onment

Decent r
alizati
on
Rodinell
i( 1981)def i
nesdecent rali
zati
onast r
ansferringr esponsibil
i
tyf orplanning,
managementandr esourcer ai
singf rom acentr
algov ernmentt of i
elduni t
sofcent ral
governmentmi nistr
iesoragencies.
Sil
verman( 1992)def i
nesdecent rali
zati
onast hetr
ansf erofr esponsibi
li
tyforplanning,
managementandt her ai
singandal locat
ionofresourcesf r
om thecent ralgovernment
anditsagenci est of i
eldunitsoft hegov er
nmentagenci es,subordi
nateuni t
sorl evel
s
ofgov ernment ,semi-autonomouspubl i
cauthori
ti
esorcor porati
ons,regionalarea-
wide
orfunctionalaut hor
iti
es.

Theabovedefi
nit
ionshaveincommont hetransf
erofresponsi
bil
i
tyfrom t
hecentr
al
gover
nmenttotheper i
phery
.Theyhowev er,lackthegoalofimpr ov
ingdemocrat
ic
gover
nanceandfaci
li
tat
ingci
ti
zenpar
ti
cipati
on.

Decent ral
i
zationisabr oadterm.Itencompassesaspect sof;admi nist
rati
on,pol i
ti
cs,
fi
scal,andeconomi c.Decentrali
zati
oni sexpectedtopr omoteci vicempower ment,
reduce cor r
upt i
on,enhance ef fi
ciency and improv
e public ser vi
ce del i
very.Iti s
advocat ed as an alternat
ive str
ategyt o addr
ess the administrati
vei neffi
cienci
es,
corrupti
on and mi suse ofpubl i
cr esources t
hathav e char acteri
zed cent ral
iz
ed
government s.I tisseenasani ntegralpartofdemocr acyandgoodgov ernance-
bri
nginggov ernmentclosertot hepeople,andenhancingparticipationingov ernment
decisionsthataf f
ectthem.

Typesofdecentral
izat
ion
Admi ni
str
ati
vedecentrali
zation
Admi ni
str
ati
ve decentral
ization is broad and gener
all
y ent
ail
sthe tr
ansfer of
responsi
bil
it
yfr
om thecent ralgovernmenttoalocal
admini
str
ati
onort
otheper
ipher
y.

Polit
icaldecent r
alizati
on
Poli
ticaldecent rali
zati
oni sbr oaderandent ail
sdemocr ati
zati
on.Accor dingt oSmi t
(1996)pol it
icaldecent r
alizati
oni nv
olvestransferofsomepower sfr
om t hecentral
governmentt o elected localgov ernmentpol it
ici
ans.Such pol i
ti
cians ar e gi
ven
autonomyt odet ermineallthei
rlocalprocessesofdev el
opment.Forsuchaut onomyto
beef fect
ive,itisimpor t
antt ohav eitenshri
nedinaconst i
tut
ion.InKeny a,Chapter13
ofthenewconst it
uti
onpr omulgatedinAugust2010addr essesthis.
Proponent
sofpol i
ti
caldecentr
ali
zat
ion assumet hatdeci
sionsmadewit
h gr
eat
er
part
ici
pati
onarebett
erinf
ormedandgi veci t
izensmoreinf
luencei
nthef
ormul
ati
on
andimplement
ati
onofpoli
ciesaff
ecti
ngthem.

Fiscaldecent rali
zat ion
Fiscaldecent ralizationent ail
sf iscalr esponsibil
i
tyf orl ocalgov ernment stoper f
or m
theirf unctionsef fect i
v el
y.Theymustr aiseadequat er evenueandhav et heauthorityto
makei ndependentexpendi turedeci sions.Fi scaldecent ral
izati
oni nvolvesfourpol i
cies
toi ncreasef iscal autonomyofl ocal gov ernments:
(i
)Expendi ture assi gnmentcl earlydel i
neati
ng t he cent r
algov er
nment ’s and local
gov ernment ’
sr esponsi bi
li
ti
esf orpr ov idingandpay ingf orspecif i
cser v
icestoci t
izens;
(i
i)Rev enueassi gnmentdemar cati
ngt axablerev enuesour cesaswel last ax-r
aising
power sbet ween t hecent ralgov er nmentand t hel ocalgov ernment sand possi bly
creat i
ngasub- nat i
onalt axtost rengt hent hefiscalbaseofl ocalgov ernmentsandgi ve
them aut horityt odeci dehowt ospendt heirr
evenue;
(i
ii)I ntergov ernment alpol i
cy enabl ing a cent r
algov ernmentt ot ransferf i
nanci al
resour cesi nt hef orm ofgr antst olocal gov er
nment s;and
(i
v )Regul atorypol i
cyt omoni torandsetl imit
sonl ocal finances.

Decent ralizationPol icies

Fourdecent r
al i
zat i
onpol icieshav ebeeni dent if
ied,i .
e.,dev olut i
on,deconcent rati
on,
delegation( topar ast
at als)andpr i
vati
zat ion.
Deconcent ration
Indeconcent ration,t hel ocaladmi ni
st r
at ioni susual l
yheadedbyacent rall
yappoi nted
offi
cialwhoi saccount ablet ot hecent ralgov er nment .Insuchasy stem,mostoft he
powerst illremai nswi tht hecent ralgov ernment .Thel ocalof ficialshav enodeci sion
maki ngpower .Theout comeofdeconcent r
at i
oni st o cent ralizepowerwi thint he
cent r
algov ernment ,wher elocal offi
cialshav esomemi nordeci sionmaki ngpower .
Delegat i
on
Indel egat ion,t hecent ralgov ernmentassi gnst opar ast atalsandot hersubnat i
onal
gov ernment s,and semi aut onomous gov ernmentagenci es t he r esponsi bil
ities and
functionsoft hecent ralgov er nment .Decent ralizationbydel egat ioni smost lyident if
ied
withuni taryf or msofgov ernment .Iti sa“ topdown”pr ocessbywhi cht hest ategi ves
subnat i
onalgov ernment st hepowert oper formf unctionsandt or aiser esour ces,but
witht heunder st andingt hatt hecent ralgov ernmentcanr evokesuchpower .Thusi n
suchasy stem, mostoft hepowerst il
l remai nswi tht hecent ral gov ernment .
Dev oluti
on
Dev olut
ionmeansal egal grant ingofpower sf rom cent r
al gov ernmentt ol owerl ev elsof
gov ernmentsuchascount iespr ov i
nci al,di st ri
ctormuni cipalt iers.Dev olutioncan
betterbedescr ibed asa“ bottom up”appr oacht o decent ralizat i
on.I ndev oluti
on,
subnat i
onalgov ernment shav eamor el egalbacki ng,suchasconst i
tutionalr ight,to
gov ernthei rownaf fairs.Theyhav edi scr etionar yaut horit
yt or aiset axesandf ormul ate
theirexpendi turebudget swi thlittl
eornomeddl ingf rom thecent ral gover nment .

TheCDFasaf orm ofdevol

utionhasf acedchall
engesasexecutiv
esdon’tadheretothe
objecti
vesandpolicygui
deli
nesofi tsestabl
i
shmentandut i
l
izat
ion.Theyignorepri
ori
ty
project
s;appoi
nttheirf
ri
ends,relati
vesandhenchment orunitl
eadingtotheft
,loot
ing
andwhi teel
ephantproj
ectsandf raud.TheCDFBoar dist
hegov ernmentagencythat
admi ni
ster
sthefundsay st
hei ssuesconcerningCDFincl
udeaccidentsi
nv ol
vi
ngCDF
vehi
cles,casesofsuspectedfr
aud,unfai
rdist
ribut
ionoff
undsacrossconst
it
uenci
es
contr
actorsnotbeingpaid,i
ncomplet
eprojects,mis-
appr
opr
iat
ionoffundsand
arr
angesov erwhoshouldsitonthelocalcommi tt
ees.

Devol
vedresourcesrequi
reinclusi
veandconsultat
ivemanagementthatrecogni
zesthe
pri
ori
ti
esofresident
s.Devol
v edcounti
eshavethepot ent
ial
toopenupnew
opport
uni
ti
esf oreconomicdevelopmentandstirupnewgr owt
hcenters.Gov er
nor
s
shoul
dworkincl oseconsul
tati
onwi t
hthenati
onal Gover
nment.

Privatization
Privatizati
on involvesshi ft
ing funct i
onst hathad been pr imaril
yorexcl usiv
elyt he
responsi bili
tyofgov ernmentt obeper f
ormedbyt hepr iv
atesect orandot hernon-
gover nment alorganizat i
ons.Pr i
v at
izat i
onr educesthesizeofgov ernment,
resulti
ngina
smal lergov ernmentt hatismor eef ficientandmor eresponsivetoclient
s.Pr i
vati
zing
gover nmentoper atedent erpr
isesbysel l
i
ngt hem tot hepr i
vatesectorraisesmuch
needed r evenue fort he gover nment ,and al so f
rees the governmentf rom future
oper ationalexpensesoft heent erprises.

Challenge
Resour ce avail
abi
l
ity-Thi
s a maj orchall
enge as resources are scar
ce and local
Authoriti
es havelimit
ed localtaxing power
sf rom whi ch tof i
nance the ser
vices
assignedt othem.Thus,atop-bot
tom fi
nanci
alt
ransferwil
l cont
inue.

Source
Kauzya,John-Mar y(2003),“Str
engt heningLocal GovernanceCapaci tyf orParti
cipati
on”
i
nDenni s.A.Rondi nel
li
andShabbi rCheema: Reinventi
ngGov ernmentf ortheTwent y -
Fi
rstCent ur
y:StatecapacityinaGl obal i
zi
ngSoci ety,Kumar i
anPr ess,Inc,Bloomf i
eld,
CT,USA.
Kauzya,John-Mar y(2007).Poli
tical Decentr
alizati
oninAfri
ca: ExperiencesofUganda,
Rwanda, andSout hAfri
ca, aDiscussi onPaper ,NewYor k.
ThomasO.J. ,
Rot i
chJ.K., andLeonar dS.M.( 2014).Devoluti
onandGov ernance
Confli
ctsinAfri
ca: KenyanScenar io.PublicPol i
cyandAdmi ni
strati
onResear ch.Vol.4,
No.6.ISSN2224- 5731(Paper )I
SSN2225- 0972( Onli
ne)

LESSON7:GROWTHPOLEANDGROWTHCENTRESTRATEGI
ES

Appl i
cat i
on
Growt h pol e and gr owth cent re st rategies ent ai
l
st he pr omot i
on of r egi
onal
developmentcent rest oser veasf ocalpoi ntandi ncent i
vef orfurtherdevelopment .A
growt hpol ereferstoanynodet hatcanbr i
ngaboutdev elopmentt othesurrounding
region.Suchanodecanbeani ndustry.
Thegr owthcent restrategyisbasedont heconceptofgr owthpol e.Itseekstor educe
regionalinequalitybysel ecti
ngst rategicallylocatedset tl
ementt ost i
mulategrowt hof
thesur roundingar eas.Count riesimplement i
nggr owthpol epl anninghav edonesot o
eit
herl imitconcentrati
on, spreadgr owtht ol aggi
ngr egionsoracombi nati
onofbot h.
Since1950’ s,theconceptofgr owthpol ehav ebeendev el
opedandappl i
edinFr ancein
Europe,Tanzani ai nhersecondf i
v eyeardev elopmentpl an,1969- 1974,Kenyai nher
1970- 1974dev elopmentpl anandGhana’ s1977- 1981y eardev elopmentpl annot esthe
undue concent rati
on ofbasi ci nfrastructuraland soci alser v i
ces in Accra-Tema,
Sekondi-TakoradiandKumasi . Ot hercount ri
esinwhi chgr owthpolesandgr owth
centrestrategywerepursuedincludet heGambi aandAl ger
ia.
Str
engt hs
Growt h poles and gr
owt h centres hav erelevance as an operat
ionalstr
ategyfor
developing countr
ies i
fpl anned sy stematical
lyand gear ed t
owards the f
oll
owing
objecti
ves:-
 f osteri
ngint
ernalspati
alintegrationandlesseni
ngext er
naldependency
 prov
idi
nganor ganicl
inkbet
weent
hestr
uctur
eofpr
oddi
ngandt
heneedsofthe
soci
ety
;thatisbridgi
ngthegapbet
weenthepat
ter
nofdomest
icr
esourceuse
anddomesticdemand
 prov
idi
ngaproducti
onstruct
urewhichisbothcapabl
eoft
ransmi
tt
inggr
owt
h
fr
om themodernsectortot henon-moder
nsectorandal
l
ocati
nginamore
equi
tabl
emannertheavai
l
ableresour
ces
 str
engt
heni
ngt
hei
nter
sect
ionalandspat
iall
i
nkagesoft
her
egi
onalornat
ional
economy
 i
nduci
ngmulti
pli
ereffect
swhi
chi
nit
iat
egr
owt
hfort
hesect
orpr
oduci
ngf
orl
ocal
anddomest
icmar ket
s
 establ
ishingnew pat
ter
nsf ordif
fusi
onofinf
ormat
ionandi
nnov
ati
on,t
hati
s
functi
oningassoci
ali
nteract
ionpoint
sand
 rei
nfor
cingthelocalservi
cesect
orandthegener
ati
onofexter
naleconomi
es
andtherebymakingtheenti
rer
egi
onal
economymoreconduci
vet
ogrowth
Li
mit
ations
a.Therei saprobl
em ofselect
ingcent
res.InmanyAf
ri
cancount
ri
es,t
hispr
ocess
hasalwaysbeenint
erf
eredwithbypoli
ti
cians.

b.Est
abl
i
shi
ngamar
ketar
eaofeachset
tl
ementl
eadst
oanov
erl
ap.

c.Lackofcapi
tal
fori
nvest
ment
s,t
husnotbei
ngi
mpl
ement
ed

d.Lackofcommuni
typar
ti
cipat
ion(
iti
sat
op–bot
tom appr
oach)

e.I
nequal
i
tyi
nthedi
str
ibut
ionofnat
ural
resour
ces

f
. Lackofspr
eadef
fect
s

g.I
tdoesnotencour
agenat
ional
int
egr
ati
on

LESSON8.Soci
alandcul
tur
aldi
mensi
onsofdev
elopment

Thebasi
cneedsappr
oach

Asalr
eadydiscussedi
nlesson1,thebasicneedsapproachf
ocusont
hecor
eval
uesof
dev
elopmenti.e.
,l
if
esustenance,
sel
festeem,freedom.

Ther
oleofcommuni
typar
ti
cipat
ioni
nit
iat
ives
Ethnodev elopment
Definit
ion
Thet erm“ ethnodevel
opment”referst
odev el
opmentpoli
ciesandprocessesthatar
e
sensiti
vet otheneedsofethnicmi nor
it
iesandindi
genouspeoplesand,wherepossibl
e,
controll
edbyt hem (
Davi
s2002) .

Ethnodevelopmenti sapolicyest abli

shedinresponset oet hnocide,whereindigenous
cult
uresandway sofli
fearebei nglostduetol arge-scaledev elopmentandexpl oi
tati
on
i
ncer t
aindev elopingcountri
esar oundt hewor l
d.Thi slarge-scaledevelopmentcoul d
i
ncludeur bandev elopmentinr uralcommuni ti
esandexpl oitati
onofnat uralr
esour ces
i
ncludingbui l
dingdams, mines, orclear
-cutt
ingf orests.Typicallysel
f-
led
ethnodevelopmenti sfavoured, wheretheindigenouspeopl esar einv
olvedincr eati
nga
planfortheirfuturedevel
opmentandor gani
zat i
onofcommuni ti
esinawayt hatf oll
ows
thei
rtradi
tionbel i
efsandcust oms.

WhyEt
hnodev
elopment
?

1.Outsi
deint
erv
ent
iononi
ndi
genousmi
nor
it
iescanhav
edev
ast
ati
ngef
fect
s.The
ef
fectsi
ncl
ude:

a.thegrowt hofthemor edomi nantsocietyandencroachmentonthet r

adi
ti
onal
l
andsandsubsequentdi splacementofpeopl esfr
om resourcer
ichlandt
ot he
peri
pheries
b.thedestructi
onofnor malmeansofl i
v el
i
hoodandi nt
eracti
onswit
hhabit
at
c.anincreaseintradedebtsandadecl ineinsel
f-
governanceduetonewpol i
ti
cal
,
l
egalandeducat ionalsy
stems
d.thedeterior
ati
onoft r
aditi
onal r
eli
giousandcultur
al v
alues.

2.Ethnodevelopmentispr oposedt oendt heincreasingv ulner

abilit
yofmi nori
ty
groupsandpr oduceadegr eeofeconomic, soci
al,andpol it
icalequali
ty.Oneof
thefi
rststepsinovercomi ngthesetrendsist oreverset henotionsabout
dominantWest erndev el
opment almodelsandr ecogni zethev ari
abil
i
tyin
tradi
ti
onalcult
ures,practicesandv aluesthesepopul ationshav e.Theemer gence
ofneoli
berali
sm indev elopingcountriesi
nst i
gatedar eductionofsubsidies,and
fi
scalcutbacksthatmosti ndigenousandr urall
iveli
hoodswer ebasedon.

Act
ivi
tyf
orst
udent
s:Rev
iewt
hej
our
nalar
ti
clebyCher
nel
a,J.M.(
2011)

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Ethno-
devel
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hnoci
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nAf
ri
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ext
ract
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(
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Hogue, Emily;
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,
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Tal
all
a,Rohini(
1September1984)
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hnodevel
opmentandt heOrangAsliofMal
aysi
a:
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auSettl
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-Senoi
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ipode.16(2)
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:
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ri
eved4Nov
ember2012.

Laurie,Ni
na;Andoli
na,Robert;
Radcli
ff
e,Sarah( 1June2005) ."
Ethnodevel
opment:
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Creati
ngExpertsandPr ofessi
onali
singIndi
genousKnowl edgein
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.Anti
pode.37(3):470–496.doi
:10.1111/j
.0066-4812.
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eved
4Nov ember2012.

Andol i
na,Robert
;Radcli
ffe,Sarah;
Laur
ie,
Nina(August2005)."
Devel
opmentand
cul
ture:Transnat
ionali
dentit
ymaki ngi
nBoli
vi
a".Pol
it
icalGeogr
aphy.24(
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doi
:10.1016/j.
pol
geo.2005.03.001.

Chernela,
JanetM.( 2011)."
IndigenousRight
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I
ndigenousOr gani
zati
oni nt
heRi oNegr oofBrazi
l"Ti
, pi
tí
:JournaloftheSociet
yfort
he
Anthropol
ogyofLowl andSout hAmer i
ca:Vol.9:I
ss.2,Arti
cle5.
ht
tp://di
git
alcommons. t
ri
nit
y.edu/ti
pit
i/
vol9/
iss2/5

Genderanddev
elopment(
GAD)

TheGenderandDev elopment(GAD)approachf ocusesonthesociall

yconstr
ucted
dif
ferencesbetweenmenandwomenandt heneedt ochall
engeexisti
nggenderrol
es
andr el
ati
ons.Thisapproachwasmaj or
lyinfl
uencedbyt hewrit
ingsofacademic
scholarssuchasOakl ey(1972)andRubi
n( 1975) ,
whoemphasi zethesoci
al
rel
ationshipbetweenmenandwomen.Theser elati
onshi
ps,t
heyargue,have
systematical
lysubordi
natedwomen.

GAD depar t
s f r
om Women i n Devel
opment WI D, whi ch di scussed women' s
subordinat
ionandl ackofincl
usi
onindi
scussionsofi nternati
onaldev el
opmentwithout
exami ni
ng broadersy st
emsofgenderr el
ations.TheWI D approach wast hef i
rst
contemporarymov ement( int
he1970s)tospeci f
icall
yintegratewomeni nthebroader
developmentagendaandact edasthepr ecursort ol atermov ement ssuchast he
Women and Dev elopment( WAD)
,and ul ti
mat ely
,t he Genderand Dev el
opment
approach,departi
ngf r
om someofthecri
ti
cizedaspect simput edtotheWI D.

GADchal lengedt heWI Df ocusonwomenasani mpor tant‘t

argetgr oup’and‘unt
apped
resour ces’fordev elopment.GADmar kedashi f
tinthi
nkingaboutt heneedt o
under standhowwomenandmenar esoci al
lyconstr
uctedandhow‘ those
constr ucti
onsar epower f
ull
yreinf
orcedbyt hesocialactiv
iti
est hatbothdefineandare
definedbyt hem.’GADf ocusesprimaril
yont hegendereddi vi
sionofl aborandgender
asar el at
ionofpowerembeddedi ninsti
tuti
ons.Consequent l
y,twomaj orfr
ameworks
‘
Genderr oles’and‘ soci
al r
elat
ionsanalysis’ar
eusedi nthisappr oach.

'
Genderr ol
es' focusesont hesoci
alconstructi
onofidenti
ti
eswi thi
nthehousehold;it
alsoreveal
st heexpectati
onsf r
om ‘malenessandf emaleness’inthei
rrel
ati
veaccess
toresources.'Socialr
elat
ionsanaly
sis'exposesthesocialdimensionsofhier
archical
powerr el
ati
onsembeddedi nsoci
alinsti
tuti
ons,aswellasitsdetermi
ninginf
luenceon
‘
therelati
veposi ti
onofmenandwomeni nsociety
.’Thi
srelati
veposit
ioni
ngtendst o
discr
iminateagai nstwomen.

GADappr oachisconcer
nedwitht
hewayi
nwhichasoci
etyassi
gnsr
oles,
responsi
bil
it
iesandexpect
ati
onst
obothwomenandmen.GADappli
esgenderanal
ysi
s
touncov ertheway sinwhi chmenandwomenwor ktogether,presenti
ngresul tsin
neutraltermsofeconomi csandef f
iciency.I
nanat temptt ocreategenderequal ity,
(denoti
ngwomenhav i
ngsameoppor tunit
iesasmen, i
ncludingabili
tytoparticipatein
thepublicspher e; GADpol i
ci esaimst oredefi
net r
aditi
onal genderroleexpect ations.
Womenar eexpect edtofulf i
llhouseholdmanagementt asks,homebasedpr oduct ion
aswel lasbearingandr aisingchi l
drenandcar ingf orfami l
ymember s.Therol eofa
wifeislargelyi
nt erpret
edas' theresponsibil
it
iesofmot herhood' Menhowev er,ar e
expectedt obebr eadwinner swhom ar eassociatedwi thpaidwor k,andmar ket
production.Inthel abormar ket,woment endt oear nlesst hanmen.Fori nstance, '
a
studybyt heEqual i
tyandHumanRi ght sCommi ssionfoundmassi vepayinequi tiesin
someUni tedKingdom’ st opf inancecompani es, womenr eceivedaround80per cent
l
essper formance- r
elat
edpayt hantheirmalecol l
eagues.

Cr
it
ici
sms

1.GADemphasi zesthesoci al di
fferencesbet weenmenandwomenwhi l
e
neglect
ingthebondsbet weent hem andal sothepot enti
alforchangesinrol
es.
2.GADdoesnotdi gdeepl yenoughi ntosoci al r
elat
ionsandsomaynotexpl ain
howt heserelationscanunder mi nepr ogramsdi r
ectedatwomen.I tal
sodoes
notuncovert het ypesoft rade-offsthatwomenar epreparedtomakef ort
he
sakeofachi ev i
ngt heirideal sofmar riageormot herhood.
3.GAD’ sperspect i
vei st heor eti
call
ydi sti
nctf r
om WI D,buti npract
ice,aprogram
seem tohav et heel ementoft het wo.Whi l
stmanydev elopmentagenciesare
now commi tted to a genderappr oach,i n practi
ce,thepr imaryinsti
tut
ional
perspecti
ver emai nfocusedonaWI Dappr oach.

LESSON9.Env
ironmentanddev
elopment

Theconceptofsust
ainabl
edev
elopment

Defi
niti
on
Sustai
nabl edev el
opmenti st hedev elopmentt hatmeet st heneedsoft hepr esent
generati
onswi thoutcompr omi si
ngt heabi lityoft hefuturegener ationst omeett heir
ownneeds.
Agenda21
Themai nagendaatt he1992Ri oEar thSummi twassust ainabledev elopmentt hat
encompassesv ariedgl obalenv i
ronment alconcer n.Itcameupwi thAgenda21whi ch
addressedsust ainabledev elopmentatbot hl ocalandi nternat i
onall evels.Itwasa
bl
ueprintf orsust ainable dev elopmentt hatencompassed pov ertyer adicati
on and
envi
ronment alpr otection.I temphasi zed t heneed f orpol icymaker st o enli
stt he
i
nterestandpar ti
cipationofl ocal peopl er athert hanimposi ngdeci sionsupont hem.
Whatar etheessent ialrequirement sf orsust ai
nabledev el
opment ?
 Pol it
icalsy stemst hatsecur esef fect i
v eciti
zenpar t
icipationindeci sionmaki ng.
Italsopr ovidesf orenv ir
onment ali nterventi
onsi nal lpol i
ti
cal,economi cand
social pr
ocesses.
 Economi csy stem t hatpr ov idessol ut i
onst osocio-pol i
ti
calt ensionsshoul dbe
puti n pl ace.Al so one t hati s abl et o preventorr ever se haphazar d or
disharmoni ousdev elopment .
 Env i
ronment al consi derations - env ir
onment ali ssues must be put i nt o
 considerati
ons i n pol icy f ormul ations.The concer ns her einclude polluti
on
problems caused by hi gh popul at i
on gr owthr ates,r uralur ban mi gr
ation,
problemsofur banization, soiler osion,fr
equentf amine, droughtetc.
 Equity-as weal thi s cr eat ed itshoul d also be f air
lydi st
ri
but ed bet
ween
developed and dev eloping nat i
ons,wi thi
n nat i
ons/ regions and bet ween
generations.
 Uplift
ingsoci o-economi cst atus-peopl e’
sheal th,l
ev elofeducat ion,equal
ityof
wor ketc.shoul dbeaddr essed.
 Satisfyi
ngbasi chumanneeds-t hepoor estandt hemostneedyi nthesoci ety
shouldbet akencar eof .
 Citi
zen par t
icipati
on -ci tizensshoul d parti
cipatein pr ojectformul at
ion and
i
mpl ement ati
oni nt heirlocal i
ties.
 Selfreli
ance-t hei ndivi
dual sandnat ionsshoul dbesel frel
iant

Goalsofsust ai
nabl edev elopment
All
eviatepov ertyandupl i
fttheov erallwel lbeingofthepopul ati
on.People’smi nimum
requir
ement soff ood, adequat eshelter,clothing,
freshwater,education,
socialservices,
sanit
ation,medi cal facili
ti
esandt ranspor t
ationmustbeaddr essed.
Economi cdi mensi on-i tinv ol
vesincr easedsuppor tforlocall
ybasedent er
prisesand
developmentpr ocesses t hatpr otect st he society ofany det r
imentalf orces of
i
nternationalmar kets.
Socialdimensi on-i tinv ol
v esgreatert olerancefordiver
sit
yandr espectforindigenous
cult
uralv al
ues.
Envir
onment aldimensi on-t heenvir
onmentandt hespecieswi thi
nitmustbev alued.

Techno-
cent
ri
candeco-
cent
ri
c

Technocent ri
cmeansv al
uescentredont echnol ogy.Technocent ri
cshav eabsolute
fai
thi nt
echnologyandindustryandfir
mlybel ievet hathumanshav econt r
ol overnat
ure.
Althoughtechnocentr
icsmayacceptt hatenv ir
onment alproblemsdoexi st,theydonot
seet hem asproblemstobesol vedbyar educt i
oni nindust r
y.Rather ,
env i
ronment al
problemsar eseenaspr obl
emst obesolv edusi ngsci ence.Indeed,technocent ri
cssee
thatthewayf orwardfordevel
opedanddev elopingcount r
iesandt hesol uti
onst oour
env i
ronmentalprobl
emst odayli
einscientif
icandt echnologicaladv ancement .

Ecocent
ricimpl i
esanat ure-centeredsy st
em ofvalues.Ecocentri
csseet hemselvesas
bei
ngsubjectt onature,rat
hert hani ncontr
olofit
.Theyl ackfai
thinmoder ntechnol
ogy
andthebur eaucracyattachedt oi t
.Ecocentri
cswillarguethatthenaturalworl
dshould
berespectedf orit
spr ocessesandpr oducts,andthatlowi mpacttechnologyandself
-
rel
i
anceismor edesir
abl ethant echnologi
calcontr
ol ofnatur
e.

Povert
yandenv i
ronmentalconservati
on
I
ntr
oduction
Povert
yisoneoft hemostpressi
ngpr obl
emscurrentl
yfaci
ngnati
ons.Itiscurr
ent
ly,
j
ustasithasbeenf ort
hepast15y earsaconcernfornati
ons.I
tsal
lev
iationhasbeen
oneofthefocusesofasetofinter
nat i
onalt
arget
sasdemonst r
atedbyt heended
Mil
lenni
um DevelopmentGoalsandt hecurr
entSDGs.

Whati
spov
ert
y ?
Pov
ert
yis a condi
ti
on ofan i
ndi
vi
dual
’
s orf
ami
l
y’sl
i
vet
hati
s consi
der
ed not
sati
sfactor
y( Dudley
,1972).Thi
sisjudgedfrom t
hepointofv i
ewwheni mportantneeds
forsuchasi ndivi
dualorfamil
yarenotmet .Aproblem ari
sesindefi
ningpovertyi
nthat
whatshouldbeconsi der
edt ocountasinadequatesocialfunct
ioni
ng.Thi
spr obl
em is
cult
ural.

Townsend(1979)notest hatindivi
duals,famil
iesandgroupsint hepopulati
oncanbe
sai
dtobei npover
tywhent heylackther esourcestoobt
ainthet y
peofdiet,par
ti
cipat
e
i
ntheactiv
iti
esandhav ethel i
vi
ngcondi tionsandameniti
eswhi char
ecust omary,
orat
l
eastwidel
yencouraged,orappr oved,i
nt hesocieti
estowhichtheybel
ong.

Accordi
ngt otheWor l
dBank( 2000),povert
yisal ackofpowert ocommandr esources
aswellasamul t
idi
mensionalphenomenon.Themul ti
dimensionalnatureofpov er
tyare
ref
lect
edint hatpovert
yisr el
atedtoawi derangeoff actor
si ncl
uding;income,health,
educati
on,access t o goods,geographicallocati
on,gender ,famil
y circumstances
amongot hers.Thus,f
actorscutti
ngacrosseconomi c,soci
al,
cul t
ureandpol i
ti
cs.

Peoplel
ivi
nginpovertyareseldom t hepr i
nci
palcreat
orsofenv ir
onment al
damage.Theyhowev er,
oft
enbearthebruntofenv i
ronment al damageandar eoftencaughti nadownwar dspir
al.Thatis,
thepoorarefor
cedt odeplet
er esour cestosurvi
ve,andthisdegradationoftheenvi
ronmentf ur
ther
i
mpov er
ishespeople.Whent hi
ssel fr ei
nfor
cingdownwar dspiralbecomesex t
reme,peopleare
for
cedtomov einincreasi
ngnumber stomar gi
nalandecological
lyfragi
lel
andsortociti
es.

Regardl
essofit
scauses, povertyi
softenconcent ratedinenvi
ronmental
lyf
ragi
leecol ogicalzones,
wherecommuni t
iesfaceand/ orcontr
ibut
et odifferentki
ndsofenvir
onmentaldegradat i
on.
Consequent
ly,f
ourformsofpov ert
ybasedonl anduseandenv ir
onmentareevidentint heregion.
Theseare:
1. Povert
yoccurri
ngi nareascharacter
izedbyact i
veandproducti
veagri
cult
ural l
and.Insuch
regi
ons,theeff
ici
entandequi t
ableutil
izationoflandbythepoorishamper edbyl owl evel
s
ofaccesstoland,resourcesorjobs.Mai nly,t
hesmallhol
derfar
merandl andlesswor kers
arethemostaf f
ected.

2. Povert
yoccurr
inginareasofmar ginal lands( deserts,
uplands,andalr
eadydegraded
l
owlands)wit
hf ewoppor tuni
ti
esf ori ncreasingagr i
cult
uralproduct
ivi
tyorf
oreconomic
di
versi
fi
cati
on.Suchareasar egener all
yv erylowi nproductiv
ity
,andprobl
emsar e
compoundedbyunsust ainableagricul t
uralpr act
ices.Approximatel
y60percentofthepoor
i
ntheregionareesti
mat edt obelivingont hesemar gi
nallands.

3. Peopleinhabi
ti
ngcoastalar
easwit
hinadequat
eordepletedmarineresour
ces.Peopleare
att
ractedtosuchareasduetoeconomicdevel
opment
, but,i
nmanycases, thepaceofthi
s
devel
opmentdestroysordeplet
esthever
yresour
cesthatarefuell
i
ngitsgrowth.

4. Thepoorinhabi
tant
sofur bansl
umsandsquat tersett
lement
s,wher
ether
eisaconst
ant
exposur
etopoorsanit
aryandenv
ironment
alcondit
ions.

CausesandConsequencesofPov
ert
y

1.CausesofPov erty
Causesofpov ert
ycanbedi videdbr oadlyi
ntoi
nternal(l
ocal)andexternal(
global)causes.
(a)Int
ernal Causes
Therearemanyi nter
nal,orl
ocal,causesofpov er
tyinar egion.Forexample,alackofessential
assets;l
ivinginaremot eorar esource-poorar
ea;vulnerabil
it
yonaccountofage, gender
,healt
h,
l
ivingenv i
ronmentoroccupat ion;anddiscri
minati
onagai nstanethni
cmi nori
tyoracommuni ty
consideredsociall
yinfer
ior.
(b)ExternalCauses
Themaj orexternal (orglobal)f
actor sfacingdev el
opi ngcount r
iesint hei
reffortstoalleviat
epover
ty
arethoseassoci atedwi t
hthev agariesoft heglobal economi csy stem,asyst em overwhi ch
i
ndividualcountrieshav elit
tl
econt rol.Thewor l
dhas, inrecentdecades, becomei ncreasingl
y
i
nterdependentwi ththeemer genceofagl obaleconomy ;fordev elopingcount r
ies,accesst o
fi
nancialresourcesi sdependentuponacount r
y ’
spar tici
pationi nthisint
ernat i
onaleconomy .
Moreov er,gl
obalizationhasgener allybeenaccompani edbychangesofpol i
ciesandpr acti
ces
wherebyt hedev elopedcount ri
esdi ctatethetermst hr oughwhi cht hedevel
opi ngcount ri
es
part
icipateinthei nternati
onalsystem ( Unit
edNat ions1995) .

Consequences
Themainconsequencei
secol
ogi
cal
det
eri
orat
ion.Theyspeci
fi
cal
l
yconcer
n;
a.Deforest
ati
on

b.Pol
l
uti
ons

c.Gl
obal
war
ming

Sources
1.TheWor ldBank( 2008).Af ri
candev el
opmenti ndicators2007:spreadi
ngand
sustaininggrowthinAf r
ica.TheWor ldBank, WashingtonD.C.
2.Opondo,M.( 1987).Isthest ateofhi ghdev el
opmentofsomecount ri
esacause
ofunder devel
opmentofot hers? JournalofEast ern Af
ri
can Research and
Dev elopment.vol17,97-123
3.Cher u,F.andBr adfor
d,C.( editors)(2005).TheMi ll
ennium Devel
opmentGoal s:
Raisingt her
esourcestot acklewor ldpoverty.London:ZedBookLt d.

LESSON10GLOBI
LIZATI
ONANDDEVELOPMENT

Struct
uralAdjustmentPol i
cies( SAPs)
Struct
uralAdjustmentPol ici
es( SAPs)wereimposedt oensur
edebtrepaymentand
economi crestr
ucturing.Butt hewayi thappenedr equi
redpoorcount
riestoreduce
spendingont hingslikehealth,educati
onanddev elopment,whi
ledebtrepay
mentand
othereconomi cpoliciesweregi venprior
it
y.Ineff
ect,theIMFandWor l
dBankapplied
thefol
lowingstabil
isat i
onpoli
cies:
a.Bal
anceofpay
mentdef
ici
tsr
educt
iont
hroughcur
rencydev
aluat
ion

b.Budgetdef
ici
treduct
iont
hroughhi
ghert
axesandl
owergov
ernmentspendi
ng,
also
knownasausteri
ty
c.Rest ruct
uri
ngf orei
gndebt s
d.Monet ar
ypolicytofinancegovernmentdef
ici
ts(
usual
l
yint
hef
orm ofl
oans
fr
om centralbanks)
e.Eliminati
ngf oodsubsi di
es
f. Raisi
ngthepr iceofpublicser
vices
g.Cut ti
ngwages
h.Decr ementingdomest iccredi
t.

Long-
ter
m adj
ust
mentpol
i
ciesusual
l
yincl
ude:

 l
i
ber al
isat
ionofmarketst
oguar anteeapr
icemechanism
 pr
ivati
zati
on,ordi
vesti
tur
e,ofallorpar
tofstat
e-ownedent
erpr
ises
 cr
eat i
ngnewf i
nanci
ali
nsti
tuti
ons
  i
mpr ovi
nggover
nanceandf i
ght
ingcorrupti
on
 enhanci
ngtheri
ghtsofforei
gni
nvestorsvis-
à-v
isnati
onal
laws
 f
ocusingeconomicoutputondi
rectexportandresour
ceextr
act
ion

 i
ncr
easi
ngt
hest
abi
l
ityofi
nvest
mentt
hroughopeni
ngofdomest
icst
ock
mar
ket
sbysuppl
ement
ingf
orei
gndi
recti
nvest
ment
.

Thei mpact soft hesecondi ti

onsonpoor ercountri
eswer edev ast
ating.Factorssuchas
thef ollowingl edtof urt
hermi seryf orthedev el
opingnationsandkeptt hem dependent
ondev elopednat i
ons:
Poorcount r
iesneededt oexpor tmor einor dertoraiseenoughmoneyt opayof fthei
r
debtsi nat imelymanner .Becauset herewer esomanynat i
onsbeingaskedorf orced
i
ntot hegl obalmar ketplace—bef or etheywer eeconomi cal
lyandsoci al
lyst abl
eand
ready —andt oldt oconcent rat
eonsi mi l
arcashcr opsandcommodi ti
esasot her
s,the
sit
uat ionr esembl edal arge-scalepr icewar .Then,t her esourcesf r
om t hepoor er
regionsbecameev encheaper ,whichf avor
edconsumer sintheWest .
Gov ernment st henneededt oincreaseexpor tsjustt okeept heircurrenciesstable
(whichmaynotbesust ainable,ei
ther)andear nforeignexchangewi thwhi cht ohelp
payof fdebts.
Gov ernment stherefore:
 spentl ess

 r
educedconsumpt
ion

 r
emov
edordecr
easedf
inanci
alr
egul
ati
ons

Therearefourbasi ccomponent st ot hetypicalI

MFst abi
l
izat i
onprogram:
 Abol i
ti
onorl iberal
izati
onoff oreignexchangeandi mpor tcontrols
 Dev al
uat i
onoft heof fi
cial exchanger ate
 Ast ri
ngentdomest i
cant i
-inf l
ati
onpr ogram consi
stingofcont r
olofbankcr edit
tor ai
sei nterestratesandr eserver equir
ementscont r
olofgov ernmentdef i
cit
throughcur bsonspendi ng, includinginareasofsoci alserv
icesforthepoorand
staplef oodsubsi di
esal ongwi thincreasesint axesandi npubl i
c-ent
erpri
se
prices,controlonwagei ncr eases, di
smant l
ingofvariousformsofpr icecontrol
s
andpr omot ingfreermar ket s
 Greaterhospi t
alit
yt of orei gn investmentand a gener alopening up oft he
economyt oi nt
ernational commer ce.

Not e:TheI nter

nationalMonet ar yFundandt heWor l
dBankwer econcei v
edby44
nat i
onsatt heBr et
tonWoodsConf erencei n1944wi t
ht hegoalofcr eatingast able
framewor kf orpost-wargl obaleconomy .TheI MFwasor i
ginall
yenv i
sionedt opr omot e
steadygr owt handf ullemploymentbyof feringunconditi
onall oanst oeconomi esi n
crisisandest abli
shingmechani smst ost abili
zeexchanger atesandf acili
tatecur rency
exchange.Muchoft hatvisi
on,howev er,wasnev erbornout .Instead,pr essuredbyUS
repr esentatives,theIMFt ooktoof f
eringloansbasedonst ri
ctcondi t
ions,latert obe
knownasst r
ucturaladjustmentoraust eri
tymeasur es,dictatedl argelybyt hemost
power fulmembernat ions.Cr i
ti
cschar get hatthesepol i
cieshav edeci mat edsoci al
saf ety net s and wor sened lax l aborand env ir
onment alst andards i n dev eloping
count ries.TheWor l
dBank( TheI nt
ernat i
onalBankf orReconstructionandDev el opment )
wascr eat edt ofundt her ebuil
dingofi nf
rastruct
ureinnat i
onsr av agedbyWor l
dWar
Two.I tsv i
siont oo,howev er,soonchanged.I nt hemi d1950’ s,t heBankt urnedi t
s
attentionawayf r
om Eur opet ot heThi rdWor ld,andbeganf undi ngmassi veindust r
ial
dev el
opmentpr oj
ectsi nLat inAmer ican, Asia,andAf ri
ca.
Althought hei rgoal sar eslight l
ydi ffer ent,theIMFandWor ldBankpol iciescompl ement
eachot her:
Wor ld Bank and I MF adj ust mentpr ograms di ff
eraccor ding t ot he role ofeach
i
nst it
ution.Ingener al,IMFl oancondi ti
onsf ocusonmonet aryandf iscalissues.They
emphasi zepr ogr amst oaddr essi nflati
onandbal anceofpay ment spr oblems,of ten
requiri
ngspeci ficlevelsofcut backsi nt otalgov ernmentspendi ng.Theadj ustment
programsoft heWor ldBankar ewi deri nscope,wi thamor el ong- t
er m devel opment
focus.They hi ghli
ghtmar ketl iber al
ization and publ i
c sect orr eforms,seen as
promot i
nggr owt hthroughexpandi ngexpor t
s,par t
icularl
yofcashcr ops.
Wor ldBankandI MFadj ust mentpr ogr amsr einforceeachot her,e.g.,asr eflectedi n
“cross-condit i
onal i
ty.
”Cr oss- condi tional i
tymeanst hatagov ernmentgener allymust
fi
rstbeappr ov edbyt heI MF,bef orequal if
y i
ngf oranadj ust mentl oanf r
om t heWor l
d
Bank.Thei ragendasal soov erlapi nt hef inancialsect ori
npar t i
cular.Forexampl e,both
wor kt oi mposef i
scalaust er i
tyandt oel iminatesubsi diesf orwor kers.Themar ket-
ori
ent ed per spect iv
e of bot h i nstit
ut i
ons makes t hei r pol i
cy pr escr i
ptions
compl ement ary .

Povert
yReducti
onStr
ategyPapers(PSRPs)replaceSAPs
The IMF i
n 1999 r
eplaced St
ructur
alAdjustmentswi t
h Pover
tyReducti
on Growt
h
Faci
li
ty(PRGP)andPolicyFr
amewor kPaperswi thPovert
yReducti
onStr
ategyPaper
s
(PSRP)asthenewprecondi
ti
onsf orl
oananddebtr el
i
ef.

Source
A.O.Omar i
,S.N.Kabur i,
andT.Sewe( undated)
.Changedi l
emma:acaseof
st
ructuraladjustmentthroughdev ol
uti
oni nKenya.JomoKeny at
taUniversi
tyof
Agri
cultur
eandTechnol ogy,Kisi
i
,Kenya
Chri
stopherM.Ki maru(2014).TheChallengeofImplement
ingDecentr
alizat
ionin
Kenya:AnAnal y
sisoftheTeet hi
ngProblemsRockingtheImplementat
ion.Inter
nati
onal
Rel
ationsandDi pl
omacy ,I
SSN2328-2134Jul y2014,Vol
.2,No.7,417-
424.Nor th
Caroli
naCent ralUniv
ersit
y,Durham,NC, USA

Globali
zationandi tsi mpacts
Thet er
m gl obalizationgainedcur rencyi nt he1980sandembodi edanewconcer nfor
analyzi
ng gl obali ndustri
alcapi talism and i dentifi
cati
on ofwhatseemed t o be
i
ntensifi
edi nterdependenceofdev elopedanddev elopi
ngeconomi es.Acent raltheme
ofglobali
zat i
onst udi esistheawar enessoft hewor l
dasasi ngleplace( globalv i
ll
age).
Iti s ar gued t hat gl obalization embr aces t wo cont radict
ory pr ocesses of
homogeni zation and di ff
erentiation i nt hati tadv ances f ormul ticulturali
sm and
demandsf orcultural plur
ali
sm inuni t
ar ynat ionstates.
Asglobalizationpr ocessadv ancest hef ollowi ngcondi t
ionscoul densur egr eaterequity
i
ni t
.
 Bot hdev eloped anddev el opi ng st atesmusti mplementmut ual l
yr ei
nforci
ng
macr oeconomi candstruct ur alpol icies.
 Ther eshoul dbesi gnif
icanti nv est menti nhumancapi t
al
 Ther oleofi nfrastr
ucturei ndev el
opi ngcount ri
esshoul dbeemphasi zed
 Pol icy maker s i n dev elopi ng count r
ies shoul d act i
vely f acili
tate the
di
ssemi nationandappl icat i
onoft echnol ogicalknowledge
  Thereshoul
dbeaf ost
eri
ngofgoodgover
nanceandpar
ti
cipat
ionoft
hepeopl
e
ofthesoci
eti
esconcer
nedindef
ini
ngt
hefutur
e.

Ef f
ect sofgl obal i
zat ionondev elopment
Economi caspect s
Ithel psspr eadj obsandempl oy mentt ocount r
ieswi thhi ghunempl oy mentduet ol ack
ofeconomi c dev elopment .Educat ed wor ker si n dev eloping count ri
es ar e abl et o
compet eont hegl obalj obmar ketf orhi ghpay ingj obs.Thegl obalmar ketal sopr ov ides
ar eadymar ketf ort he pr oduct s ofagr icul turalf ood and non- f
ood i ndust ri
es i n
dev elopi ngcount ri
es.
Ithasbr oughtast eadyl i
ber at i
onoft hecur r entaccountt ransact i
ons.Mor eandmor e
sect or shav e opened up f orf or eign di recti nv est ment sand por t
f olioi nv estment s
facilitatingent ryoff or eigni nv est or s.I thasal soenabl edeconomi cgr oupst oel imi nate
trade and i nv estmentbar riers bet ween t hem e. g.Eur opean Uni on,EAC,Comesa,
Ecowaset c.
Italsosecur esr egi onalandeconomi esdev el opmentandf aircompet it
iv eness.I nEast
Asi af ori nst ance,a numberofr egi onalgr owt h ar eas hav e been est abl i
shed t o
maxi mi zecr ossbor dermov ementofgoods,ser vicesandhumancapi talt oat tract
i
nv est mentandt echnol ogyandt ocompet ewi thmuchl argercount r
iessuchasChi na
andI ndi a.
Pol i
tical aspect s
Ithasbr oughtmor enat ionsi nt ot hedeci sionmaki ngpr ocessoni nternat ionali ssues.I t
has enabl ed i nternat ionalcount ri
es wi thint he gl obalsy stem t o adoptpr act ical
progr ammest hatpr omot epeaceasapr e-requi si
tet odev elopment .Fori nst ance,wi t
h
thef or mat ionofor gani zationssuchast heAf ricanUni on,manyAf ri
cancount rieshav e
beenabl et ocoexi stpeacef ul l
y .Peacei spar amounti fdev elopmenthast ot akepl ace.
Soci o- cul tur al aspect s
Soci alact iv i
ties such as games hav e been pr omot ed.Wi th ev ent s bei ng hel d
i
nt ernat ionalpeace i s enhanced,a sense ofbel ongi ng and t oget her ness t hus
facilitatingi nt eractionamongpeopl ef rom di v er
secul turalbackgr ounds.Thi shel ps
eradi cat ev icessuchast ri
bal ism,et hni cityandf av oriti
sm.Wi thoutsuchv i
cesi nt he
soci ety ,peopl ecanexchangei deas,concept sandi nfor mat iononi ssues.Thi si sv ery
i
mpor tanti ndev elopment .
Besi dest heabov eposi tiv
easpect s,gl obal i
zat i
onhasnegat i
v eimpact st oo.Pol i
tical l
y,
i
tcoul df orcenat ionst otakeact ionst hatar enoti nt hei rbesti nt
erest sf ort hebenef it
ofot hernat ions.Thi si nterfer eswi tht hesov er eignt yofsuchanat ion.I naddi ti
ont he
managementofmacr o-economi esbydomest icgov er nment sbecomesdi ffi
cul t.
Ithasal sobeenbl amedf oraccel er at edt r
ansnat ionalf l
owsoft error i
sm,humanand
drug t raf ficki ng,or gani zed cr imes,pr ivacyand pandemi c diseases et c.Thi s has
affect edt hesecur ityofsuchcount riesandat tentionofmi li
tarymenhasbeendi v erted
tocont rollingsuchv ices.
Ithasbeenbl amed f orcul t
ur alv alueser osi on.Ascul turei sbei ngi mpor ted and
expor ted,t heconcer ni st hatt hest rongerandbi ggercount ri
esmayov er runt heot her
smal l
ercount ries’cul tur e.
Int hej obmar ket,pr oduct i
onwor ker sandser vicewor ker si nindustrializednat ionsar e
usual lyunabl et ocompet ef av orabl ywi thwor ker si ndev elopi ngcount ries.Theyei ther
l
oset hei rj obst hroughout sour cingorar ef or cedt oacceptwagecut s.Ther ei sal soa
growi ngdi v er gencei ni ncomel ev elsbet weencount riesandpeopl eswi thwi deni ng
i
nequal ityamongandwi t
hi nnat i
ons.Asset sandi ncomesar emor econcent ratedon
thedev elopedcount ri
esr athert hant hel essdev elopedones.I naddi tionj oiningt he
wor ldeconomymeanst hatt hedev elopi ngcount r
iesar eexposedt oext er naleconomi c
forcesoverwhi
chtheyhavelit
tl
econtr
ol.Gl
obal
izat
ionmaybest r
engtheni
ngt
he
positi
onsoft
hedev
elopedeconomiest
hatarebet
terablet
otakeadvant
ageoffr
ee
trade.

ADDATI
ONNOTES

POSTMODERNI SM ANDDEVELOPMENT
Postmoder ni
sm canbeexpl ai
nedaswhatr elat
est oorwhathaschar acteristi
csoft he
th
presentormostr ecentperiodofdev elopmenti .
e.acti
v i
ti
esf rom 20 cent uryonwar ds
(Waugh,1993) .I tisamov ementawayf rom t hev i
ew poi ntofmoder nism.I tisa
tendencyincont empor aryculturechar act
erizedbypr oblemat i
sati
onofobj ective,tr
uth
andi nher
entsuspi ci
ont owar dsgl obalcult
ur eandnar rat
ive.Itfocusesondi f
ferences
i
.e.alert
nesstoandappr eciationofmanydi ffer
encest hatexistamongpeopl einglobe.
Itcanalertscholarsandpol icymaker st othev ari
etyandf ormsofknowl edge, theneed
tolocateandl earnfrom t hei ndigenousknowl edgeandt ot akemor ecogni zersof
l
ocalizedgroupandcul turalpracticesandmi nori
tygroups.

Inregardingdevelopmentanddev el
opmentst r
ategi
es,postmoder ni
stsstandisthatno
blueprintshouldbeimposed.Post modernism theor
yhascomeupasar esultofashi f
t
i
nt hedev elopmenttheoryandpracticeprovidi
ngdiversepercepti
onbutt heconsistent
maini ssuesbeingdeal i
ngwi t
hpov ert
y,growth,policyset
tings,people’
spar t
ici
pation
andhow t oachievejust
iceandequal i
ty.Thistheorydrawsat tenti
ont othenot i
onof
univer
salizedhumanpr ogressandintensi
fiedglobal
izati
onofeconomi candsoci all
ife.

Stagest owar dspost moder nism stage

Count ries hav et o go t hr ough the v ari
ous st ages ofdev elopmentt hatl ead t o
moder nism.
1st.A count r
y has subsi stence economy based mai nly upon f ar ming.Ther ei s
i
nsuf fi
ci entt echnol ogyandcapi taltopr ocessr aw mat erialsort odev elopi ndustries
andser vices.
2nd.Primar yact i
v i
ti
esar edev el
opedt houghmostpr oduct sar eexpor ted.Ther eisli
tt l
e
technol ogicali mpr ov ement ,developmentoft ranspor tnet wor ksandf ew i ndust r
ies.
Ther ei sal sosl ow i mpr ovementi nt hest andardsofl i
ving.Acount ryneedsext ernal
helpt omov etot hisst age.
3rd.Themanuf acturingi ndust rygrowsr apidlyduet oi mpr ov edt echnol ogyandcapi t al
topr ocessr aw mat erials.Ther eisincreasedi nv estmenti nagr icult
ur et ranspor tand
ser v
ices.Thi sdev elopmenti sli
kelytobeconf inedt ooneort wor egionse. g.arounda
capital city.Ar apidimpr ov ementi nst andardsofl i
vingi sev ident.
4th.Economi cgr owt hspr eadst omostt omostpar tsoft hecount r
y.Amor ecompl ex
transpor tnet wor kdev el opsasdoesawi derrangeofi ndust rywi t
hhi ght echnol ogyand
mechani zat i
on.Ther ei sr api durbanizati
onanddecl i
ningpr i
mar yact ivit
y .Standar dsof
l
iv i
ngcont inuet oimpr ov e.
5th.Ar api dexpansi onofser viceindustri
esaccompani edbyadecl i
nei nmanuf acturi
ng
i
sseen.
6th.Post moder nism st age.

FACTORSAFFECTINGPOSTMODERNI SM
 Multi
cul
tur
ali
sm.Thi s has l
ed to emer
gence ofcer
tai
n behav
ior
s e.
g.gay
mar
ri
ageinAfri
cansocieti
es.
 Envi
ronmental
ism e.
g.globalwarmingl
eadi
ngtocli
matechangeasev i
denced
 bymor edr ought sinSSA( subSahar aAf rica).
 Femi nism;an i nternationalpol i
ti
caland i ntell
ect ualmov ementt o chal l
enge
subor dination of women.I thas come up wi th conceptof genderand
developmentandwi t
hr ev ol
ut i
onanddi sciplinetosuppor tfemi nist s’ viewssuch
aswomenst udi es.
Ev
idenceofpostmoder nism indev elopment
 I nbusi nesssect or,mostf ir
mst odaytakei ntoaccountt heneedsoft hesoci ety
e.g.cust omercar eser vi
ces.Thef ir
mshav eal soest abli
shedcommuni tyservice
progr ams.Thi scr eatesahar moni ousr elationshipt hatleadst odev el opment .
 I ntheagr icultur alsect or,postmoder ni sm adv ocat esf orpl ant i
ngofi ndigenous
crops( yams,cassav a,sweetpot atoeset c.)t hathav e been i gnor ed int he
moder nphase.I tal soadv ocat esmanuall aborr at hert hanmechani zat i
onwhi ch
reducesempl oy mentoppor tuni t
ies.
 Publ icawar enessofhumanr ights;thi
si si ndicatedbyt hev ariousr iot st hewor l
d
overe. g.inEgy pt,Libya, Yemenet cin2011.
 I ntheener gysect or,differentt ypesoff uelhav ebeendev elopede. g.f ir
ewoods,
coal,el ectri
city ,bi ogaset c.Amongt hemanyar et hoset hatar ebei ngusedt o
subst it
utet hehar mf ulf uelst husconser vingt heenv ir
onment .Peopl ear eal so
encour agedt opl anttreest oactascar bonsi nks.
 I nar chitectur eandt ownpl anning;gr oundpl anningdesi gnsoft hemoder nists
areoutoff av orandst rictspat ialdif
f erent i
ationsoff unct ionse. g.av ari
etyi n
townscapemi xturesoff unctionsandr ehabi li
tationofol dbui l
dingsr atherthan
creationofnewmoder nhi ghr iseandf unct ional blocksar epr eferred.
 Wor kersuni onshav ealsogai nedst rengt haspostmoder nism expands.

Assi
gnment:Di
scusst
henegat
ivei
mpact
sofpost
moder
nism ondev
elopmentof
humanwelf
are.