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PRINCIPLES OF ARGUMENTATION

G EOR G E P I ER C E B A K ER
A SS I ST A N T P R O FESSO R O F EN G LI S H IN H A R V A R D CO L ll

B O ST O N , AN D L O N DO N

GI N N COMPAN Y ,
P U B L I S H ER S

1 89 8
 C O P Y RIG H T, 1 89 5
BY G EO R G E P I ER C E B A KER

A L L R I G H T S R ESE R V E D

REESE
 fi b a m s S herm a n fi l
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Y
B O LSTO N P RO FESSO R O F RH ETO RIC Y
AND O RATO R

IN

H ARVARD " C O LLEG E

 P R EFA C E .

H EN a m an t r i e s to int e r e s t i n A r gum e ntation a

, l
c l a ss of co ll e g e stud e nt s w ho hav e n e v e r studi e d
t h e s ubj e ct h e m e e t s at o nc e s e v e r a d i fficu l ti e s

of t h e stu d e nt s w i ll r e ga rd i t as too sp e cia l a matt e r to

. M ost

b e of any u s e t o th e m . A f e w who a r e hoping to l e ad

l it e r ary l iv e s w i ll b e t o l e r ant b e cau s e th e y f e e l that ,

though A r gu m e nt at io n i s fa r l e ss impo r tant to th e m

t han N a rr ation D e s c r ipt ion o r Expos ition a kno wl e d g e
, , ,

of al l k in ds of wr it ing i s th e i r provinc e an d h e nc e th e y
,

sho u ld u n d e r stan d A r gu m e ntation un impo r tant as it i s

, .

A sma ll po r tion of t h e c l a ss t ho s e s tu d e nt s w ho l ook

,

fo r w a rd to a ca r e e r i n t h e La w w i ll w e l com e t h e w o r k
, .

T hat i s th e r e i s an a l mo st u n iv e r sa l i d e a a m ong col l e g e

,

stu d e nt s that A r gu m e ntation i s a stu d y that can hav e

r e a l u s e fu l n e s s on l y fo r t h e l a w y e r o r thos e who i n
th e i r ca r e e rs may b e ca ll e d into pub l i c cont r ov e r sy .

Fo r such s tu d e nt s A r gu m e ntat ion is s ynonymous with

a st u d y of F o r ma l Logic on t h e o n e han d an d of r ul e s
,

of e vi d e n c e an d l e ga l p r oc e d u r e on t h e oth e r N atu r a ll y
.

th e y dr e a d a subj e ct t hat p r om is e s to b e so dry an d

N o r a r e col l e g e s t u d e nts t h e
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b f so l itt l e g e n e r a l u s e .

y p e rs on s
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who s e e m to t hi n k that A r g u m e ntation
vi P R EP A CE .

m e ans t h e s e t w o thing s . I t s e e m s to b e a wi d e s p r e a d -

id e a among many c l a s s e s of m e n F o r th is r e a s on t h e
.
,

aim of thi s book is to p oint o u t cl e ar l y that th e r e i s

argum e ntation t h e m o st i mpo r tant kin d of al l s in c e it i s ,

fun d am e ntal t o all ot h e rs w h ich e xi s t s ind e p e nd e nt of

—

t h e r ul e s which hav e b e e n fo r mu l at e d to gov e r n t h e

hand l ing of e vid e n c e in cou r t s i nd e p e nd e n t of l e ga l

,

p r oc e d u r e and which can b e u nd e r stood without any study

,

of books of Fo r m a l Logic I t is t h e a r gum e ntation of

.

e v e r yday l if e ,
t h e p r incip l e s of which e v e ry int e l lig e nt

m a n shou l d u nd e r stan d . Th e s e princi p l e s t h e foll owing

pag e s t ry to e xpoun d s imply an d i nt e r e sting l y I f th is .

book w e r e my fi rst att e m p t t o t e ach A rgum e ntat ion on this

basi s I shou ld print it with t r e pidation but in som e y e ars ,

of t e a ch in g w it h th is i d e a of A r gum e ntat ion con stan t ly i n

v i e w I hav e s e e n i ndi f f e r e nc e to t h e subj e ct e v e n i n t o e r
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anc e among my stud e nt s chang e t o g r owing int e r e st
, , a —

chan g e that by t h e t e sti mony of both t h e stu d e nt s an d

,

th os e w ho hav e ass i st e d in t h e wo rk i s d u e to t h e basin g

,

of t h e t e ach ing on j u st th i s id e a .

This book i s i nt e nd e d th e n to giv e a st u d e nt a t r aining

, ,

in A r gum e ntation wh ich m ust pr e c e d e hi s stu d y of t h e

l
,

sp e cial r u l e s of p r oc e d u r e b e l onging to cou r t s t h e r u e s ,

that t h e r e gov e r n t h e hand l in g of e vid e nc e ; which may

in t e r e st him i n a l at e r stu d y of t h e l aws of l ogic that
u nd e rl i e a ll th inking ,
in F o r ma l Logi c if h e wi s h e s
,
—
.

I t i s o ff e r e d as a mo r e e l abo r at e t r e ati s e than that w h ich

l
i n m ost books on R h e to ri c spac e p e rm its It is in a .
,

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s e n s e in t r o d u cto r y to such a book as Pr of e s so r R o b i n s o n s
,
For en s i c Ora t m jy , w hich i s wr itt e n d i s ti nct l y fo r the youn g
l awy e r .

Th at t h r ougho ut th i s book w r itt e n A r gum e ntat ion is

l
chi e f y con si d e r e d i s n ot b e cau s e t h e fo ll o w ing pag e s w e r e
o r igi nal l y d e v e l op e d b e fo r e c l as s e s wh i ch w e r e bu s y on l y
wit h w r itt e n a r gum e ntat iv e w o r k I t is b e cau s e I b e l i e v e
.

th at fo r t h e s p e ak e r as w e ll as t h e wr it e r t h e p r incip l e s
w hich l e a d t o convincingn e s s m e r e l y n ot t o p e r su as ion
-
a r e p r actical l y t h e sam e ; and mo s t impo r tant of a ll
, ,

b e cau s e I am convi nc e d th at t h e e a s i e s t t h e most r apid ,

m e t ho d fo r a sp e ak e r t o acqui r e goo d fo r m an d an abil ity ,

to hand l e e vi d e n c e w e ll i s fo r hi m t o w r it e out his wo r k

,

un t i l h e has mast e r e d t h e p r in cip l e s i n this book which

l e a d t o convinc ingn e s s m e r e l y I t i s a s a d fact that t h e
.

s o ca ll e d e x t e m p o ra n e o u s sp e ak e r s
- -
t ho u gh oft e n a d m i r
,

ab l e i n p e rs uasion a r e u su ally fa r l e ss succ e ssful i n c o n

,

v ict i on , b e cau s e th e i r w o r k l acks fo r m and a ski ll ful

han d l in g of e vi d e n c e Th e s e t wo pow e r s can com e on l y
.

f r om con stan t p r act ic e an d ca r e fu l c r itici s m by on e s s elf

’

an d oth e rs of t h e r e s u l t s A p r e l im in ary w r iting out of

.

t h e a r gum e n t s o f f e r s t h e b e s t m e an s fo r thi s g r owth

th r ough c r i ti ci sm . Litt l e by l itt l e as a stu d e nt b e com e s

mo r e accu stom e d t o sp e akin g r e ad i e r on hi s f e e t h e can
, ,

sp e ak f r om ful l not e s m e r e l y ; th e n f r om a fu ll b r i e f ; th e n
f r om a v e r y s l igh t b r i e f e v e nt ua ll y h e m ay p e r hap s b e
ab l e to s p e ak w ithout any b ri e f D oubt l e s s t h e sp e ak e r
.

who s e e m s i n d e p e n d e nt of his not e s o r at l e ast of his ,

wr itt e n d is c ou rs e h as m ost cont r ol of hi s au d i e nc e but

, ,

s u ch ind e pe nd e nc e c o m bin e d wit h good fo r m an d con

,

l
viii P R E FA CE .

vi n c in i s an
n e ss,acqui r e d pow e r T h e ma s t e r s of
g .

A r gum e ntat io n hav e not b e e n asham e d to at tai n by t h e

m e thod j u st e xp l ain e d th e i r fi na l mast e r y of th e i r a r t .

T h e p rincip l e s s e t fo rth i n t h i s book t h e qu e r i e s ,

an sw e r e d I hav e s o oft e n t a l k e d ov e r w ith t h e a ss i s tant s

,

who at H a rva r d an d W e ll e sl e y h av e ai d e d m e i n my
, ,

w o r k that I f e e l t h e r e su l t s h e r e giv e n a r e a s much t h e i rs

,

a s m in e I o w e so m uch in t h e past al s o to th e i r e n t h u
.
, ,

s i a s m an d th e i r i nt e l l i g e nt d e votion to th e i r wo r k t hat I ,

cannot r e f r ain f r om r e cogn i z ing my i nd e bt e d n e s s Fo r .

val uab l e s ugg e st ion s w h i l e t hi s book has b e e n going

th r ough t h e p r e s s an d fo r r e a d ing of t h e p r oofs I wi s h
i n pa r t icu l a r to than k A ssi s tan t Pr of e sso r S C H a r t of -

. .

W e ll e sl e y C ol l e g e an d M r F G C a f f e y of M ontgom er y
, . . .
, ,

A l abam a Fo r t h e c l a s s ification of d e fi nit ions u s e d on

.

pp 5 4 5 9 I am i n d e bt e d t o Pr of e s so r G e n ung i n hi s
ll
—
.

P i E m /t e n t s
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r a c t ca o
f R /ze t or zc .

C A M B R I DG E ,

Se p t 20, 1 8 9
.

5 .
 C O N T EN TS .

C H A P T ER I .

T H E N A T U R E O F A RG U M EN T A I I O N
' ‘

I . T II E REL A T I O N OP AR G U M EN T AT I O N To M ET H O DS CO U RT S
OP LAW

II TH E R EL AT I O N OP A RG U M EN I
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I . H AT AR G U M EN T A T I O N I N C L U D ES B ESI D ES L O G I C

I . P ers ua s i ve Me t ho ds

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3 . Ru es of i
Ev de n ce

C H A P T ER I I .

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A N AL Y S I S — T II E FI V E I M P O RT A N T ST E P S IN A N A L Y SI S

1 FI N D I N G P RO P O S I T I O N

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. A

I . D EP I N I T I O N

III . PH R ASI N G TH E G EN E R A L P RO P O S I T I O N
IV . FI N D I N G T II E S P EC I A L ISS U E

V . D EC I D I N G w II A T R ELA T I O N S TH E OT HE R ESS EN T I AL M A T E R I A L
B EA R S T O T II E S P EC I A L I SS U E

C H A P T ER I I I .

B R I E FS AN D B R I E F D R A -
W IN G
I . TH E I N T RO D U C T I O N

II . T II E B R I E F P R O P ER

I II . TH E C O N C L U SI O N

C H A PT ER I V .

TH E P R EP A R AT O R Y R EAD I NG FO R A R G U M E N T AT I O N
x GOA/ TE N TS .

C H A P T ER V .

I . TH E NA TU RE OF EV I D E N C E

II . K I N DS O F EV I D EN C E

III . T E ST S OF EV I D E N C E

C H A P T ER V I .

T H E FO R E N SI C I T SE L F

I . TH E I N T R O DU C T I O N

II . TH E AR G U M EN T I T SE L F

I II . TH E P E RO R A T I O N

C H A P T ER V I I .

P E R S U A SI O N TH E FO U R SO U R C ES OF P E R SU ASI O N

I . TH E S U B JEC T I T S E L F

II . TH E R HE T O RICA L T R EA T M E N T OF TH E S U B JEC T

III . TH E AP P LIC ATI ON OF TH E S U B JE C T TO TH EA U D I E N C E

IV . QU A L I T I ES I N TH E S P EA KE R OR WR IT ER

C H A P T ER V I I I .

SO M E FI N AL SU GG EST IO N S

AP P E N DIX
I . B R I EF S FO R C R I T I C I SM
II . M AT E R I A L FO R A T R I A L B R I EF

I N D I C ES .

1 . O F S U B JEC T S

II . OF Q U O TAT I O N S
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OF
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A R G U M E NT A T I O N .

C H A P T ER I .

T H E N A T U R E O F A R GU M E N T A T I O N .

R G U M EN T A T I O N i s t h e a r t of p roduc in g i n t h e
m_i_ngh of s om e o n e e l s e a b e l i e f in t h e i d e a s which

t he p eak r e o r w r it e r w i sh e s t h e b e a r e r o r r e a d e r to
_ s
am ,
T hi s r e sul t m ay b e gai n e d in e ith e r of two ways :
I ) by convi ncing t h e h e a r e r o r r e a d e r th r ou gh h i s int e l
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l e ct by t h e cog e ncy of t h e r e ason ing a d vanc e d ; o r ( 2 ) by

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b r i nging out fo r c ib l y t hat i n t h e i d e as wh ich wi l l sti r t h e

e motion s of t h e b e a r e r o r r e ad e r suffic i e nt l y to mak e him

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act as t h e sp e ak e r o r w r it e r d e si r e s H e w ho us e s in
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hi s a r g um e ntation on l y t h e a p e a t o t h e i e ec t

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d e p e nd s fo r h i s succ e s s so l e l y
on t h e c ear nes s t h e fo r c e and t h e co n n nd n g n e ss of __hi s
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stat e m e nt o f hi s i dea s e mploys t h e m e thod of QQ n g

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an d w r it e s pu r e a r g u m e nt s o cal l e d H
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d e p e nd s e nti r e l y o n fi nd ing in h is mat e r ia l what w ill
e xcit e t h e em o t i on s of h i s h e a r e r o r r e a d e r us e s only t h e

m e tho d of P e r r i / a ria” .

T h e s imp l e st il l u st r at ion of argum e ntation that i s pu r e

con v ict io n i s t h e p r oof of so m e th e o re m of Ge om e t ry as , ,

fo r i n stan c e that t h e s q uar e of t h e hypot e nu s e of a r ight

,

ang l e d t riangl e i s e q ual to t h e s u m of t h e squar e s of t h e

 A R G U M E N TA TI O ZV
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2 .

ot h e r two sid e s A t h e p roof ad d uc e d app e a l s s ol e l y to

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t h e int e l l e ct an d r e st s fo r it s fo r c e on i d e as a l r e ady fou n d

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to b e t r u e o r as t h e y a r e d e v e l op e d f e lt at o nc e to b e
, , ,

t rue This kin d of d e mon st r at ion of t h e t r uth of a s tat e

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m e nt how e v e r i s ha r d ly a r gum e ntat ion i n t h e s e n s e in

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whi ch it i s u s e d h e r e T h e fol l o w ing e xt ract f r om .

Lo r d M a n s fie d s d e f e ns e of A l l an Evan s i s a b e tt e r
1 ’

ill us t r ation of t h e a r gum e ntation that app e a l s to t h e

i nt e l l e ct o nly
My L ords t h e m e an i ng of th i s m ax i m that a m a n Shall
, ,
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not d i sab l e h i m s e lf i s sol e ly th i s : that a m a n shall not d i s

,
’

ab l e h i m s e lf b y h i s own w i lfu l c r i m e ; and s u c h a d i sab i l i ty

t h e law w i ll not allow h i m to p l e ad If a m a n c ontra c ts to .

s e ll an e stat e to any p e rson u po n c e rta i n t e r m s at s u c h a t i m e ,

and i n t h e m e ant i m e h e s e lls i t to anoth e r h e shall not b e ,

allowe d to say Si r I c annot fu l fi l m y c ontra c t ; i t i s o u t of

,
‘
,
‘

m y p owe r ; I ha v e sold m y e stat e to anoth e r Su c h a pl e a

’
.

wo u ld b e n o bar to an a c t i on b e c a u s e t h e act of h i s s e ll i ng i t ,

1 “
i y o f L o n d o n w a s i n wa n t o f a n e w m a n s i o n h o s e f o r t h e L o rd
T he c t
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u

M a yo r a d re s o l ve d t o b u il d o n e o a s c a l e f b e c o m i n g m a gn i fi c e n c e
, n n o .

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p l a n f e x t o r
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o f ye a r s b e e n n b u s i e s s a n d pr o pe r t y u n d e r

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or n r
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t h e p o t e c t i n o f t h e T o l e ra t i o n A c t
r o T h e m o d e w as t h i s A b y a w o f . : -

th e c i t y w a s p a s s e d i m p o s i n g a fin e o f £ 600 o n a n p e r o n wh o s h o u l d b e s
y
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t a k e n f ro m t h e d i s s e n t i n g b o d y d b y a c o c e rt a m o n g t h e i n i t ia t e d wa s
, an n

c h o s e n t o t h e o ffi c e o f s h e i f f O f c o u rs e h e w as n o t e xp e c t e d t o s e ve
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n d C o r o a tio n r i l
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t h e re f re c o m p e ll e d t o d e c l i n e ; a n d w a s t h e n fi n e d £ 600 u n d e r a b y a w
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f a m e d f o r t h e ve y p rp o s e o f e t r t i g t h is m
r r u ey A t len gth x o n on .
,

A ll a n Eva s a m a n o f s p i ri t w h o h a d b e e n s e l e c t e d a s a
, n , i c t i m r e s o l ve d v ,

t o t ry t h e q e s t i o n uH e r e f u s e d t o p a y t h e fin e a n d w a s s u e d i n t h e
.
,

Sh e iff s C o t B y a pp e a l s t h e c as e w as b ro u g h t b e f o r e t h e H o u s e o f
’ ”

l
r ur .

L o rd s I n t h e H o s e L d M a s fi e d s p o k e i n b e h a l f o f Eva s
l
Se e
l
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B r i t t s /z E
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Se ec t o
q u en ce , G o o d ri c h ,
 A R G U M E N T/ 1 TI O IV .

to anothe r i s t h e ve ry bre ac h of c ontra c t So l i ke wi s e a m a n .

, ,

who hath p ro m is e d m arr i age to o n e lady and aft e rwards m a r ,

ri e d anoth e r c ann ot p l e ad i n bar of a p ros e c u t i on fr o m t h e

,

fir st lady that h e i s alr e ad y m a rri e d b e ca u s e h i s m arry i ng ,

t h e se c ond l a dy i s t h e ve ry bre a c h of ro m i s to t h fi rst

p e e .

A m a n shall not b e allowe d to p l e ad that h e was dru nk i n bar

of a cri m i nal prose cu t i on tho u gh pe rha p s h e was at t h e t im e
,

as inca p abl e of th e e xe rc i se of re ason as if h e had b e e n i nsan e ,

b e ca u s e h is drunke nn e ss was i ts e lf a c ri m e H e shall not b e .

allowe d to e xcuse o n e c r i m e by anoth e r T h e Ro m an sold i e r .

,

who c u t 0 6 h i s th u m b s was not s u ff e re d to p l e ad h i s d i sab i l i t y

,

fo r t h e se rv i c e t o proc u re h i s d i s m i ss i o n w i th i m pu n i ty b e c a u s e ,

h i s i nca pacity wa s d e s i gn e dly bro u g ht on h i m by h i s own

wi lf u l fa u lt .

W h e n i t wa s sa i d th e re fo re that a m a n c annot p l e a d h i s
, ,

cr i me i n e x c u se for not d o i ng wh a t h e i s by law r e q u ire d to do ,

i t only am o u nts to th i s that h e c a nnot pl e ad i n e x c u s e what

, ,

wh e n pl e ad e d i : n o e xc u se ; b u t th e r e i s not i n th i s t h e shadow
,

of an ob j e ct i on to h i s pl e ad i ng what i s an e x c u s e pl e ad i n g —

a l egal d i sq u al i fi c a t i o n If h e i s no m i nate d to b e a j u sti c e of

.

t h e pe ac e h e may say
,
I ca nnot b e a j u sti c e of t h e pe a c e for
, ,

I have not a hund re d pou nds a ye ar In l i ke m ann e r a .

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D i sse nt e r may pl e ad I ha ve not q u al i fi e d and I c annot
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q u a ify an d a m not obl i ge d to q u al i fy ; and yo u ha v e no ri g ht

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to fin e m e for not 1

Th i s w ho l e s pe e ch i s al mo st f r e e f r om att e mpt s t o

l
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m ov e t h e e m o t ion s of t h e h e a r e rs i s p r act ica ll y a —
, ,

s pe c im e n of t h e m e th od o f pu r e convict ion M i s s e s say

’
.

on 7715 Su bj ect zou of Wo m en i s an i ll u st rati on of t h e pu r e

'

con vi ct ion that d oe s n ot u s e p e rs ua s io n .

P u r e pe rs u a s ion t hat a r ou s e s t h e e m otion s on l y ,

w ith o ut appea l ing t o t h e i nt ell e ct i s s ho w n by this ,

1 t i on ( M o d e rn ) , pp 3 1 , 3 2
’

Spe n m m A rg u m
'

en ta
: q . .
 AR G U M E N TA TI O A’
.

r o rat ion of G ra t t a n t he De c l a rati on of

'

pe s s p e e ch on “

”
I
I ri s h R ig h t s :
H e re afte r wh e n th e se th i ngs sh all b e h i sto ry you r a g e of
, ,

th raldo m and pove rt y yo u r s u dd e n re su rre ct i on co m m e r cial

l
, ,

re d re ss and m iracul o u s a rm a m e nt shal th e h is to r ian stop at

, ,

l i be rty and o b se rve that h e re th e p rinc i pal m e n a m ong u s

—
.

fe ll i nto m i m i c t rance s of gratitud e th e y we re awe d by a —

we ak m i n is tr y and bri be d by an e m pty tre as ury

, an d wh e n —

l i be rt y was with i n the i r g ra s p and t h e t e m pl e O pe n e d h e r ,

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, ,

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fe ll d o wn a n d we re pro stit u ted a t t h e th re sh o ld

, .

“
I m ight a s a co nst i t u e nt co m e to you r ba r an d d e man d
, ,

m y l i b e rt y I d o c a ll u po n yo u b y t he l aws of t h e lan d an d
.
,

th e ir v i o la t i on by t he i n s tru c ti on of e ig ht e e n counti e s by
, ,

l
t h e a rm s insp ir ati o n a n d pro vi d e nc e of t h e p re se nt mom e n t
, , ,

te ll us t he ru l e b y whi c h we shall g o as se rt t he a w of

l
I re l a nd d e c l a re t he l i be rt y of t he lan d
—
.

“
I wi ll not be ans we re d b y a publ ic ie in th e s ha pe of an
a m e nd m e nt ; n e i t h e r s pe a ki ng fo r t h e subj e ct s free d om am I
,
’
,

to h e a r of fa c ti o n I wi s h f o r no thing but to b re ath e i n thi s

.
,

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,
-

l i be rty I have no a m bi t ion unl e ss it be th e ambit i on to

.
,

b re ak you r cha i n and t o c o nte m pl a t e you r g lo ry , I n e ve r will .

be sa t i sfi e d so long as t he m ea n e s t cott a ge r in I rel an d ha s a

i l g re a t l y s t irred b y s uc h wri te rs as
l
I In I 78o . I ris h t o n a is m h a d be en “
na

L u c as . Mo y n e ux , a n d Swif t ; b y t h e en t ry o f Fl oo d a n d C ra t ta n i n t o t h e

r l r vo l t of t h e A m e ric a n
l l
I ish H o us e of C o m m o ns ; b y t h e s uc ce s s f u e

c o o ni es ; a n d b y t h e f o rm a t i o n o f t h e o u n t ee rs wh o se res o l u t i o n s ga ve

l
v ,

T h us f o rt ifie d G ra t ts n m o ved i n t h e Iri s h

l
s u bs t n t i a
a a i d t o G ra t ta n .
,

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l
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, , : s ,

f Ire an d a re t h e o n l y po w r c o m pe t en t t o
l l
a n d t h e Lo rds a n d C o m m o n s o , e

I n s u ppo rt o f t h is m o t i o n h e m a d e t h e
ll
m ak e a ws t o bi n d I re a n d
’
.

sp e e c h a t pa rt o f wh i c h is q u t e d a b o ve Se e C a m e l t S ri s P ti
l
, o . o e e : o i ca

0 m i on s .
 A R G UM EN TA TI OxV .

l i n k of t he Bri t i s h c h a i n c l a n k ing to h is rags ; h e m a y b e

n a k e d h e s ha l l n o t be i n iron ; an d I do se e th e ti m e i s at
,

h a nd t h e s p i ri t is g o n e fo rt h t h e d ec la rat i on is plant e d ; and

, ,

l
t ho ug h gr e a t m e n s h o u l d a po s ta t i se y e t t h e caus e w i ll l i v e ;
,

a n d t h o u g h t h e p u b li c s pe a k e r s h o u d di e e t t h i m m o r tal
y e ,

fire shall o utl as t t he o rg a n which c o nveye d it and t h e b re ath ,

o f l i be rty l i ke t h e wo rd o f t h e h o l y m a n will not d i e with t h e

, ,

p p r o h e t b u,t s u rv ive

T he w ho l e s pe e c h o f
G ra t t a n u s e s t h e m e t h o d of pe r
s u as i o n m o re t h a n t ha t o f co n v i c t i o n A g o o d but rat h e r .

l
t r it e i ll us t ra t i o n o f pu re pe rs ua s i o n i s t h e s p e e ch of
A n t o n y o ve r t he bod y o f C a es a r j u i u s Ca es a r A c t I I I .
, .
,

Sc . 2 .

TH E W EA R N Izss -
OP BIIRL L ON I I C T IO N '
OR P U RE
P ERS U AS IO N .

A l itt l e t ho u g h t o n t he
j u s a d e w i ll Sh
d i s t in c t i o n s
t m o w
t h a t e a c h o f t he t wo m e t hod s Con w e i on an d P e r s u a s i on
.
’

l ,

l l
ll
is by it se l f f a u l t y t h a t ea c h i s t h e c om p l e m e nt o f t h e
—

w m jfl
l
o t he r .
m £§ fifl — fl n y .
s imp l y
t r i e s t o co n vi n c e ea vi n g t he f e e l i n g s t h e e mot ion s
, , ,

l
u nt ouc h ed r u n s t h e ri sk ( I ) o f be i n g d u ll an d d ry fo r ,

h i s w o r k w i ll l a c k wa rm t h a nd c o l o r ; an d ( 2 ) o fJa i i n g t o
p ro du c e M —
n o n t h e pa r t o f t h e h e a r e r o r r e a d e r ,

f o r a c c e pt in g a b e l i e f a s t ru e d o e s n o t a lw ay s m e an t o
act p ro m pt l y o r s t ea d i l y o n t h a t i d e a H e w h o t r i e s on l y .

t m pe m u ed e ru n s t h e d an e rs o f a l l e xc it e d action : ( I ) t hat
g
-

it i s l iab l e to a s i t b e an l e avi ng no ,
.

p r inci pl e of co n d uc t be h i n d ; an d ( 2 ) i s l iab l e at any

Cam e lo t Se ri es : ll
P o i t i ca
'

Or a n a tu , pp . I 3 6, 1 37 .
6 A R G UM E N TA TI OZV .

m or
n e n L t o fi s a p p ea L h e f o r e c l
ea L a n d e on V i n c i n g stat e
m e nt of t h e r e asons why s uch condu ct i s i l l j u d g e d -
.

Th e r e i s l ittl e n e e d t o point out t h e d ryn e s s e xc e pt to ,

m e n of m ath e matica l m in d s of t h e g e om e t r ica l d e mon ,

~

s t r a t i o n wh ich il l ust rat e d pu r e conviction Wh e n too .

, ,

w e com p ar e t h e e xt r act f r om Lo rd M a ns fi e l d w ith that

f r om Gr at tan c e r tain l y w e s e e t hat t h e latt e r w ith its fir e
,
’

a n d da ri n i s mo r e vivi d mo r e nt r tain ing t han t h

g e e e
, ,

form e r H e a r e r s of Lo r d M an s fi e ld might w e ll hav e

.

a d mitt e d t h e t r uth of hi s wo rd s an d y e t hav e fai l e d at , ,

t h e n e xt oppo r tu nity t o app l y hi s conc l usion s ; und e r ,

’
t h e spu r of Gr a t t a n s r ou s ing sp e e ch d o e s in act ivity s e e m ,

p os s ibl e
? Y e t on t h e oth e r h an d act ion r e su l t ing f r om
, ,

wo r d s l ik e tho s e of Gr attan m u s t b e giv e n an im m e d iat e

en d ,
—
a l i n e of con d uct o r i t w il l fa d e fo r l ack o f ,
—

d i r e ction B e fo r e too a fo r cib l e s tat e m e nt of t h e B rit i s h

.
, ,

vi e w of t h e ca s e it m ight r e a d i l y w e ak e n fo r G rattan d o e s
, ,

n ot convinc e ou r b r ai n s that h e i s r ight h e s im p l y st i r s ,

—
‘

ou r h e a r t s C e rtain l y t h e fi rst pa r t of t h e sp e e ch of A ntony

.

i s vivi d an d sti rr ing e nough an d A nton y tak e s ca r e n ot to ,

c e a s e u nt i l t h e mob has foun d an obj e ct upon wh i ch to

v e nt it s e xcit e m e nt ; but ha d B r ut u s in s t e a d of balancing ,

’
cl au s e s an d d e al in g in vagu e s tat e m e nt s as to C a e sar s
w r ong d oing a rr aign e d hi m c l e a rl y an d succin ct l y show
-

, ,

in g cog e nt l y w h e r e in h is pow e r s e e m e d d an ge r ous to

’
R om e A n t ony s wo rds w oul d hav e l ost a l a r g e pa r t of
,

th e i r fo rc e A nt ony w it h nothin g against him e xc ept

.
,

vagu e cha r g e s skillf u ll y t u r n e d away f r om t h e s e an d gav e

, ,

al l hi s t i m e to st i rr in g t h e h e a r t s of hi s h e a r e r s by b ring
ing out what e v e r i n t h e l if e an d fat e of C a e s a r coul d
'

m ov e th e i r sympathi e s .
8 A R G U M E N TA TI O/V .

T H E R EL A T I O N OF A R G U M EN T A T I O N To M ET H O D S OF

A R GU I N G IN LAW C O U RT S .

I t may p e r haps h e lp t owa r d a cl e a r e r u n d e rstand ing

, ,

of j u st wh at A r g u m e ntation p r op e rly i s if w e d ist ingui sh

it car e fu l ly f r om two s ubj e ct s wit h wh ich it i s at t i m e s
co n found e d : t i m e hono r e d m e thod s of p r oc e du r e i n cou r t s
-

an d F o r ma l Logic O ft e n s tud e nt s of R h e tori c paus e at

.
,

t h e b e gin ni ng of t h e i r st udy of A rgum e ntati on say i ng ,

t hat i t can b e of p r act ica l u s e only to a sp e cial c l as s of

m e n to thos e who i nt e nd to m ak e t h e l a w th e i r vocation
, .

Thi s i s r e a l ly as i ll ogical a s if th e y h e s itat e d to stu d y

D e sc r ipt ion ( wh ich p r o d uc e s in t h e mind of t h e r e ad e r
“

”
a pictu r e of c e r tain obj e ct s o r p e r son s ) and N ar rat i on
( w h ich “
giv e s an account of an e v e nt o r a s e ri e s of
b e cau s e th e s e can b e of u s e on l y t o t h e
nov e l i s t I n both cas e s t h e st ud e nt s l im it t o t h e clas s
.

of m e n m o st con spicuous l y u sing t h e fo r m i n qu e st ion

a m e tho d of e xp r e ss ion u s e d hou r ly by m i l l ion s of m e n
of a l l r ac e s an d c l im e s A n y stu d e n t of D e sc r i pt i on
.

l
an d N a rr ation knows t hat t h e l itt l e ch il d w ho stam m e r
i n g y an d i n ill chos e n w o r d s t ri e s to t e l l it s nu r s e
-

about som e bi rd o r an im al which has a r ou s e d it s int e r e st ;

t h e s choo l boy w r it ing hom e about a d ay at s chool or ,

som e ba s e ball cont e s t with a rival aca d emy ; t h e f r i e n d

-

d e sc r ibing som e sc e n e h e has known o r r e count ing s om e ,

adv e ntu r e o n hi s t r av e l s ; t h e ov e r s e e r di r e cti ng his m e n

by a ca r e ful stat e m e nt of how t h e wo r k i s to b e d on e ,

o r an accou nt of t h e ov e r com in g of t h e sam e d i f fi cu l ty at

som e past t i m e al l u ncon sciously u s e t h e sam e m e thod s
—

1 T hese d e fi n i t io n s a re f ro m I n t r od u c t i on to T/ze m e W r i t i ng , J . B .

F l e t ch e r a n d G R C a rp e n t e
. . r , p . 2 .
 9

of d e s c ription an d narrat ion t hat t h e nov e l i s t probably ,

wo r ki ng m o r e con s ciou s l y u s es w ith g r e at e r e as e and

,

s u cce s s. So t oo t h e chi ld who t r i e s t o convin c e his

, ,

n u rs e t hat h e i s r ight i n not w i shing to ob e y h e r com

l
man d ; t h e schoo l boy who e nd e avo rs t o in d uc e his fath e r .

t o e t h i m p l ay o n t h e s chool bas e bal l t e am ; t h e man -

who s e e ks to p e r sua d e a f r i e nd t o vi s it in his t r av e l ing

t h e s e sight s r at h e r t han oth e r s ; t h e ove rs e e r who t ri e s
to m ak e an obtu s e wo r km an s e e th at on l y i n a c e r tain
way can b e su cc e s s fully accomp l i s h t h e task that has
b e e n s e t h im —
a ll of t h e s e a r gu e though p r obab l y not ,

s o s ki ll fu ll y a s d o e s t h e l awy e r i n t h e cou r ts T h e stu .

d e nt s who h e sit at e t o s t u d y A r gu m e nt at ion b e cau s e it

b e l ongs as a m e t ho d of e xp r e s sion e sp e cia ll y t o l aw y e r s
r e a ll y mi s tak e a s p e ci e s fo r t h e g e n u s .

“
Ev e r y i ssu e in a cau s e [ in l a w ] p r e s e nt s two qu e s t ion s ,

e ith e r o r both of wh ic h m ay b e d i spu t e d I ) What w e r e

( .

t h e fact s in wh ich t h e con t r ov e r sy o r iginat e d ? ( )

2 What
a r e t h e r ul e s of l a w by wh ich i n vi e w of t h e s e facts t h e
, ,

i s su e i s to b e d e t e r m in e d I t wi l l b e s e e n t hat ( I ) i s a
m att e r of i nv e st i g at ion an d t hat t h e s ucc e s s of t h e lawy e r
,

i n it m u st d e p e n d o n hi s abil ity to analy z e k e e nly and to

suppo rt so cl e arl y an d convin cin gly h i s b e l i e f a s to what
t h e fact s a r e as t o convi n c e any r at ional b e in g t hat it i s
'

co rr e ct . I n what th at i s e s s e nt ia l h ow e v e r do e s thi s , ,

a r gum e nt at ion d iff e r f r om t hat of t h e ch i ld t h e boy t h e , ,

t r av e l l e r o r t h e ov e rs e e r of t h e il l u s t r at ion s
,
? Ea c h ha s
t r i e d to t h e b e st of h i s abi l ity t o s e e what a r e t h e fact s
i n t h e cas e h e wi sh e s t o p r e s e nt an d t o convinc e hi s ,

h e a r e r s of t h e t r uth of hi s id e as T h e knowl e d g e upon .

w h ich a ll t h e s e d i f f e r e nt att e m pt s i nclud ing that of t h e ,

1 W . C . Ro b i n s o n , F o r en s i c O r a t ory , 60 .
10 l
A R G U / / E I V TA T O / V l .

l awy e r d e p e n d fo r s u c c e s s o r fa il u r e i s of t h e un iv e rsa l
, ,

l aws of r e ason ing t hat a pply i n e v e r y l anguag e and in

any plac e
.

O n t h e oth e r hand i n What a r e t h e r u l e s of

,
“

law by w h ich t h e i s su e i s to b e d e t e r m in e d ? t h e ”

l awy e r m ak e s u s e of h is kno wl e d g e of s p e cia l r ul e s

and conv e nt ion s not u s e d by m e n u n iv e r s al ly bu t on l y
, ,

in t h e cou rt s of hi s l an d I n t h e cou r t s of oth e r cou n

.

t r i e s h e wou ld fi n d oth e r conv e ntion s an d t h e sam e cas e ,

l
m ight n e e d to b e t r e at e d d i f f e r e nt l y M any of t h e .

gr e at p r i ncipl e s of a w r e qui r e n o p r oof Emba l m e d i n .

v e n e r ab l e an d fami l ia r m axim s t h e y a r e d e po s it e d i n t h e ,

m e mo r i e s of al l m e n an d t h e s e su bsist as u niv e rs a l an d
,

i mp re gnab l e i d e as O th e r s l e s s impo r tan t an d fam i l ia r

.
, ,

a re p r ov e d by t h e p r o d uct io n of auth o r iti e s o r a r e s tat e d ,

by t h e a d vocat e subj e ct t o confi r mat ion o r co rr e ction by

" 1
t h e cou r t . A j u d g e wh e n ca ll e d u pon t o d e ci d e
“
, ,

o r t o aid a j u ry i n d e c i d in g w h e th e r fo r e xamp l e a , , ,

p e r son b e i n noc e nt o r gu i l ty of a m u rd e r ho ld s hims e l f ,

t i e d by r u l e s of e vi d e nc e t hat i s p r e c e pt s e stab l ish e d

, ,

e it h e r by A c t of P ar l iam e nt o r by t h e p r actic e of t h e
cou r t s d e fi n in g w hat i s t h e kin d of p r oof w hich a cou r t
,

of j u s ti c e m ay r e c e iv e fo r t h e d e t e r m inat io n of t h e
2 ”
qu e stio n s l ai d b e fo r e i t A n i ll ust r at ion of t h e fi rs t
.

q uotation i s t h e m axi m of t h e cou r t s that a c hi ld u n d e r

s e v e n cannot c om m it a c r i m e A j u d g e i n d e ci d ing w h at .
,

t o d o with a ch i ld un d e r s e v e n caught s t e a l i ng w ould ,

sta r t f r om t hi s p r e m i s e ; a m e r e i nv e st igato r woul d s ay ,

an d r ightly t hat it i s an i nt e r e s tin g psycho l ogica l qu e s

,

t ion wh e th e r a ch i ld u n d e r s e v e n can b e gu i l ty t hat i s , ,

1 W . C . Ro b i n so n , Fo r e n s i c O r a t ory , 62 .

2
A . Di c e y, T/zc Ve r d i c t , p . I I .
 A R G U JI E I V TA TI OZV .
11

l
r e s po n s ib l e fo r h i s c r im e an d w ou ld inv e stigat e t h e pa r
,

t i c u a r ca s e o n it s m e r it s d i s r e ga r d in g t h e m axim of t h e
,

cou r t s T h e s e con d quotat io n may b e i ll ust r at e d as fo l

.

l o ws : t h e r u l i n g of t h e cou r t s i s t hat h e a rs ay e vid e nc e

mu st b e e xc l u d e d an d i n h e a r ing a ca s e a j ud g e wou ld
, ,

e xc l u d e that whi ch p r e s e nt e d it s e lf O n t h e oth e r han d

.
,

a m e r e i nv e st igato r gat h e r s al l t h e e vi d e nc e that h e

c an fin d h e a rs ay an d a ll oth e r ki n d s and e n d e avo r i ng
, ,

t o a s sign t o e ach bit it s va l u e dr aws h i s con c l us ion as to

,

t h e ca s e i n h an d . I n t h e d ivi s ion o f a cas e ma d e abov e

by Pr of e s s o r R obin s on t h e n ( I ) d e ci d in g w hat a re t h e
, , ,

fact s i n t h e cas e d e pe n d s who ll y on t h e m e tho d s of

,

r e a s on ing t hat al l m e n u s e ; d e ci d ing what a r e t h e

r u l e s of l a w by wh ich t h e i s su e i s t o b e d e t e r min e d ,

d e p e n d s fi rs t on a k n ow l e d ge of r u l e s sp e cia l to a s m a l l
a re a an d s e c on dl y on an app l icat io n of th e s e r u l e s t o t h e
,

fact s by t h e u n iv e r sa l m e th o ds of r e ason ing fo r t h e —

l awy e r m u s t convin c e hi s h e a r e rs that t h e d e ci s ion s h e

ho ld s a re app l icab l e r e all y app l y I n oth e r w o rd s t h e n
.
, ,

t he s p e cia l kn ow l e d g e n e c e s sa r y fo r a l awy e r ,

d e p e n d s upon i s s u rr ou n d e d by kno wl e d g e of t h e
, ,

u n iv e rs a l m e t ho d s of r e a s o n ing .

A com p l e t e t r e at i s e o n A r gum e ntat ion m u st t h e r e fo r e , ,

inc l u d e a ch apt e r o n r u l e s of l aw a hug e chapt e r s i nc e

, ,

g e n e r at ions of m e n h av e bu i l t up a m as s of r u l e s fo r
e xp e d iti ng bu s in e s s o r i nc r e a s ing accu r acy i n t h e cou r t s ,

'
—
but i t wou l d b e but a pa r t of an d s e con d ary to a
, ,

t r e atm e nt of t ho s e p r i ncip l e s upon w hich A r gu m e n tation

u niv e r sa ll y d e p e n d s .

?
Th e t opic ,
“
Was A a r on B u rr gui l ty of t r e ason
fu rn i s h e s an il l ust r at ion of t h e d i st i n c t i on s j u st d raw n .

Fo r a l awy e r t h e cas e has t wo int e r e st s ( I ) Wh at a r e t h e

 A R G U A/ E N TA TI OJV .

fact s i n t h e ca s e ; an d ( 2 ) what a r e t h e r ul e s by which

th e s e fa c t s m ust b e int e rp r e t e d H e and an i nv e stigato r
.

wi ll e ach w o rk to fi nd out t h e fact s i n t h e c as e but t h e ,

l
l awy e r wil l work wit h t h e rul e s of cou r t s as to t h e p e r
m i s s i b i i t y of h e a r say e vi d e n c e of t h e t e st i m ony of
,

w i tn e ss e s c l os e l y al l i e d to t h e p ri son e r e t c i n m i nd , .
, .

F o r t h e i nv e st igato r al l of thi s e vid e n c e wil l b e ad m i ss i bl e

if t r e at e d ca r e fully
.
.M or e ov e r t h e l awy e r knows t hat by
,

t h e laws of t h e count ry t h e r e m u st b e fo r convi ction of ,

t r e ason two w it n e s s e s t o an ov e rt act

, Unl e s s h e c a n
.

p ro d uc e th e s e two witn e ss e s t h e cas e wil l fail ; i nd e e d

, ,

i t d id fai l b e cau s e two witn e ss e s t o an ov e rt a c t c oul d

not b e foun d T h e i nv e stigat o r i s bound by n o s u c h l aw
.

ru l e s of t h e cou rt . Fo r h im t h e q u e stion i s o n e of mo r al
guilt an d h e wi l l d e cid e t h e qu e st ion by t h e p r e p on d e r
,

an c e of e vid e n c e fo r o r again s t B u rr w h e th e r th e r e b e,

o n e o r t w o w itn e s s e s to an ov e r t act of t r e a s on .

I n bri e f t h e n w e s e e t hat t h e l awy e r i n t h e mos t

, , ,

e s s e ntial pa r t of hi s w o rk but mak e s a bu si n e s s of us i ng

,

thoughtful l y an d cauti ou sl y t h e m e t ho d s of r e ason in g

which hou rl y mi ll ion s of m e n s om e ca r e ful ly som e , ,

h a s t ily confo r m t o o r t r an sg r e ss Wit h t h e e xc e ption

, .

of t h e w o r k h e d o e s i n d ivis ion h i s m e tho d s a r e t h e

s am e a s thos e of a civil e ngi n e e r t r ying t o Show that his
’
s ubway p l an fo r a ci ty i s b e tt e r th an a r ival s ; a col l e g e
p r of e s so r a r gui ng as t o t h e app e a r anc e of t h e Gr e e k stag e

Pr of e ss o r H uxl e y l e ctu rin g i n N e w Y o r k i n support of

t h e th e o ry of e vo l ution ; G e o r g e Will iam C u r ti s o r M r .

R oos e v e l t p l e ad ing fo r C ivi l Se r vic e R e fo r m ; D r K och .

or D r P ast e u r e nd e avo ring to e stab l ish t h e r e l iabi l ity

.

o r t h e u s e ful n e s s of a n e w d i s c ov e r y i n m e dici n e M or e .

ov e r h i s m e tho ds a r e at o n e wit h thos e of t h e man

,
 TI OA
’
.
13

who i s not c on t e nding i n d e bat e o r i n writi ng again st any

oppon e nt but i s t r yi ng to form an O p inion i n so m e matt e r
,

i mpo rtant to him i s t rying to mak e a co rr e ct j udgm e nt

, .

To study al l t h e s e m e th od s i s s imply to e xamin e ho w

t h e r ational b e ing argu e s c o r r e ct l y ho w h e convinc e s ,

an d p e rsuad e s hi s rat ional f e llow b e ing to sha r e his i d e as

-

w i th h im T h e l aws whi ch gov e r n t hi s univ e r sa l a r gu

.

m e n tat io n w e a r e t o st u dy .

T H E R EL A T IO N OF A R G U M EN T A T I O N To LO G IC .

The m i s u nd e rstand ing th at t r e at s A rgum e ntat ion as if

i t w e r e l i ttl e m o r e t han an ap p l icat io n i n e v e ry d ay l if e
of t h e rul e s of Fo rmal Logic has n ot b e e n inf r e q u e nt in
t h e past P e rhaps an e xam in at ion of t h e c ompon e nt
.

p a r t s of a pi e c e of a r gum e ntat io n wi l l b e s t show u s t h e

r e al r e l at ion s of A r gum e ntat ion Logic an d F o r ma l , ,

Logi c .

A rgum e ntation w e hav e d e fi n e d as t h e a r t of p r o d uci ng

i n t h e m in d of som e o n e e l s e a b e l i e f i n t h e i d e a s which
t h e s p e ak e r o r w r it e r wish e s t h e b e a r e r o r r e a d e r to
'

a c c e pt Wh e n w e ar gu e w e t ry to m ak e a l ist e n e r o r
.
,

r e ad e r b e l i e v e t hat t hi s o r t hat i s t r u e b e cau s e fo r t h e ,

r e ason s a o c it s e e m s t o u s t r u e an d b e ca us e t h e sp e cial
, , , , ,

e xc it in g i nt e r e st t hat t h e id e a has fo r h im m u st st i r
, ,

hi m to a c t on t h e b e l i e f w e a r e s e e king t o i n c u l cat e .

O r to put t h e matt e r conc r e t e ly w e t r y t o sho w that t h e

, ,

a p p ropriat io n s of a pa r t ic u l a r R iv e r and H a r bo r B ill

s ho u l d not b e d e c r e as e d b e ca u s e (a ) al l must a d m it that
,

t h e a p p r op r iati on s m ay b e divid e d i nto th r e e cl ass e s

1 ) thos e u n qu e st ion ab l y n e e d e d 2 ) thos e t h e n e c e s s ity

( ( ,

fo r wh i c h i s d i s p ut e d ( 3 ) th os e fo r wh i ch t h e r e s e e m s to
,
14 AR G U M E /v m TI O N .

be no n e e d ( e xampl e s a r e g i v e n of e ach by t h e sp e ak e r ) ;
5
( ) b e caus e t h e riv e rs an d harbors nam e d i n c lass
( 2)

r e a ll y on e xam in at ion with t h e a u d i e n c e al l s e e m to n e e d

, ,

t h e am ount s a p prop r iat e d ; (c ) b e caus e t h e riv e rs an d

h arbo r s of t h e t h i r d clas s woul d t o an e nt i r e ly u n p re ju

d ic e d p e rs on s e e m t o b e w e l l r e p r e s e nt e d by t h e harbo r
of t h e t o w n i n w hich t h e a d d r e s s i s m ad e ; and (ct ) ( e x c i t
in g caus e ) t h e audi e nc e knows t h e r e ason s why t hough ,

t h e app r op r iat ion m ay s e e m la r g e to an o ut sid e r e v e ry ,

c e nt of it i s n e e d e d fo r ha r bor r e pai r s n e c e ssary t o t h e l i f e

of t h e town Th e s e r e ason s w ith wh i ch w e support o u r

.

b e li e f a r e but thought s and al l a r gum e ntation i s a n ,

agg r e gat io n of r e ason ings o r va r i e d p r oc e ss e s of thought , .

Ev e n how e v e r i n t h e s impl e st r e asoning som e st r uctu r e

, ,

is involv e d fo r w e do not thi nk at r an d om an d it i s

, ,

e vid e nt that it may hav e b e e n po ss ib l e to e xami n e th e s e

p r oc e s s e s of thi nking to Study th e i r st r uctu

, r e and to ,

d e r iv e r ul e s of co rr e ct th i nking th e r e f r om .

Thi s has b e e n po s sib l e and t h e r e sul t i s ca l l e d Logic , ,

t h e s ci e nc e of t h e l aw s of thought o r t hat w hich ,

te a ch es j u g kno w how t o t hink co rr e ct l y Evi d e ntly .

,

th e n s inc e an a r t t e ach e s us to do an d a sci e nc e t o

,
“

1 ”
know and by studying wh at w e do i n A rgum e ntation
,

w e com e t o know t h e l aws of tho u gh t it i s e asy to d r aw ,

t h e con cl u s ion s 1 ) that A r gum e ntation i s h e a r t of

( t

whi c h Logi c i s t h e s ci e n c e ; and ( 2 ) that s in c e Fo r mal ,

Logi c fo r m u lat e s t h e l aws of thought giving t o e ach pro ,

c e s s o r e l e m e nt of a p r oc e s s a na m e A r g u m e ntat ion m ay ,

b e taught so l e ly in t e r m s of F o rm al Logic B u t th e r e .

a r e ob j e c t ion s t o e ach of th e s e con c l usion s .

1 Th i s an d t h e p re c e d i ng de fi n i t io n a re f ro m Je v o n s
’
s L es s on s i n L ogi c,

P 1 47
 A R G U /PI E N TA T O/V l .

i n c r e as e t h e hop e s and ambit io ns and l e s s e n t h e f e a r s .

To say that h e thought o u t b e fo r e sp e aking t h e e motion s

t o which h e s houl d app e al in his p e r o rat ion w oul d b e , ,

l
p r obably unt ru e fo r t h e imp e t u s of his g r e at subj e ct and
, ,

l
hi s st r ong e mot ion p r obably e d hi m i nto it al most u n c o n
sc iou s A b e tt e r in stan c e of t h e p e r s uasion th at h a s
y .

b e hi nd it con sid e rat ion of t h e e mot ion s that may b e st b e

ap p e al e d to and m ay b e st b e d i s r e gard e d i s B e e ch e r s ’

”
“
Liv e r pool Sp e e ch B e e ch e r knowin g t hat in t h e
.
,

Engl ish h e a dq uart e r s of t h e South e r n sympathi z e rs ,

Liv e rpool a d e t e r mi n e d and d e sp e r at e e f fo r t would b e

,

m ad e t o p r e v e n t t h e d e l iv e r y of h is sp e e ch p r obab l y ,

chos e with som e car e t h e e mot ion s t o which h e app e al e d

i n h i s i nt r oduction Som e g e n e r al p l an fo r it h e pr ob
.

ably had b e for e h e cam e i nt o t h e hall but it e vid e ntly ,

took p e r man e nt shap e only as h e wat ch e d t h e u p roariou s

aud i e nc e Fo r t h e fi r s t f e w m inut e s aft e r t h e up r oa r
.

that g r e e t e d hi s app e a r an c e d e c r e as e d e nough to a ll ow

.

him to sp e ak h e s imp l y t r i e d to wi n a h e a r ing by m aki ng

,

hi s aud i e n c e f e e l that h e wa s u n d aunt e d d e t e r mi n e d , ,

si nc e r e an d by app e al ing t o t h e i r l ov e a s Engl ishm e n

, , ,

of fai r pl ay H e chos e t h e e mot ion s s o w e ll h e ap pe al e d

.
,

1
to th e m so skillful ly that h e w on a h e a r ing , .

2 Tke P lf a ce o R /ce t or i c i n A rg u m e n t a t i o n

l
. .

M or e ov e r a pl e ad e r what e v e r hi s cau s e m ust not on y

, , ,

r e ason co rr e ctly an d unde rs t a n i h ou n t m s t i n t h e em ot i on s

of h i s aud i e n c e h e m ust a l so b e abl e
,
e hi s

mat e r ia l that al l of h is co rr e ctly con st r uct e d argum e n ts ,

al l of hi s app e al s di r e ct o r i n d i r e ct to t h e e motion s of
, ,

1 Sp ec i m en s o f A rgu m en t a t i on , pp I
56 1 5 8
—
. .
 A A G U/
’
l
lE /V TA TI OZV . 17

the h e are rs o r re ad e r s cl e a r ly fo r cib l y a ifi

_esent e d
a re_p_r , ,

W
l
A s e t of a r gu m e nt s e ach co rr e ctly
.
,

con st r uct e d i n it s e lf app e a s th at m e an a k e e n in s igh t

,

into t h e cau s e s of action i n ou r f e llo w m e n m ay b e so ,

confusi ngly st at e d so ba d ly pl ac e d i n t h e whol e a rg u

, ,

m e nt at ion that t h e wo r k fai l s

, Lo g ic c o n c e r n e d w ith
.
—

t h e int e r nal st r uct u r e of e a ch a rgm n e n t ; P e r suas io n with

that in t h e mat e r ial w h ich wi ll st i r t h e e m otion s of an

audi e nc e A r gu m e ntation i s conc e r n e d w ith both of th e s e ,

an d with t h e s ucc e s sfu l p r e s e ntat ion to an au d i e n c e of

t h e co rr e ct l y co n s t r uct e d argu m e nt s an d w e ll s e l e ct e d

app e a ls I n oth e r w o rd s a s ucc e ssfu l s tu d e nt of A r gu

.
,

l
m e ntation mu st hav e m ast e r e d t h e rul e s t hat R h e to r i c ,

t he “
M a d a m “ a
ex c
t fl x qt

w
m
l
m m has t o gi v e h im .

H e r e i s t h e fi r st ha f of a fo r e n s i c of a co ll e g e s t u d e nt
wh ich shows by its fai l u r e s ho w impo rt an t in A r gum e n ta
t ion i s t h e w o r k of R h e to ri c
‘

“
W AS TH E C O U R SE OF N S F I EL D M I N I STR Y I N
TH E B EA C O TH E

EA ST E R N Q U EST I O N A D V A N T A G EO U S T o ENG L A N D ?

“
In 1 8 76 B u l g ar i a d e c lar e d war aga i n st T u rke y and i t was ,

i n th i s war that T u rke y c o m m i tt e d t h e horr i bl e m assa c r e s

known a s t h e B u l g ar i an A tro c i t i e s .
’

“
T h e war wo u ld n e v e r ha v e b e e n b e g u n b e t we e n T u rk e y
and B u lgar i a had i t n o t b e e n for T u rk i sh m i sr u l e wh i c h was ,

we ll k nown by oth e r c o u ntr i e s as we ll as by B u l g ar i a Se rv i a .

and Mont e n e g ro we re l e f t alon e to fi g ht w i th T u rk e y aft e r t h e ,

oth e r stat e s wh i c h b e lon g e d to t h e c onfe d e ra c y we r e o b l i g e d

‘ ’

to ba c k o u t for want of s u ppl i e s O f c o u rs e th e s e two stat e s

.
,

l
w

l l
l l
1 G R C a rp e n t e r , E x e r c i s es i n R h e t or i c
. . a nd E i zg i s b C om p os i t i on , p . I .

Wi a rd Sm a , Boston , I 8 93 .
c o u ld n o t c arr y on war wi th T u rk e y on e q u al f oot i n g and soon ,

a tr e aty for p e a c e was m ad e .

N o w R u ss i a p u t h e rs e lf forward and t h e C z ar d e m and e d ,

a tr e aty wh i c h m u c h fa v or e d B u l g ar i a A t th i s p o i nt B e a c ons
l
.

fie d r e c o g n i z e d t h e f a c t th a t R u ss i a w a nt e d to g e t T u r k e y
i nto h e r own p owe r and th e r e by e nt e r Constant i no p l e wh i c h
, ,

l
wo u ld g iv e R u ss i a t h e c ontrol of t h e B la c k Se a Th e r e for e .

B e a c o n s fie d u s e d all t h e i nfl u e n c e h e c o u ld t o p r e s e r v e p e a c e
b e twe e n R u ss i a and T u rk e y .

“
B y th i s t i m e R u ss i a had ad v an c e d h e r for c e s a s f a r as
Adr i ano p l e
l
.

“
R u ss i a c la i m e d as s h e always h a d that s h e was o o k m
, ,

aft e r t h e i nt e r e sts of t h e Chr i st i an s u b j e c ts of t h e Su ltan .

N o w th i s i s c e rta i nly a g ood c har i tabl e and c o m m e ndabl e

, ,

p p
u r os e b u t i t i s c e rta i n that th e r e w a s a d e e p e r m ot iv e than
,

th i s wh i c h m ad e R u ss i a so anx i o u s to i nte rfe r e w i th T u r k e y ,

l
na m e l y R u ss i a wante d c ontrol of Constant i no p l e
,
‘
.
’

B e a c o n s fie d u nd e rstood th i s to b e R u ss i a s ob j e c t and h e
’
,

i m m e d i at e ly ord e r e d tr0 0 p s to b e pla c e d u nd e r ar m s r e ady to ,

atta c k R u ss i a at a n y m o m e nt ; and h e told R u ss i a that i f s h e

ad van c e d f u rth e r than A dr i ano p l e h e wo u ld c ons i d e r i t a

lwant d to hold
( 61 5 21 5 5 6 115 .

“
B e a c o n s fie d e a
onfe r e n c e of t h e G r e at c

Powe rs of E u ro pe whos e d e c i s i on c on c e rn i ng T u rk e y sho u ld

,

b e fi nal B u t R u ss i a wo u ld not ag r e e to any s u c h t r e a t y u nl e ss

.

c e rta i n a g r e e m e nts wh i c h we r e favorabl e to R u ss i a m ad e

l
, ,

abo u t a ye ar b e for e shou ld b e adh e r e d to B e a c o n s fie d on

,
.
,

t h e oth e r hand wo u ld not l i st e n to R u ss i a s d e m a nd a n d for

’

, , ,

l
a t i m e i t s e e m e d as tho u g h war w a s c e r t a i n B u t b y a p r iv at e
, . .

c ons u ltat i on w i th R u ss i a B e a c o n s fie d g o t R u ss i a to a g r e e to
,

a tre aty at B e rl i n Et c e t c. .
,
.

I n thi s fo r e n si c t hough t h e w rit e r has e vi d e n t l y r e ad a

,

l ittl e on h is sub j e ct an d has i n h is poss e s sion t h e c aus e s

giving ri s e t o t h e q u e st ion and t h e id e a t hat i s of m os t
 l
A R G U / I E /V TA T OzV
/
l . 19

impo r tanc e fo r h i s s id e of t h e cas e that R us s ia wish e d

—

to gain cont r ol of C on stanti nopl e and t h e B lack Se a

w e d o not u nd e r stand b e caus e h e has n e g l e ct e d al l t h e
,

r u l e s fo r cl e a r n e s s forc e an d e l e ganc e t h e o r igin of

, , ,

t h e qu e st ion e xact l y what i s i n d isput e o r t h e r e l at iv e

, ,

impo r tan c e of t h e id e a s a d vanc e d an d t h e i r con n e ct ion s .

3 . Th e P lf
a ce o Ru lf
es o E v i d en c e i n A rg zm ze n ta l ’

zon .

St il l oth e r w o r k t h e r e i s too i n A r gum e ntation Wh e n

, , .

a man a r gu e s h e p r oduc e s r e ason s fo r h is be l i e fs Th e s e .

rea 3 ma d e e n d on hi s 0 n t h i n k i n o r e x e r i e nc e ,

o r e x e r i e n c e of s om e o n e e l s e
.

It is .

e vi d e nt that wh e n w e a r e ask e d t o con si d e r w h at t h e

sp e ak e r o r w r it e r o r hi s w it n e s s has th ought w e can t e st ,

t h e a r gu m e nt by l aws of r e asonin g of l ogic ; but w h e n , ,

as i s oft e n t h e ca s e t h e qu e s t ion i s n ot t h e co rr e ct n e s s
,

of a l ogical p roc e s s i n i ts e l f but s i m p l y t h e r e l iabi l ity of

,

t h e w r it e r o r wit n e ss i s t h e r e any r e as on why h e cann o t

,

b e t rust e d a s t o t h e fact s f r om w hich h e r e ason s pl ain ly ,

t e st s n ot m e r e l y l ogical m u s t b e ap pl i e d Such te st s fo r .

d e t e rmin ing t h e r e l iabi l ity of a w it n e ss t h e r e a r e an d ,

e ve ry su cc e ss fu l w r it e r of argum e nt at io n mu s t kno w
th e s e .

Lo rd Er ski n e i n h i s d e f e n s e o f Lo r d G e o r g e G o rd o n
'

, ,

m e e t ing t h e obj e ct ion of t h e So l icito r G e n e ral that fu r y ,

“

supp l i e s a r m s t o g ath e r i ngs without w e a po ns an d t hat , ,

t h e r e fo r e e v e n w h e n u narm e d an e xcit e d g a t h e f i n g m a y
'

, ,

b e t r e a s on ab l e u s e d not o nly t h e e vi d e n c e of hi s own

,

t hought i n s ho w in g t h e d istin ct ion b e t w e e n t h e cas e

cit e d by t h e Sol i c it o r G e n e ral and that of Lo rd G o rd o n ,

bu t a l so t h e th ought of J u st ic e s F ost e r an d C ok e an d t h e ,
 20 A R G U M E N TA T O/V l .

e xp e ri e n c e of D a m a r e e w ho h ad b e e n a rr e st e d fo r ,

1
t r e ason . A s far as h e u s e d t h e t ho u ght s of oth e r m e n ,

h e coul d t e s t t h e i r r e as on in g by law s of l ogic ; but wh e n

h e u s e d not t h e con c l u s ion s t hat m e n dr e w f r om t h e s e
,

e xp e r i e nc e s but m e r e l y t h e i r s tat e m e nt of what t h e e x

,

p e r i e n c e s w e r e h e coul d n
, o l ong e r app l y t e s t s of l ogi c ,

h e mu st i n qu e st ion ing wh e t h e r t h e y coul d o r wou l d

,

t e l l what t h e y r e al ly saw o r d i d t e s t cha r act e r wi l l and , , ,

int e l l e ct . Fo r th e s e t h e t e st s m ust b e v e r y d i ff e r e nt .

Wh e n h e e xam in e d t h e e vi d e nc e of Wil l iam H ay again st

’
Lo rd G o r d on it was a t e st of H ay s d e s i r e to s p e ak t h e t ruth
t hat h e ch i e fl y appl i e d 2
W e m u st l e a r n t h e n not only
.
, ,

how t o attack i nco r r e ct dr awing of conc l us ion s f r om d ata

giv e n but how t o t e s t wh e th e r t h e d at a a re co rr e ctly
,

r e po r t e d .

T H E R EL A T I O N S OF T I IE F O U R D I V I SI O N S .

C l e a rl yt h e n kn o wl e d g e ho w t o d i st in gu i s h goo d f r om
, ,

ba d r e asonin g Logic , 0 fo r mulat ion of which w ith

,

ca r e full y s e l e ct e d nam
l
r a l l t h e p r oc e s s e s an d th e i r ‘

V e e m e n t s con st itut e s F o r m a l Logic i s but t h e w a r p ,

' —

wh ich r u ns t h r ough t h e c l oth of Ar gum e ntat ion ; an d

l
knowl e dg e of t h e r ul e s of P e r suasi on of R h e toric and of , ,

Evid e nc e a r e t h e th r e a d s of t h e woof i v e n as t h e w a r p .

m ingl e s wit h t h e woof s o i t is by c a r e f u l r e asoni ng that ,

e ac h of th e s e S p e cial s e t s of r ul e s i s appl i e d t o t h e cas e

i n han d Th e r e fo r e A r g u m e ntat ion m e an s mu ch mo r e

.
,

t han t h e m e r e a p p l icat ion of t h e l aws of Logic .

1 Sp ec i m e n s f
o A rg u m e n ta t i on ( M o d e rn ) , pp . I O3 .

2 1 dem I I I I I
pp 5
-

, .
.
o r
WH Y A K N OW L ED G E OF FO R M A L . L O G I C Is NOT ESS E N T I A L
To C A R EF U L ST U D Y OF A R G U M E N TA T I O N .

T/ze Fi rs t R th e n Logic i s but t h e

e a s on —
Si n c e , ,

warp of A r gu m e nt at ion i t ha rdl y s e e m s p r obab l e t hat ,

t o t e ach it on l y i n t e rm s of F o r m a l Logic w i ll b e
sat i sfacto r y That w ou ld m e an n e g l e ct of a ll t hat
.

mak e s t h e w oof B u t th e r e a r e ot h e r obj e ct ion s t o

.

c on s i d e rin g p r e l i m in a ry s tu d y of Fo r m a l Logic a s an
e s s e nt ia l t o goo d a r gu m e ntat io n Y ou can not of c ou r s e .
, ,

st u d y w hy s om e r e a s on ing i s go o d an d s om e bad
1
without g e tt in g a kn o wl e d g e of Logic an d t h e r e fo r e , , ,

i t i s an im po r tant pa r t of a l l a r gum e ntat ion ; but you

can s t u d y w hy s om e r e a s on i ng i s goo d and s om e ba d
wit h but v e r y sl ight u s e of t h e t e ch n ica l n am e s an d
s ym bo l s t hat hav e b e e n ag r e e d u po n a s conv e n i e nt by
sch ola r s of Logic fo r it s o w n s ak e as a sc i e nc e That , .

i s w it h t h e n om e n c l at u r e t h e d i s t in ction s o f t h e s ci
, , ,

e n t i fic fo r m u l atio n of t h e l aws of r e a s on in g a stu d e nt ,

of A r gu m e ntat ion n e e d s t o t r ou bl e h im s e l f but l itt l e .

I nd e e d t h e r e a re st r ong obj e ct io n s to h i s p r e pa r in g hi m
,

s e l f by s t u d y o f F o r m a l Logic T h e fi rs t r e a s on Pr of e s so r .

Si d g w ick s tat e s a s fo ll o w s

T he s u b j e c t that i s u s u ally ta u ght as L og i c [i n th i s book

c all e d For m al L o g i c g iv e s l i ttl e or no h e l p i n r e gard to t h e
]
a c t u al d i ffic u lt i e s of r e ason i ng or as to t h e so u r c e s of t h e m or e
,

p la u s i b l e k i nds of e rror and v e rbal c onf u s i on A s a h i stor i c al .

st u dy i t m a y ha v e g re at val u e for t h e f e w who ha v e t i m e to —

p u rs u e i t as a p art of t h e g e n e ral h i story of p h i loso p hy A s a .

1 L o gi c i s a l
l
abo ut a rg um en ts, a n d l i i i
h e p s u s t o d s t n g u s h s o u n d a rg u
”
i ik
lk
m e n t s f ro m unso und o n es . A . S d g w c , Tb e P r oces s of A rg um e n t , p 2 . .

A . C . B ac , 1 89
3 .
 A R G U M E N T/ 1 TI O IV .

me ntal e x e r c i s e i t m a y or m a y not b e a s g ood as a g a m e of

c h e ss B u t f o r t h e p u r p os e h e r e k e p t i n V i e w O f g a i nin
g
—
.

so m e i ns i g ht i nto t h e d i st i n c t i on b e twe e n so u nd and u nso u nd

i n f e re n c e l i t i s an O p e n q u e st i on wh e th e r t h e g ood or t h e
—

h a r m i t do e s i s t h e g r e at e r Tak e n as a w hol e i t i s an a c c u m u .
,

lat i on of O dds a n d e nds that ha v e s u rv iv e d fro m v ar i o u s o u t

g rown p h i loso p h i e s ; and SO far as i t do e s d e al w i th t h e d i s
t i n c t i on b e tw e e n so u nd and u nso u nd i nf e r e n c e s i t i ntrod u c e s ,

an art ifi c i al s i m pl ifi c at i on of t h e d i f fi c u lt i e s i n too u nyi e ld i n g a

for m For i t t e lls u s only what t h e so u ndn e ss of i nfe r e n c e s
.

d e p e nds u pon wh e n w e ass u m e that t h e words i n wh i c h th e y

a r e e x p r e ss e d a r e fr e e f ro m a m b i u i t y I n a c t al i nf r n es
g u e e c .

th i s ass u m pt i on i s n e v e r str i c tly i n a c c ord a n c e wi th t h e fa c ts ,

and i s l e ast i n a c c orda n c e wi th th e m wh e n t h e so u ndn e ss of

t h e i nfe r e n c e i s m ost d e b atabl e That i s t h e c h i e f r e ason why .

an a pp e al to Syllog i st i c L o g i c i s g e n e rally so u n c on vi n c i n g .

N o w that t h e d i r e c t i n q u i ry i nto N at u r e i s O pe n to al m ost e v e ry

i li i i i l
y
ly
be bu t
l
1 “
T h e f o rm a t o n of a ef or Op n on , n ot as d re c t o b s e r ve d ,

as c o n s t ra n e d i by o bser v tia on s m a de o f o th e r m a t te rs or i be ef s a re a d

a d o p te d ; a l so the s ys t em of
p ro
p os t ii p ro o f s c o n n e c t e d t o g e t h e r b y
on s or

in t i ti W h en we m a e th e k
l
l l
Ce n t u ry D i c t i on a ry
”

l
s u ch a n a c t o a pro p o s on . .

s ta te m en t, A ix s i
p e n c e s a re c o i n e d a t T o we r H
”
( s e e Je v o n s s P r i m er 4
’

i i i
l
d
l
l
f
l
L gio
p 53)
c, w . e o n b
re a c h e d t h is O p
y f re c e f i t n i t m a e o m n e n , or s no r

i i i i k
l
f b f d
l
p er o n
s a o b s e t o f t h
r va c on g a t h e ec o o n n t o m n
o o w e ge n s, u r

E g l i h S il e r c i s a e c i e d a t T w
l
l
tha t a

l
o th

l
l
f tw
l
o o m a t te s er r : n s v o n r o n o er

H i ; a d th t n ixp c e s a E g li s h ilve r c o i n s I t w i b e s e e a
a a s en re n s . n, s

d fi i ti i f e e c e s t t e d t h a t w e h a ve y t e m o f t w o p o p o i
l
l
o ur e n f on o an n r n a , a s s r s

ti i h i y i
l
) h c h p o d ce d T h a t is e ha e

l
ons ( t sen w e n ce s t r u w a g r m .
, v a s o s .

“
T he ti
e ss e np t o f aa y l g
ar s i s m r e s h o t ‘
ss t en c s (o
o a s se tio
’
a ) r en e r r ns

f wh i c h o e i c l u si o n f r m th e th e s b ei g

l
t wo t h e e
’
the

l
‘
o nc s a on o o r , s o r n

l d t h e p e m i e s T h e l a tio b e t w n p e m is e a d c o c s i o i
l
‘ ’
ca e r s . re n ee r s n n u ns s

c h t h a t t h e l a t t r i s c o n t a i e d (i m p i e d i vo l e d ) i t h m a i g f
l
su e n or n v n e e n n o

tak B t i t is al e sse ti

l l
th e f o rm r wh en t h e se a
e t gethe re en o to a r . u so n a

yll g is m t h a t o n e f t h p m i h l b a g e e a i a tion ti

l
th e ss

l l
s o o e re ses s a e n r z —
a er on

l i e r p e m is es m sio

ll
h h st co n ect th e co c

l
o f g
a e en e ra w ru t h t e e o r u n n u n

wi th i t i i i ck

l l l
d
l
d
l
”
s , pae c a c s ta h t g e e ase u n S
er g w a p p 2 1 9 2 20
n ra ru e .
, .
,
.

s yl i d b f r m J f i f
’
’
Th e g s m os u e s P im
a o ve L
o g t a tes
e vo n s r er o o zc us r a o

th e s e di t i c ti o s n ns .
 A R G U M E N T A TI O JV .

he tak e s u s into anoth e r fi e l d of A rgum e ntat ion t h e ,

rh e to r i ca l and bids u s apply t h e r ul e s giv e n u s to

,

p r odu c e cl e a r n e s s i n o u r wo r k .

T/ze S e c oi za R e a s o n I t i s of co u rs e e vid e nt t hat w e

’
.
, ,

mu s t hav e som e nam e s fo r t h e p roc e s s e s of thought

which w e s hall u s e but fo r a r e ason stat e d by P rof e sso r
,

Sidgwick —
t h e s e cond r e ason why Fo r mal Logic i s of

but l ittl e u s e t o t h e p ractical s tud e nt of A r gum e n tation

w e Shal l u s e as f e w as poss ib l e .

A l m ost v e ry o n e wo u ld ad m i t that t h e t e c hn i c al t e r m s of
e

what i s u s u ally ta u g ht as L og i c For m al L o g i c ] a r e to a

g r e at e x t e nt s u r viv als fro m p h i loso p h i e s n o w v e ry lar e ly s u e r
g p
se de d A s e x e r c i s e s for t h e st u d e nt s m e m ory and as a f ford i n g
’
.
,

m at e r i al for e x a m i nat i on q u e st i ons th e y m a y st i ll ha v e a v al u e, .

To t h e thoro u g h g o i ng st u d e nt of t h e h i stor y of ph i loso p h y

-

th e y w i ll p ro b ab ly always b e i nt e re st i n g B u t for any oth e r .

p pu r os e,
e x c e p t that of c a u s in
g c onf u s i on and h i nd e r i n ro
g p g
r e ss i n a s u b j e c t wh i c h i s d i f fi c u lt e no u g h e v e n wi tho u t th e m
th e y ha v e lon g b e e n los i n g t h e v al u e th e y for m e rl y had L o g i c .

[ For m al L o g ]i c b r i stl e s w i th t e r m s wh i c h ha ve g rad u ally s u n k

o u t of u s e
”
.

T h e b e st r e for m w e c a n p ro p os e i s to follow t h e p ra c t i c e
of c o m m on s e ns e and dro p th e s e t e c hn i c a l i t i e s q u i e tly o u t of
,
‘ ’

r e m e m b ran c e In ord e r to do th i s w e n e e d not know b e for e

.

hand p r e c i s e ly what th e y a re W e n e e d only ado p t t h e Si m p l e

.

r u l e that t h e fi rst q u e st i on to b e ask e d r e g ard i n g any lo g i c al

t e c hn i c al i ty i s What i s i ts a c t u al v al u e i n h e l p i n g u s to u nd e r
,

stand t h e p ro c e ss o f arg u m e nt 1

W e shall t h e n wit h th is p r e l i mina r y ana l ysis of t h e

, ,

fi e l d of A r gum e ntation study Logic on l y i n it s p r act ical ,

app l ication i n c ont r ov e r sy of what e v e r kin d A p p l i e d .

1 i
S dg w i ck , Tb c P f
r oces s o A rg u m en t, pp . I 99, 2 00 .
 A R G U M E N TA TI O /V . 25

l
Logic w e may c al l it I n c o nt radist in ct ion t o F o r m al
, ,

L og i c l ogi c t r e at e d as a s c i e n c e wh i c h w e sha l n e gl e c t
, , ,

e xc e p t as w e bo rr o w a f e w t e r m s fro m it .

T H ERE A RE Two M A I N K I N DS OF A R GU M EN TAT IO N .

A rg u m e ntation i n g e n e ra l nat u ral l y divid e s into two

kind s —
t hat wh i c h i s w r it t e n an d that which i s spok e n
, .

Ev e n as t h e fi rst d ivis ion b road ly con s id e r e d ,

m ay ,

i n c l u d e t h e hast i ly w r itt e n n ot e u rging a fri e nd fo r

c e rtain s tat e d r e ason s t o d o t hi s or that ; t h e sp e e ch ,

ca r e f u lly w ritt e n o u t b e fo r e han d an d d e l iv e r e d f rom w e l l

ar rang e d not e s ; o r t h e ca r e ful ly pond e r e d a r ti cl e on a
sc i e nt ifi c h isto r ica l o r p u r e ly l it e ra r y su bj e ct ; so t h e
, ,

s e con d may e xt e n d from t h e m e r e cont r ov e r s ial chat

b e tw e e n fri e nd s th r ough t h e d e l iv e r y f r om m e m ory of a
,

c a r e f u lly p r e p ar e d sp e e ch t o a m ast e r ly e xt e m p oran e o u s

,

argu m e ntat io n I t i s at on c e e vid e nt t hat t h e two d ivi

.

s ion s som e t i m e s ov e rla p o r t hat w e shou l d p e r haps m ak e

, , ,

a m idd l e d ivi sio n fo r t h e arg u m e ntat ion that i s fi rs t ca r e

car e ful ly writt e n o u t and t h e n c om m itt e d to m e mory o r
r e d u c e d to a n e at but bri e f s e t of not e s f r o m whi c h t h e
aut ho r can s p e ak appar e ntly e xt e m po ran e ou sl y I nd e e d .
,

A rg u m e ntat ion that do e s not r e st on pr e pa r atory writt e n

wo rk is e xc e e d in gly rar e e xc e pt as m e n m e e t info r m al ly
,

at t h e hou s e s of fri e nd s at clubs o r i n t h e st re e t s

, , .

Evid e ntly t h e n if w e st u dy t h e laws of A rgum e ntativ e

, ,

C o m pos it io n , what e v e r i n L ogic i n R h e to ric i n m e thods , ,

of P e rs u as ion i n r u l e s of Evid e nc e w e mu st u n d e rstand

, ,

if w e a r e t o writ e w e l l argum e nt atio n t hat i s to b e p r i nt e d ,

o r d e l iv e r e d b e fo r e an aud i e n c e w e sh a ll h av e m ast e r e d
,
—

al l that w e n e e d to kno w of Succ e ssfu l A r gum e nt at ion in

26 A R G U /V E /V TA T O/V l .

g e n e ral e x c e pt what an art which has noth ing to d o with

,

A rgum e ntat iv e C om p o sit ion but is in disp e n sabl e to t h e ,

s p e ak e r Elocut ion has to off e r

,
That a r t t e ach e s us
,
.

how t o Sp e ak t o stand t o g e st iculat e

,
I t l i e s ho w e v e r
,
.
, ,

outsi d e t h e fi e ld of a book l i k e t h is and ou r st u dy wil l b e ,

confi n e d to Arg u m e ntat iv e C om pos it ion t o A rg u m en —

t a t i o n that i s w r itt e n W e Shall con s i d e r Spok e n A r

.

m e n t a t i o n only wh e n t h e rul e s that u n d e r l i e t h e two

g u

d ivi s ion s a r e t h e sam e .

T H E R EL A T I O N OF A R G U M E N T AT I V E C O M P O SIT I O N To

R H ET O R I C .

Sinc e a know l e dg e of R h e to ric o f t h e l aws of c l e a r —

n e s s forc e and e l e gan c e i n styl e and of t h e u s e of

, , ,

D e sc ript ion N arrat ion and Ex p osition

, i s e s s e ntial t o
,
—

st r ong A r g u m e ntat ion and Sin c e t h e g r e at e r pa r t of al l

,

a r gu m e n tat ion i s i n it s fi r st o r it s fi na l fo r m w r itt e n wo rk ,

A rg u m e ntat iv e C om pos ition w e s e e why A rgum e ntat ion ,

i s i nc l u d e d i n a cou rs e in R h e to r i c I t i s st udi e d l at e i n .

t h e cou rs e b e cau s e as a subj e ct it i s m o r e r e gu l a rl y

,

inc l u siv e than t h e oth e r ch i e f d ivi sion s D e sc r ipt ion

( which “
p r od uc e s i n t h e m in d of t h e r e ad e r a pict u r e of

c e r tain obj e ct s o r N ar r ation ( whi ch giv e s an “

account of an e v e nt o r a s e r i e s of e v e nt s and Ex po s i
t i on ( which e xp l ain s t h e th e o ry u n d e rlyi ng a g r oup of
“

conn e ct e d an d d e p e nd s on t h e a i d of all of th e s e
to p r o d u c e t h e e f f e ct s it aim s at T h e in t e rd e p e nd e nc e .

of th e s e kind s of com posit ion an d t h e in c l us iv e n e ss of

A rg u m e ntat iv e C o m posi tion will p r obab l y b e st b e e x
plain e d by an i ll u st rat ion .

Wr i t i n g l
l
l
1 I n t r od u c t i on t o TIzem e .
1 B
. . F e t ch e r an d G R C a rp e n t e r
. . .

A y n 8r B a co n . 1 8 94 .
p . 2 .
 A R G U / / E /V TA TI OJV l . 27

Er sk i n e , i n hi s d e f e n s e of Lo r d G e o r g e G o r don v e ry ,

e arly e xpoun d e d t h e l a w of t r e aso n ; i n apply ing it t o t h e

ca s e b e fo r e h im h e n a rr at e d t h e hi sto r y of t h e Pr ot e stant
,

A s sociat ion ; h e d e sc r ib e d t h e con d u c t of t h e w itn e s s e s i n

giving t h e i r e vid e nc e an d in t h e i r w o r d s t h e e v e nt s of
, , ,

t h e day of t h e riot s T hat i s i n o rd e r t o p r ov e t hat Lo rd

.
,

G e o r g e G o rd on was not gu ilty of t r e ason h e r e p e at e dly ,

m a d e u s e of t h e t h r e e ot h e r m e thod s of e xp r e s sion
D e s c r iption N a rr ation and Expo s it ion
, , .

TH E P U R P O SE OF T H IS BOO K .

Th e obj e c t of thi s book th e n i s th r e e fo ld F i rs t it

, ,
.
,

aim s to Sho w a st u d e nt how i f n e e d b e h e may hop e t o , ,

p r o d uc e i n t h e m ind of som e o n e e l s e a b e l i e f i n t h e t r u th
of t h e i d e a s wh i c h h e ho l d s to b e t r u e to Sho w how h e ,

m ay b e st co nvinc e an d p e r sua d e h i s h e a r e r o r r e a d e r of
t h e t r uth of hi s wo r d s T h e s t u d e nt d e p e n d in g on a
.
,

know l e d g e of R h e to r ic as fa r as it con c e r n s D e sc r i ption ,

N a rr at ion Expos it ion an d t h e la w s of cl e a r n e s s fo rc e

, , , ,

an d e l e ganc e wh ich has p r e viou sly b e e n gain e d i s

, ,

t o e xam in e how t h e s e ki n d s of composit ion ai d i n a r gu

m e n t a t i v e wo r k how t h e l a ws of c l e arn e s s fo r c e and
, , ,

e l e gan c e apply to it H e i s t o con si d e r ca r e fu l ly why

.

o n e kind of r e ason ing i s good an d anoth e r ba d i e is to , . .

,

study Logic which wil l p r e par e h i m by e xp e r i e n c e fo r an

,

i nt e l l ig e nt l at e r st u d y i f h e wi s h e s of F o r m a l Logi c
, , ,

which t abu l at e s an d n am e s t h e p roc e s s e s and e l e m e nt s of

p r oc e s s e s of r e a s on ing that a r e t h e warp of any a r g u m e n
t a t i on
. H e i s to stu d y al so what m ak e s good an d what
, ,

ba d e vid e nc e apa r t f r om it s l ogical co nvi n cingn e s s i s t o ,

ai n t h e knowl e dg e of fundam e nt al d i st inct i on s i n e vi

g
28 A R G U JI E N TA TI OJV .

d e nc e t hat m u st p r e c e d e any study by hi m of t h e sp e cia l

r ul e s for t h e int e rp r e tat ion of e vid e n c e t hat hav e g r o w n
u p i n t h e court s an d a r e appl icabl e only i n t h e m Last l y .
,

h e is to study what a r e t h e e stabl ish e d r u l e s of P e r s u a

l
sion i n what way s h e m a y most r e a d ily an d mo s t e ff e ct
,

i v e y m ov e m e n on t h e subj e ct h e i s t r e ating .

A S ha s b e e n al r e ady po i nt e d out t h e stud e nt too w ho

, ,
-

do e s n ot e n t e r i n to d e bat e w i th any f e llow b e i ng but -

st r iv e s to fo r m d e l ib e r at e ly a co rr e ct j udgm e nt o n som e
qu e st ion i n h is sp e cial fi e ld of wo r k o r on som e topic of

l
t h e hou r can i n a v oidi n g p itfa lls l e ft i n hi s pat h con
, ,

s c io u s o r u ncon sc i ou sly by oth e r s o r p r e pa r e d fo r h im

y
by hi s own lack of t ra i ni ng i n a r gum e ntation m ak e u s e of ,

t h e r u l e s an d su gg e stion s to b e giv e n i n th is book It is .

again st t h e f r am e of m ind altog e t h e r t oo fr e qu e nt in

—

co l l e g e stu d e nt s c rit ici s e d by C a rd inal N e wman in t h e

—

fol l owi ng e xt r act that t his l ittl e book is pa r t icu l a rl y

d i r e ct e d
W hat i s or e c o m m on than t h e s i g ht of g rown m e n
m ,

talk i n g on pol i t i c al or m oral or r e l i gi o u s s u b j e c ts i n that o ff

l
,

hand i dl e wa y wh i c h w e s i g n i fy by t h e word u n r ea ?
, ,
That
th e y s i m ply do not know what th e y a r e talk i ng ab o u t i s t h e ’

s pontan e o u s s i l e nt r e m ar k of any m a n of s e ns e who h e ard

,

th e m H e n c e s u c h p e rsons ha v e no d i ffic u lty i n c ontrad i c t i ng

.

th e m s e lve s i n s u c c e ss iv e s e nt e n c e s w i tho u t b e i n g c ons c i o u s of

,

i t H e n c e oth e rs whos e d e fe c t i n i nt e ll e c t u al tra i n i n g i s m or e

.
,

lat e nt hav e th e i r m ost u nfort u nat e c rot c h e ts as th e y a r e c all e d

, , ,

or ho b b i e s wh i c h d e p ri v e th e m of t h e i nfl u e n c e wh i c h th e i r
,

e st i m a b l e q u al i t i e s wo u l d oth e rw i s e s e c u r e H e n c e oth e rs c a n
.

n e v e r look strai g ht b e for e th e m n e v e r s e e t h e p o i nt and ha v e

, ,

no d i ffi c u lt i e s i n t h e m ost d i f fi c u lt s u b j e c ts O th e rs a r e h O p e
.

l e ssly ob st i nat e and p r e j u d i c e d and aft e r th e y hav e b e e n

, ,

d r iv e n fro m th e i r o p i n i ons r e t u rn to th e m t h e n e x t m o m e nt
,
 I E N TA TI OIV
’

A R G U JV . 29

w i tho u t e v e n an atte m pt to e x p la i n why O th e rs a re so i n t e m .

p e rat e and i ntra c ta b l e that th e r e i s no gr e at e r c ala m i ty for a

good c au s e than that th e y sho u ld g e t hold of i t It i s ve ry .

p la i n fro m t h e v e ry p a r t i c u lars I ha v e m e nt i on e d that i n th i s ,

d e l i n e at i on of i nt e ll e c t u al i n firm i t i e s I a m drawi ng ,
fro m
t h e world at large ; I a m r e f e rr i n g to an e vi l wh i c h i s for c e d

u p on i n e v e ry ra i lway c arr i ag e i n e v e ry c o f fe e roo m or

ll
us ,
-

t a b e rt zote i n e v e ry m i x e d c o m p any
’
-

.
,

“
W h e n t h e i nt e ll e c t has on c e b e e n p ro p e rly tra i n e d and
form e d to ha v e a c onn e c t e d vi e w or gras p of th i ngs i t w i ll d i s ,

p lay i ts p ow e rs w i th m o r e or l e ss e f f e c t a c c ord i ng to i ts p art i e

u lar
q u al i ty and c a p a c i ty i n t h e i nd i v i dual In t h e cas e of m ost .

m e n i t m ak e s i ts e lf f e lt i n t h e g ood s e ns e sobr i e ty of tho u ght , .

,

r e asonabl e n e ss c ando u r s e lf c o m m and and st e ad i n e ss of vi e w

, ,
-

, ,

wh i c h c hara c t e r i z e i t I n so m e i t w i ll have d e v e lo pe d hab i ts

.

of b u s i n e ss p owe r of i nfl u e n c i ng oth e rs and sagac i ty In

, ,
.

oth e rs i t w i ll e l i c i t t h e tal e nt of ph i loso ph i c al s pe c u lat i on and ,

l e ad t h e m i nd forward to e m i n e n c e i n th i s or that i nt e ll e c t u al
d e part m e nt I n all i t w i ll b e a fa c u lty of e nt e r i n g w i th c o m
.

p a r a t i ve e as e i nto any s u b j e c t of tho u g ht and of tak i ng u p ,

wi th a pt i tu d e any s c i e n c e or profe ss i on 1
.
”

I n b r i e f th e n thi s book ai m s to ai d co ll e g e s tu
, ,

d nt s
e i n acqu i r ing t h e abi l ity t o m ak e an i n s t i nct iv e
“
,

l
j u st e st imat e of t hings as t h e y pa s s b e fo r e t h e m
l
,

’
s o m e tim e s a n a t ti ra gift but com mo n l y r ot gai n e d w_i_ th
, ,

ou t much e f fo rt an d t h e e x e r ci s e of y e a r s 2
.
”

1 N e w m a n , I d ea f
o U n i ve r s i ty . Lo n g m a n s G
. re e n 8: C o . 1 888 . P re f a c e .

pp . xv fi—
x v fii

[d e f / 1 , p . x vi .
 C H A P T ER II .

A N A L Y SI S .

T H R EE C O N D I T I O N S N E C E SSA R Y F O R SU C C ESSF U L
A R GU M EN TA T I O N .

N o rd e r to argu e c l e arly th r e e co nd it ion s a r e ab s o l ut e l y

n e c e ssa r y : to know ( I ) What t h e qu e st io n m e an s ;
2 ) What you b e l i e v e about it and why ; ) H ow you
( , ( 3 a r e

t o stat e you r cas e so that (a ) you shall convinc e and ( o) ,

p e r sua d e To know what t h e q u e st ion t o b e di s cu s s e d

.

m e an s ha s two s i g n i fic a t i o n s : t o know j ust what i s t h e

poi nt i n d isput e t h e id e a about wh ich t h e e ss e nt ial di ff e r
,

e nc e of O pin ion ari s e s ; an d to know what i s t h e work to

b e don e wh at id e as mu st b e prov e d t r u e if a concl usi on in

, ,

favo r of o n e s i d e o r t h e oth e r i s to b e r e ach e d .

A N A L Y S I S, TH E F I R ST G R E A T D I V I SI O N OF A R G U M E N TA T I VE
C O M P O SI T I O N .

To fi nd out what t h e r e al point i n d isput e is w e mu s t ,

ca r e fully e xamin e t h e m at e rial w e can coll e ct i n r e ga rd to

t h e sub j e ct an d by plac i ng on o n e s id e all t h e i d e as upon
,

wh i c h ou r O ppon e nt ad m it s hi s r e ad in e ss to ag r e e with
u s ; by e xcl udin g bit by bi t a l l id e as that m u st b e admi tt e d
to b e i r r e l e vant ; by subo rdinat ing what i s l e s s im portant
t o what i s mo r e so ; r e ach t h e p ivotal id e a o r id e as T hat .

i s to fi nd j u st what i s t h e qu e st ion w e m ust an aly z e ca r e

, ,

ful l y fo r analys is i s a proc e ss of e xc l u s ion fo r a c e nt r a l

,
“
 A A o U M E N TA T/ ozv
)
.

R H ET O R I C A L ST R U C T U R E AND P E R SU A SI O N T H E T wo
PA RT S OF TH E T H IRD G R E A T D I V I SI O N .

Wh e n h ow e v e r w e kn ow by an alys i s what t h e q u e s
, ,

t i o n i s what r e l at i ons t h e id e as t o b e con s id e r e d b e a r to

,

o n e anoth e r ,and w hat i s t h e e vid e nc e u p on w hich w e

r e st o u r b e l i e f w e st i l l n e e d to st u dy how w e may b e s t
,

p u t t h i s q u e stion and it s s upport i ng e v i d e nc e b e fo r e a

h e ar e r o r r e ad e r so as to (a ) con v inc e and ( o) p e rsuad e
him . P l ainly e nou gh th e r e mu st b e c e rta i n l aws as
,

t o c l e a r n e ss fo r c e and e l e gan c e
, , rh e to rical laws of ,
—

st ruct u r e an d of styl e which wil l a i d u s i n (a ) C l e arly

,
-

.
,

t oo th e r e a r e l aws wh ich w i l l guid e u s i n app e alin g

,

l
di r e ctly o r i n d i r e ctly t o t h e e motion s of ou r h e a r e r s .

R /ze t or i ca S t r u c t u r e th e n co rr e spon d s t o (a ) an d P e r
, ,

s u a s i on to ( b) an d w e n ow s e e what a r e t h e r e m aining
,

two gr e at d ivi s ion s u nd e r which it is conv e ni e nt t o t r e at

A r gu m e ntat iv e C ompos ition .

I t is b e cau s e m e n n e gl e ct in th e i r argu ing o n e o r all , ,

of th e s e fou r d ivis ion s of A r gu m e ntation that w e h e a r so

m uch w r angling r e ad s o many d is c u s s ion s wh i c h com e t o
, ,

l
naught that a vagu e t e n d e ncy and a loos e app r oximation
,
“

to what i s r ight i s al l that w e c a n h o p e fo r fro m m i s c e

la n e o u s pub l ic O pin ion
1
I t i s u n d e r th e s e h e ad ings
.

that w e shal l cons id e r A r gu m e ntat iv e C o m pos it ion

T H E F I R ST ST E P IN A N A L YSI S .

As has b e e n said t h e fi r st work of A nalysis i s t o__fin d

,

Ot t what i s t h e r e a l PM on what it i s t hat t h e

\

(
basa l d i ff e r e n c e of opi n io n r e sts Th e r e a r e s e v e ral pos .

1 Ba ge h o t
’
s W o rk s, Tb e Ag e f
o D i s c u s s i on .
 M R G U M E N TA TI O/V . 33

s ibl e subo r d inat e st e ps i n t hi s w o r k . The fi r st i s t o s ee

t /za t y ou j h a ve
f y as t ue s u b ec t or ou r d i s c u s s i on n ot a ter m ,

1
t h e nam e of a thi ng o r qual ity as h o r s e hon e sty ou t a , , ,

p p
r o o s i t i o n an ass e rti on in r e gard t o a t e rm o r t e r m s ;
fo r in stan c e El e ct r icity wil l e v e n t u ally d ispl ac e t h e ho rs e
,
“

as a m e an s of locom ot i on ; H on e sty i s t h e ch i e f e s s e ntial

2
W
”
of ch a r act e r h e n w e j oin t e r.m s tog e th e r w
“
e m ak e ,

a p r opos ition ; w h e n w e j oi n p ropos it ion s tog e th e r w e ,

3
m ak e an a r gu m e nt o r p i e c e of r e ason ing ; wh e n w e ,

j oi n t h e a r gu m e nt s o r pi e c e s of r e ason i ng t og e th e r w e , , ,

hav e A r gu m e ntation .

WHY WE CA N N OT AR G U E A T ERM .

n e c e s sity fo r fi n d ing a p r opo s it ion as t h e su bj e ct

The
to d e bat e w i ll b e c l e a r if o nc e mo r e fo r a mom e nt w e , ,

e xa m i n e t h e n at u r e of A r gu m e ntat ion W e hav e d e fi n e d .

A r gu m e nt at ion as t h e art of produ ci ng i n t h e m i nd of

som e o n e e l s e a b e l i e f i n t h e i d e a s which t h e wr it e r o r
li l i iv
l
1 A o g ca te rm m a y c o n s s t o f an n um ber of n o u n s, sub sta n t or
y e

ob ectj ive , i
w th th e i
a rt c e s ,
p re p o s it io n s, a n d j
c o n u n c t o n s re i q u i re d to j oin
ill ly r i kes i k
l
li
them togeth er ; it is t e m if i t po n t s o u t, th

lj
st on one or m a us n

i l o f ob j e c t s

li
s n g e o b ect

l
”
of i m er L
a or co ect o n , or c as s . P r
of o i
g c,
J v im a
l
e ons, p . 1
5 . A h o rs e , one an th e h o rs e , the
g e n u s ; t he A eut an
the i
U n t e d St a t e s
l
Is a n ds ; t h e Se n a t e of e a ch o f t h e s e i s a t e rm .

ve i e t t o t a k e a h e a d i g
li lq ll
2 d be n o te d h e re tha t o f ten c o n

l l
It sho u i t is n n as n

ve s i a i W i e e c t i c i t y e t a l y d i s pl a c e
l l
in a c o n t ro r a rt c e a u es t on , a s, r ve n u

th e h o rs e as a m ea n s o f oco m o t o n ? i ”
f o t h i s p rm i t s a w i t e if h e f e e
r e r r, s

j i i u d c e a ga n s t hi m if for
li i l l l k
t h a t th e re i s p re , or an
y r e as o n an a p p e a ra n c e of

iy ive n i
l
b e st b e g
li
co m p ete m pa r t a t m ay t h e a rt c e, t o ho d ba c his o wn

con c us on , a n d i i f il i q i y
l ll l
n ot t o co m m t h m se un t th e a u d en ce i s u te rea d .

i y i
ll l li i y l
h o w e ve r, t h a t w h a t t h e wr t e r
il
be E
l
It m u st c e a r, rea trea ts i s e th er ec

i y i l
l
li l
d t h e h o rs e , E
”
t ri c i t y w u t m a te sp a c e et c .
, or e c tr c t wi n o t e ve n

tua y d sp a ce t h e h o rs e , a n a s se rt o n i in e i t h er case .

3 ’
L og i c , p
Je v o n s s P r im er i
f . 1 2 .
 A R G U /II E N TA TI OIV .

s p e ak e r w i s h e s t h e r e ad e r o r h e a r e r to acc e pt A b e l i e f .

about s om e t hing i s a f e e l ing how e v e r p r o d uc e d t hat th i s

, ,

“
som e t hin g is t r u e o r fal s e ; t h e r ight o r t h e wr ong
thing t o d o ; i nt e r e st ing o r u n w o r t hy ou r att e nt ion e t c ; , .

in b r i e f i s t h e acc e ptan c e of s om e s tat e m e nt about t h e

,

“
som e t hing i n pa s t p r e s e nt o r f u t u r e t im e Fo r i n stanc e
, , .
,

i n t r e at in g of P a r ochia l School s a r gum e ntat iv e l y w e d o ,

n ot m e r e l y d e sc r ib e t h e t e rm P aroch ia l Schoo ls n a rr at e ,

about t h e t e r m e xpound t h e t h e o r y u nd e rl ying t h e t e r m ;

,

we t r y t o m ak e o u r r e a d e r o r h e a r e r b e l i e v e t hat P a r och ia l
Schoo l s a r e co rr e ct i n th e o r y hav e d on e mu ch good shou ld
, ,

b e e ncou r ag e d o r t h e oppos it e s
,
i c w e t ry t o mak e t h e . .
,

h e ar e r o r r e a d e r acc e pt as t ru e s om e s tat e m e nt about t h e

t e rm P a r ochia l School s I n oth e r wo rd s s in c e w e t r e at a
.
,

stat e m e n t i n r e ga rd to a t e r m w e t r e at a p r oposition , .

Fo r a start i n De sc ri pti on N a rr at ion Expo sition a t e r m

, , ,

i s e nough ; an d as w e r e ga rd it f r om o n e point of V i e w o r
anoth e r w e d e s c rib e na rr at e o r e xpou n d it but w e can not
, , ,

i n A rgum e nt ation start with a t e r m ; w e m u s t fi r st f o r m u

l at e som e p r opo sit ion i n r e ga rd t o it W e can d e s c ri b e .

H arva rd C ol l e g e B o s t on C om m on t h e Y al e H a r va rd boat
, ,
-

r ac e i c can g i v e a pictu r e to an oth e r p e rson of w hat

, . .
,

th e s e t e r m s stan d fo r ; can w r it e a n ar r at iv e about any of

t he te r m s i e can giv e a hi s to ry of H a r va r d C oll e g e of
, . .
, ,

t h e B o st on C om mon of t h e Y al e H a r va rd boat r ac e as an
,
- -

an nual oc c u r r e nc e ; w e can e xpou n d t h e t h e ory of e duca

t io n fo r w h i ch H a r vard C oll e g e stand s t h e t h e ory w h ich ,

gav e b e ing t o an d has maintain e d B o s t on C om m on a s a

publ ic pl e asu r e g r o u nd t h e t h e o ry of ath l e t ic s whi c h p e r
-

mit s t h e an nual r e cu rr e n c e of t h e Y a l e H a rva rd r ac e s -

.

I n all t hi s wo r k w e hav e t r e at e d only of t h e t e r m s

r e ga rd e d f r om d iff e r e nt po int s of V i e w I f , how e v e r w e .
,
 A R G U I V EA TA TI O ZV 35
'

l
w i s h t o a r gu e w e m us t fi rst formu l at e so m e p ro po s i t Io n
,

about e ach of t h e t e r m s ; fo r i n stanc e t hat H a rva rd C o ,

l e ge Shou ld fo r pu rpo s e s of gov e r n m e n t of t h e stu d e nt s

, ,

b e d ivi d e d on t h e O xfo rd p l an i nto s e v e r a l s m a ll e r co l

, ,

l e g e s ; that B o s t on C om mo n s hou ld fo r e v e r b e p r ot e ct e d
f r om t h e g r e e d of co r po r ation s ; t hat t h e Y a l e H a rv a rd -

rac e s s ho w t h e sup e r io r ity of t h e Y a l e s t r o k eX e t c Wh e n .

Lo rd Ers ki n e ma d e h i s g r e at d e f e n s e oi L o rd G e o r g e
—
1

G o rd on cha r g e d w it h h igh t r e aso n h e d i d n ot a r gu e t h e

, ,

t e r m Lo rd G e o r g e G o rd on no r t h e t e r m high t r e a s on ; h e
'

d i d a rgu e t h e qu e s t i on t h e p r o po s it i o n I s Lo rd G e o r g e
, ,

G o rd on gu i l ty of t r e a s on ?

A P O SS I B L E C O N FU S l
ON .

To ar
g ue a s to Me m ea n i n
g f
o a te r m is n ot to ar
g ue a

t er m . J u s t h e r e it may b e n e c e s sa r y t o w a r n a b e gi nn e r
-

in A r gu m e ntatio n agai n s t a po s s i b l e confu sion H e ha s .

j ust b e e n to l d t hat w e can not a r gu e a t e r m that Lo rd ,

Ers ki n e d i d not a r gu e h igh t re a s on y e t i n t h e sp ee c h

“
,

t o w h ich h e i s r e f e rr e d h e w i ll fi n d that Lo rd Er skin e

,

Sp e n d s a l a r g e pa r t of hi s op e n ing w o rd s i n showi ng th at
”
t h e m e an ing of “
h igh t r e aso n i s ( I ) t o compa s s o r im agi n e
t h e d e ath of t h e king ( w h i ch d o e s not app l y i n t h e ca s e i n

qu e s t ion ) o r ( 2 ) t o l e vy w a r agai n s t h im i n hi s r e a l m by
,

p r e m e d itat e d O p e n act s of vio l e n c e host i l i ty an d fo r c e ; , ,

th at an act of t r e ason m u st b e O p e n im m e d iat e u n a m b i g , ,

u ou s t hat N oth in g out of that p l ai n l e t t e r s hou ld b e

“
,

b r ought wit hin t h e pa l e of t r e a s on by i nf e r e n c e o r c on

s t r uct i on H e r e c e r tain l y Lo rd Ers kin e s e e m s at fi r st
.
”

, , ,

s ight to a r gu e a t e r m
, M o r e ca r e ful t hi n kin g ho w ev e r
.
, ,

1 Sp ec i m en s o
f A rp i m en t at i o n ( M o d e rn ) , pp 8 6 .
—
1 53 .
 A R G UM E N TA TI O/ V .

wi l l show u s t hat w e do not argu e t h e t e rm unt i l w e ha v e

m ad e a p r oposit ion about i t T h e A ttorn e y G e n e r al had
.
-

i n h i s Sp e e ch p r e c e di n g L o rd Erskin e s cont e nd e d t hat ’

t h e ov e rt a c t s of L ord G e o rg e G o r don m ight fair l y b e

c on s t r u e d i nto a t r e ason abl e d e sign i e had said o r , . .

, ,

i m p l i e d t hat t h e d e fi n it i on of h i gh t r e ason might b e any

,

act whi c h m ay b e c onst ru e d i nto l e vyi ng wa r again st t h e

k i ng Th is im p l i e d o r stat e d p ro p os ition that t h e m e an
.

i n g of t h e t e rm m ay b e that gi ve n by t h e A tto r n e y Ge n -

e ral , Lo rd Erskin e took as o n e of t h e subo r d inat e p ropo

s i t i o n s that m ust b e s e tt l e d b e fo r e h e coul d con sid e r h is

m ain th e s is W e may oft e n fi n d it n e c e ssa r y t o a r gu e as

.

t o t h e m e an ing of a t e r m b u t that is not to arg u e a t e rm

, ,

for that abo u t w hich w e r e al l y arg u e i s a l ways an impl i e d

o r stat e d p r opos it io n that t h e m e aning of t h e t e r m x i s y .

TH E W AY IN WH ICII TH E D A N G ER OF T R EA T I N G A

T ERM I N ST E A D OF A P R O P O SI TI O N A R I SE s .

Such xplan at ion th at to a r gu e a t e r m i s impos s ib l e

e ,

that w e m ust fi r st fo rm ul at e a propo sit ion i n r e ga rd t o

it may s e e m un n e c e ssary but o n e of t h e common e st
, ,

e rrors of b e g i n n e rs i n A rgum e ntativ e C omposition

aris e s from a fa i lu r e to u nd e rst and thi s A stud e nt .

l ll
who has s e e n m uch m e nt ion i n t h e n e wspap e rs o r p e r i ‘

o d i c a s of t h e B u e fie d s A f fai r
’
t h e J apan e s e i n C o r e a
, ,

t h e I n c om e Tax A e rial F l ight al l of th e m t e r m s only i s

, , ,

e ag e r t o writ e h is arg u m e ntat iv e w o rk on o n e of t h e s e

sub j e ct s about which h e knows a li tt l e and wish e s to

,

know m o r e Wh e n p r e s s e d how e v e r t o stat e what it i s

.
, ,

t hat h e wi sh e s to support o r to d e f e n d a s h is th e s is a
l
bout
t h e sub j e ct h e c onf e s s e s that as y e t h e knows too itt l e
‘
-

,
 A R G U M E N T/ 1 37

of t h e subj e ct s to say H is fi r st st e p t h e n s hould b e by

.
, ,

thinking o v e r c ar e f u lly what h e al r e ady knows in r e gard

to t h e q u e s ti on an d by car e fu l r e a d ing on t h e sub j e ct to ,

d e cid e what it i s t hat h e wi sh e s to mak e h i s p ropositio n

i n r e ga r d to t h e subj e ct that i nt e r e st s h i m Un t il h e has .

d on e t his h e can not saf e ly writ e a wo r d I f without such

, .

thought t o fi nd a p r opos i t i o n t o d i scu s s h e t ri e s aft e r h e , ,

has r e ad to som e ext e nt on any of t h e sub j e cts n am e d to ,

wr it e an argum e nt about o n e of th e m h i s r e sult too ,

—

oft e n s e e n in t h e s o cal l e d fo r e n s ic wo rk of co l l e g e stud e nt s

-

’
—
wi ll b e not u n l ik e thi s bu r l e squ e of a s chool boy s -

a r gum e nt .

For tes F or t u n a A aj u va t .

Of all t h e u n c e rta i n and c ap r i c i o u s p owe rs wh i c h r u l e o u r

e arthly d e st i ny Fort u n e i s t h e c h i e f W h o has not h e ard of
.

t h e p oor b e i n g ra i s e d u p and t h e r i c h b e i n g la i d low ? A l e x and e r

,

t h e G r e at sa i d h e e n vi e d D i o g e n e s i n h i s t u b b e c a u s e D i o g e n e s ,

c o u ld ha v e noth i n g l e ss W e n e e d not g o far for an i nstan c e

.

of fort u n e W h o was so g r e at as N i c holas t h e C z ar of al l t h e

.
,

R u ss i ans a ye ar ago and now h e i s f all e n fall e n fro m h i s

, ,
“
,

h igh e stat e w i tho u t a fr i e nd to g ra c e h i s obs e q u i e s T h e T u rks

,
.
”

a r e t h e fi n e st s p e c i m e ns of t h e h u m an ra c e e t th e y too ha v e
y , , ,

e x p e r i e n c e d t h e vi c i ss i t u d e s of fort u n e Hora c e says that w e

.

sho u ld wra p o u rs e l v e s I n o u r V i rt u e w h e n fort u n e c han g e s .

N a p ol e on too shows u s how l i ttl e w e c a n r e ly on fort u n e ; b u t

, ,

h i s fa u lts g r e at as th e y we r e a r e b e i n g r e d e e m e d b y h i s n e p h e w
, , ,

L o u i s N a p ol e on who has shown h i m s e lf v e ry d i ff e r e nt fro m

,

what w e e x p e c t e d tho u g h h e has n e v e r e x p la i n e d how h e c a m e

,

to swe ar to t h e Const i t u t i on and th u s m o u nt e d t h e i m p e ri al

,

thron e .

“ ‘
Fro m all th i s i t app e ars that w e Sho u ld r e ly on fort u n e only
wh i l e i t r e m ai ns r e c oll e c t i n g th e words of t h e th e s i s For tes
,
—
,
 A R G UM E N T/ I TI OJV .

f or t u n a j aa and
’
u oat hat a b o ve all
t; w e sho u ld e v e r c u lt iv at,e ,

thos e vi rt u e s wh i c h wi ll n e v e r fa i l u s and wh i c h a re a s u r e ,

b as i s of r e s p e c tab i l i ty and w i ll p ro fi t u s h e r e and h e r e aft e r

’
.
,

The s u b j e c t i s Fort e s fort u na ad j u v at ; now th i s i s a ’

r o os i t i on ; i t stat e s a c e rta i n n ral r i i l d th i s i s j u st

p p g e e p n c p e a n ,

what an ord i nar y b o y wo u ld b e s u r e to m i ss and Rob e rt [t h e ,

wr i te r of t h e e ssay] do e s m i ss i t H e g o e s o ff at on c e on t h e .

word [t e r m ] fort u na Fort u na was not h i s s u b j e c t ; t h e

‘
.
’
‘ ’ '

th e s i s was i nt e nd e d to g u i de h i m for h i s own g ood ; h e r e f u s e s

to b e p u t i nto l e ad i ng str i n g s ; h e br e a k s loos e and r u n s O f f i n ,

h i s own fash i on on t h e b road fi e l d and i n wi ld c h a s e of for ‘

t u na i nst e ad of c los i ng w i th a s u b j e c t wh i c h as b e i ng d e fi n i t e
,
’
, , ,

wo u ld ha v e s u p p ort e d h i m .

“
It wo u ld ha v e b e e n v e ry c r u e l to ha v e told a b o y t o wr i t e
on fort u na ; i t wo u ld ha v e b e e n l ik e as ki n g h i m h i s O p i n i on of
‘ ’ ‘

th i n g s i n g e n e ral Fo rt u n e i s g ood b a d c a p r i c i o u s u n
.
’ ‘
,
’ ‘
,
’ ‘
,
’ ‘

e x pe c te d t e n tho u sand th i n g s all at on c e ( y o u s e e th e m all i n

’
,

t h e G rad u s ) and o n e of th e m as m u c h as t h e oth e r T e n

,
.

tho u sand th i n g s m a y b e sa i d of i t ; g iv e m e o n e of th e m a n d I ,

wi ll wr i t e u p on i t ; I c a n n o t wr i t e on m or e than o n e ; Ro b e rt
p r e f e rs to wr i t e u
p on all .

Fort u n e fa v ors t h e b old ; h e r e i s a v e ry d e fi n i t e s u b j e c t ’

ta k e hold of i t and i t wi ll st e ady and l e ad y o u on : y o u w i ll

,

know i n what d i r e c t i on to loo k .

“
N o w I w i ll p ro p h e s y o n e th i n g of Ro b e rt u nl e ss th i s fa u lt
i s kno c k e d o u t of h i m W h e n h e g rows u p and has to m a k e
.
,

a Sp e e c h or wr i t e a l e tt e r for t h e p a p e rs h e wi ll loo k o u t for

, ,

flowe rs f u ll b lown flowe rs fi g u re s s m a rt e x p r e ss i ons tr i t e

,
-

, , ,

q u otat i ons ha c k n e ye d b e g i nn i n g s and e nd i n g s p o m po u s c i r

l
, ,

c u m o c u t i o n s and so on : b u t t h e m e an i n t h e s e ns e t h e sol i d
, g , ,

s e ns e t h e fo u ndat i on y o u m a y h u nt t h e sl i pp e r long e no u g h
, ,

b e for e y o u c at c h i t 1
.
”

1 I d ea of U n i ve r s i ty pp 3 5 5 3 6 1
—
.
,
.
 '

A R G U M E /vm TI O N .

co u ld b e r e duc e d t o t h e p r oposit ion P rohib ition do e s not ,

p rohibit t h e Sp e e ch e s of thos e who s e e m e d to wish to

,
”

s u pport it co u l d b e r e d u c e d only to th i s stat e m e nt : H igh “

Lic e ns e i s an i m m oral m e t hod of t r e ating t h e liq u o r

”
probl e m . O f c o u rs e i t was i m pos sibl e fo r t h e a r g u m e nts
,

of o n e s id e to co nfut e t ho s e of t h e oth e r for th e r e was n o ,

com mon m e e ting g r ou nd -

.

M ET H O D S OF D E C I D I NG W H E T H ER T H E P R O P O S I T I O N
P H R A SE S T H E Q U EST I O N I N D I SP U TE .

l
T he way in which i n t h e abov e ca s e an u npr e j u d ic e d
p e rson would d e c id e which of t h e o rigina pro p o s it ion s
ph ras e d t h e matt e r r e a ll y i n d i s put e wo u l d b e by fi n d i ng
o u t ( I ) what t h e t e r m s in e ach propos it ion m e an and ”

h e nc e t h e p ropo sit ion a s a whol e ; an d ( 2 ) wh e th e r thi s

m e aning of t h e wh ol e p r opos ition stat e s t h e q u e s tion

call i n g fo r d e bat e H e woul d d e cid e as to ( I ) b y fin d ing

.

d e fi n it i on s of t h e t e r m s u pon which h e and t h e Sp e ak e rs

c oul d agr e e ; an d as to ( 2 ) by analy z in g t h e m at e r ial in t h e

cas e t o s e e what i s e xa c tly t h e r e al poi nt at i ssu e an d it s

r e l ation t o t h e oth e r m at e ria l Wh e n th e n t h e m e aning
.
, ,

of t h e t e r m s of a p r opo s it i on o r of a p r opo sit ion as a

l
,
“
'

l
whol e i s not S e l f e vid e nt d efin i t i on i s /t é s e con d i m p o r t a n tU
,
-

,
’

s te i sis
p n a na
y .

“
Cons i d e r t h e fort u n e s of an arg u m e nt i n a d e b at i n g so c i e ty ,

and t h e n e e d th e r e so fr e q u e ntly i s n o t s i m p ly of so m e c l e ar
,

th i nk e r to d i s e ntan g l e t h e p e r p l e xi t i e s of tho u ght b u t of ,

c a p a c i ty i n t h e c o m b atants to do j u st i c e to t h e c l e ar e st
e x p lanat i ons wh i c h a r e s e t b e for e th e m s o m u c h so that t h e ,
—

l u m i no u s arb i trat i on onl y g iv e s r i s e p e rha p s to m or e ho p e l e ss

, ,

alt e r c a t i on I s a c onst i t u t i onal g o v e rn m e nt b e tte r for a p o pu

.
 A R G U M E N TA TI ON 41

l a t i o n than an ab sol u t e r u l e W hat a n u m b e r of p o i nts ha v e

to b e c l e arly ap p r e h e nd e d b e for e w e a r e i n a p os i t i on to sa y
on e word on s u c h a q u e st i on W hat i s m e ant b y c onst i t u t i on ? ‘ ’

by c ‘
onst i t u t i onal go v e rn m e nt ? b y b e tt e r ’
? b y a o
p p
‘
u lat i on ’
? ‘ ’

and b y absol u t i s m ? T h e i d e as r e p r e s e nt e d b y th e s e v ar i o u s
‘ ’

words o u g ht I do not say to b e as p e rf e c tly d e fi n e d and lo c at e d

, ,

i n t h e m i nds of t h e s p e a k e rs as ob j e c ts of s i g ht i n a lands c ap e ,

b u t to b e s u ffic i e ntly e v e n tho u g h i n c o m pl e t e ly a p p r e h end e d

, , ,

b e for e th e y ha v e a r i g ht to s p e a k How i s i t that d e m o c ra c y

.
‘

can ad m i t of S la v e ry as i n an
,
c i e nt G r e e c e ? How c a n ’ ‘

Cathol i c i s m flo u r i sh i n a r e pu b l i c ? N ow a p e rson who knows ’

,

h i s i g noran c e wi ll say Th e s e q u e st i ons a re b e yond m e ; an d

,
‘ ’

h e tr i e s to g a i n a c l e ar not i on and a fir m hold of th e m ; and i f ,

,
l
h e s p e ak s i t i s as i n v e st i g at i n g not as d e c i d i ng
,

hand e t h i m n e v e r ha v e tr i e d to throw th i n g s tog e th e r or to

, O n t h e oth e r

d i s c r i m i nat e b e twe e n th e m or to d e not e th e i r p e c u l i ar i t i e s i n

.

, ,

that c as e h e has no h e s i tat i on i n u nd e rtak i ng any s u b j e c t and ,

p e rha p s has m ost to say u on thos e q u e st i ons wh i c h a r e m ost

p
n e w to h i m . Th i s i s why so m any m e n a r e o n e Si d e d narrow -

m i nd e d p r e j u d i c e d c rot c h e ty
, ,
Th i s i s W h y ab l e m e n ha v e to
.

c han g e th e i r m i nds and th e i r l i n e of a c t i on i n m i ddl e a e and

g ,

b e g i n l i fe aga i n b e c a u s e th e y ha v e followe d th e i r p arty i nst e ad

, ,

of ha vi n g s e c u r e d that fa c u lty of tr u e p e rc e pt i on as r e g ard s

i nt e ll e c t u al ob j e c ts wh i c h has ac c r u e d to th e m w i tho u t th e i r ,

k nowi n g how as r e g ards t h e ob j e c ts of s i g ht

,
.
” 1

D EF I N I T I O N N E C E SSA R Y F O R A N U N D E R ST A N D I N G OF
M O ST P R O P O SIT I O N S
l
l
.

Th e r e a r e f e w d e bat e d q u e st ion s i n w h ich a of t h e

t e r m s ca rry t h e i r m e an ings u n m i stakab l y on t h e i r fac e s :
Though fo r st u d e nt s of t h e El i z ab e than d rama t h e topi c
, ,

C a n t h e wo r k of F r an ci s B e au mont b e i d e ntifi e d ?
”
“

1 I d ea o
f U n i ve r s i ty , pp 4 98 499 .
—
.
 A P G U AI E /VTA TI O N
'

woul d p r obably n e e d n o d e fin i t i o n of t h e t e r m s for a ,

g e n e ral a u di e n c e t h e r e m i ght b e n e e d to e xpl ain j ust who

B e au m ont was and t h e n at u r e of h is wo r k
, M o r e ov e r .
,

i n t h e fol low i ng t o p i cs tak e n from past fo r e n s i c l ist s of

H ar v ard C oll e g e i s not so m e d e fi n ition ind isp e n sabl e ?
,

“
I s B u nyan a p o e t ? I s G o e t h e s Egmont a t ragic“ ’

D o e s R e m b r andt l os e mo r e than h e gain s

”
cha r act e r ?

by hi s e xt r a v agant syst e m of C hiaro s c u r o ? IS the “

Ut il itarian t h o ry of
e m o ral s d e f e n s ibl e ? Was t h e
”
F u git iv e Slav e A c t of 1 8 5 0 u n j u st ? “
C oul d t h e Swiss
r e f e r e nd um b e advantag e o u sly appl i e d i n t h e Un it e d
Should t h e Un it e d Stat e s hav e a r ight to
”
Stat e s ?

e xclu siv e j uri sdict ion ov e r B e hring Se a ? H ow can w e

hop e to d i sc u ss th e s e top i c s cl e ar l y unl e ss w e fi rst
d e cid e what w e m e an by po e t t ragic charac te r “
,
“
,
”

”
C hiaros c u ro e xt r avagant C h iaroscu r o Ut il ita ri an
“ “
, ,

”
t h e ory of mo r al s Swis s r e f e r e nd um
,
“
e xcl us iv e j u r is ,
“

”
d iction , B e h ri n g Se a
“
i
and d e c id e on wh at g r ou nd s
,

”
w e shal l j udg e d f n sibl
e e e u nj ust
“
advantag e o u s,
? “
,
“

Exami nat ion of th e s e t e r m s will Sh ow a st ud e nt th at

vagu e n e s s e s t h e p os s i bil ity of cont r ad i c to ry i n t e r p r e ta
,

t i on s l u r k i n all of th e s e t e r ms t ra p s fo r t h e u nwary and

, ,

t h e hasty stud e nt .

T h e n e c e s sity fo r good d e fi n it ion at t h e o u ts e t of an

a r gu m e nt and t h e way in wh i c h it may Sho w t hat argu
,

m e nt b e tw e e n t w o O ppon e nt s i s imposs ibl e a r e s e e n i n ,

t h e following e xt r act f r om To m j on e s T o m has r e fu s e d .

to b e t ray t h e gam e k e e p e r G e o rg e .

“
Thwa c k u m d i d all h e c o u ld to d i ss u ad e A llworthy fro m
Showi n g an y c o m p ass i on or ki ndn e ss to t h e b o y sa yi n H ‘
g e ,

had p e rs i st e d i n an u ntr u th and g a v e so m e h i nts that a ,

’

s e c ond wh i pp i n g m i g ht p roba b ly b r i n g t h e m att e r to l i g ht ; b u t

 A R G UM E N T/ 1 TI OM 43

Mr . A llworthy absol u t e l y r e f u s e d to c ons e nt to t h e e x p e r i m e nt

h e sa i d t h e boy had s u ff e r e d e no u g h alr e ady for c on c e al i n g t h e
tr u th e v e n i f h e was g u i lty s e e i n g that h e c o u ld ha v e no
, ,

m ot iv e b u t a m i stak e n p o i nt of hono u r for so do i n g Hono u r ‘ ’

.
,

l
c r i e d Thwa c k u m w i th so m e war m th : m e r e st u b bornn e ss and

obst i na c y "Can hono u r t e a c h any o n e to t e ll a i e or c a n any ,

hono u r e xi st i nd e p e nd e nt of r e l i g i on ? To th i s Sq u ar e ’

answe r e d that i t was i m p oss i b l e to d i s c o u rs e p h i loso ph i c ally

,

c on c e rn i ng words t i ll th e i r m e an i n g was fi rst e stabl i sh e d ; that

th e r e we r e s c ar c e any two words of a m or e v ag u e and u n c e r

ta i n s ign ifi c at i on than t h e two h e had m e nt i on e d ; for that
th e r e we r e al m ost as m any d i f fe r e nt o p i n i ons c on c e rn i ng hono u r
as c on c e rn i ng r e l i g i on ; b u t says h e i f by hono u r y o u m e an
,
’
,
‘

t h e tr u e nat u ral b e a u ty of vi rt u e I w i ll m a i nta i n i t m a y e x i st,

i nd e p e nd e nt of any r e l ig i on what e v e r ; nay add e d b e y o u ,

’ ‘

yo u rs e lf wi ll allow i t m a y e xi st i nd e pe nd e nt of all b u t o n e ; so
w i ll a Maho m e tan a Je w and all t h e m a i nta i n e rs of all t h e
, ,

d i ff e r e nt s e c ts i n t h e world Thwa c k u m r e pl i e d th i s was

.
’
,

arg u i n g wi th t h e u s u al m al i c e of all t h e e n e m i e s to t h e tr u e
c h u rc h .H e sa i d h e do u bt e d not b u t that all t h e i n fid e s and l
h e r e t i c s i n t h e world wo u ld i f th e y c o u ld c on fi n e hono u r to
, ,

th e i r own abs u rd e rrors and da m nabl e d e c e p t i ons ; b u t ‘

hono u r says h e i s not th e r e for e m an i fold b e c a u s e th e r e a r e

,
’
,
‘
, ,

m any abs u rd o p i n i ons abo u t i t ; nor i s r e l i g i on m an i fold

b e c au s e th e r e a r e v ar i o u s s e c ts and h e r e s i e s i n t h e world .

W h e n I m e nt i on r e l i g i on I m e an t h e Chr i st i an r e l i g i on ; and
,

not only Chr i st i an r e l i g i on b u t t h e P rot e stant r e l i g i on ; and

,

not only t h e Prot e stant r e l i g i on b u t Th e Ch u r c h of Eng land , .

A n d wh e n I m e nt i on hono u r I m e an that m od e of d ivi n e gra c e

,

wh i c h i s not only c ons i st e nt w i th and d e pe nd e nt u p on that

r e l ig i on b u t c ons i st e nt w i th and d e p e nd e nt u p on no oth e r
, .

N o w to say that t h e hono u r I h e r e m e an

,
and wh i c h was I ,

tho u g ht all t h e hono u r I c o u ld b e s u pp os e d to m e an

,
w i ll —

u hold m u c h l e ss d i c tat e an u ntr u th i s to ass e rt an abs u rd i t y

p , , ,

too sho c k i ng to b e c on c e iv e d I p u r pos e ly a v o i d e d

.
’ ‘
,
’
 A R G U M E N T/ 1 TI OJV .

s a ys Sq u ar e drawing a c on c l u s i on wh i c h I tho u g ht e vi d e nt
,
‘

f r o m what I ha v e sa i d ; b u t i f y o u h a v e p e r c e iv e d i t I a m s u r e ,

o u ha v e not att e m t e d to answ e r i t how e v e r to dro t h e

y p ; p ,

art i c l e of r e l i g i on I th i n k i t i s p l a i n f ro m what y o u h a v e sa i d
, , ,

that w e h a v e d i ff e r e nt i d e as of hono u r or why do w e not ag r e e ,

i n t h e s a m e t e r m s of i ts e x p lanat i on ? I ha v e ass e rt e d that

tr u e hono u r and tr u e vi rt u e a r e al m ost synonym o u s t e r m s and ,

th e y a r e b oth for m e d on t h e u nalt e rab l e r u l e of r i g ht and t h e

Et e rnal fi tn e ss of th i ng s ; to wh i c h an u ntr u th b e m g ab sol u t e l y ,

r e p u g nant and c o n trary i t i s c e rt a i n th a t tr u e hono u r c annot

,

s u pport an u ntr u th ; i n th i s th e r e for e I th i nk w e a re ag r e e d ;

, ,

b u t that th i s hono u r c a n b e sa i d to b e fo u nd e d on r e l i g i on to ,

wh i c h i t i s ant e c e d e nt i f b y r e l i g i on h e m e ant any p os i t iv e

,

law ‘
I ag r e e answe r e d Thwa c k u m w i th g r e at war m th
,
’
, ,

‘
wi th a m a n who ass e rts hono u r to b e ant e c e d e nt to r e l i g i on .

Mr A llworth y d i d I ag r e e
.
,

H e w a s p ro c e e d i n g wh e n Mr A llworthy i nt e rr u p t e d t e ll i n g
,
.
,

th e m v e ry c oldly th e y h a d b oth m i sta k e n h i s m e an i ng for

, , ,

that h e had sa i d noth i n g of tr u e hono u r 1

.
”

T H E D I FF I C U L T Y IN F I N D I N G SAT I SF A C T O R Y D E FI N I
T IO NS .

To fi nd satisfacto ry d e fi nit ion s i s how e v e r by no , ,

m e an s al ways an e asy task I n t h e to p ic Shoul d t h e

“
‘

U n it e d Stat e s hav e e xcl usiv e j u r isdict ion ov e r B eh ring

Se a ? if y o u l ook up e xcl u siv e j u r i sd iction in a
“

”
d i c t i onary and fi n d e nt i r e s u p r e m e cont rol
“
as i t s ,

e q u i val e nt ,how much hav e y o u ga i n e d i n cl e a r n e s s ?

What a r e t h e l imit s of e nt i r e cont r ol by wh at l aw

“
,

comm on o r int e rnat ional a r e th e y appl i e d ? J u st how ,

”
m u ch too i s m e ant g e ograph i cal ly by B e h r ing S e a ? “
, , , ,

1 Tom bk I I I , ch
j on es , . .
3 .
 l
A P G U / / E N TA TI O JV . 45

Do e s t h e t e r m i n th is cas e cov e r t h e st ra i t s l e a d ing int o

?
t h e wat e r s ma r k e d on m aps wit h t his nam e H e re a re
many q u e st ion s not to b e an sw e r e d o ff hand but only -

aft e r car e f u l e xam i nation of t h e mat e rial on t h e qu e st ion .

W e s hal l fi nd that i n m any cas e s t h e dict iona r i e s aid u s

o n l y t o substit ut e a vagu e n e ss fo r a g e n e r a l ity o r t h e o p ,

p o s i t e D
. e fi n it ion s from d ict ion a r i e s s hould t h e r e fo re , ,

b e us e d only with gr e at caut ion F o r inst anc e j ust i fiabl e .

,

i s d e fin e d as d e f e n s ibl e warrantab l e but in a q u e st ion

, ,

l ik e A r e t h e I r i sh j ust ifi e d i n u s ing i l l e gal m e asu r e s of

“

r e s i s tanc e t o Eng l ish r u l e ? to subst it ut e d e f e ns ibl e

“
,

“
wa rr antabl e d o e s not m ak e u s any cl e a r e r as to t h e
,

m e ani ng of t h e p ropo s iti on W e n e e d to kn ow o n w hat

l
l
”
g r ou nds t h e ju s t i fia b i i t y
“ “
d e f e n sibil ity wa rr ant
, ,
“

ab l e n e s s a r e to b e j udg e d Th e s e m ay b e m o r a social .
, ,

e conomi c po l it ical and u nt il w e d e cid e o n wh i ch of t h e s e

, , ,

w e a r e to j udg e w e can not p r oc e e d with t h e d iscu ss ion

, .

H e r e fo r in stanc e i s a car e ful e ffo rt by a st u d e nt to

, ,

p l ac e b e fo r e u s wit h t h e aid of a d ictionary t h e m e an ing

, ,

of t h e t e r m s of a p r opos it ion but it l e av e s u s vagu e ,

aft e r al l .

W A S W EB ST E R ’
S ATT IT U D E ON TH E SLA V ER Y Q U EST I O N ,
IN

TH E SEV EN T H OF M ARC H SP EEC H , ST A T ESM A N L I K E ?

“
In the b e g i nn i n g
i t i s o b vi o u sl y n e c e ssary to arr iv e at
so m e g ood d e fi n i t i on of t h e word stat e s m anl ik e In d e fi n i n g .

i t t h e d i c t i onary t e lls u s that to b e we ll v e rs e d i n t h e arts of

,
‘

g o v e rn m e nt i s stat e s m anl ik e Th i s d e fi n i t i on do e s not b y

’
.

any m e ans sat i sf y u s W e n e e d a f u ll e r o n e T h e c on c l u s i on

. .

that we r e a c h i s that stat e s m anl i k e m e ans t h e m a n who l e g i s

lat e s to t h e b e st of h i s ab i l i t y for t h e i nt e r e st of h i s c o u ntry i n ,

a tr u e and c ons i st e nt m ann e r That We bst e r i n h i s s e v e nth .

,
 46 A R G U M E N TA TI OJV .

of Mar c h s p e e c h do es not c o m e w i th i n th i s d e fin i t i on
,
we shall
e nd e avor to p ro v e
”
.

A s the stud e nt says wh e n w e subst itut e fo r stat e s

,
“

” ”
man l ik e ,
“
t o b e w e l l v e r s e d i n t h e a r ts of gov e r nm e nt ,

w e a r e u nsat isfi e d ; not how e v e r b e cau s e t h e d e fi nit ion i s

, ,

not ful l e no u gh but b e caus e it i s not cl e a r W e wish to

, .

know j ust what t h e arts of gov e r n m e nt a r e an d what

“
,

’
i s m e ant by w e l l v e rs e d i n th e m T h e st u d e nt s n e xt
-

st e p has s e v e r a l fault s H e giv e s u s a long e r d e fi nit ion

.
,

but it is not v e r y C l e ar fo r w ill it b e e asy to d e t e rm in e

,

’
what i s t h e b e s t of any m an s abil ity t h e i nt e r e st of a ,

count ry i n a t im e of con fl ict ing int e r pr e t ation s of t h e

wo rd ? D o e s not t h e r ath e r vagu e wo r d t r u e conf u s e

l
u s ? M o r e ov e r how do e s t h e st u d e nt r e ach t h e c oncl u
,
“

s ion t hat s t a t e s m a n i k e m e an s hi s l ast d e fi nit ion ? The

n e c e s sity fo r thi s con cl u sion i s not a p pa r e nt t h e d e fin i ,

t ion i s not convi ncing of it s e lf ; and w e wi s h to kn ow

’
m o r e about t h e l inks of t hought wh ich i n t h e stud e nt s ,

ll l
m ind conn e ct t h e t e r m and t h e d e fi n it ion A d efin i t i on
, .

s zou d , t h e n ( I ) be c e a r a n d (2 ) be c o n v i n c i ng
, ,
A noth e r .

i l l u st r at ion f r om stud e nt wo r k wi ll mak e t h e n e e d of t h e

s e con d r e qui s it e cl e a r e r .

7
1 ARE TH E EN J O Y M EN T AN D C U LT I V A T I O N O F T H E F I N E A R T S
ESSEN T I A L To TH E H I G H EST T Y P E O F C I V I L I Z A T I O N ?
The fi rst th i n g wh i c h we m u st d e al wi th i s t h e d e fi n i t i on of
F i n e A rts and i ts d i ffe r e n c e fro m s i m p l e art A work of t h e
, .

F i n e A rts m u st c onta i n t h e e l e m e nt of b e a u ty wh e r e as a wor k ,

of art only ne e ds to Show an i nt e ll i g e nt m i nd Th i s l e ads u s .

to t h e d e fi n i t i on of b e a u ty N o w b e a u ty m u st p oss e ss th e s e
.
,

two q u al i t i e s na m e ly : that of p ro port i on wh i c h p e rh a p s i s t h e

, ,
 A R G U /VE N TA TI OJV .

i d e al t h e high e r it b e com e s i e t h e farth e r it go e s a w ay

, , . .
,

from him I n b r i e f th e n in al l th e s e matt e rs t h e w r i t e r

.
, ,

m u st stop f o r a r g u m e n t o r at l e ast fo r e xpo sit ion o r e l s e

_ , ,

w e S hal l b e u nw i l l i ng to acc e pt his stat e m e nt s and to fo l

l ow hi m A d e fin it ion m u st t h e n b e cl e ar b e caus e if it
.
, ,

i s not w e cannot fol l ow o u r o pp on e nt in hi s wo rk ; it

,

m u s t b e convin cing b e caus e if it i s not w e Shal l not b e

, , ,

w i l ling t o foll ow h i m .

I t i s an u n convi n cing d e fi n it ion wh i ch Lo r d Er skin e

h e ld up to r id icul e i n pa r t of h i s e xam inat ion of t h e t e st i
m ony again st Lo r d G e o rg e G ordon of Wi ll iam H ay
The w i tn e ss sa i d that i n t h e c i ty h e s a w t h e v e ry sa m e m a n
c arry i n g t h e v e ry sa m e fla g h e had s e e n i n t h e fi e lds
’
H e .

sa i d h e kn e w i t was t h e sa m e m a n b e c au s e h e loo k e d l ik e a ‘

br e we r s s e rv ant L i k e a B r ew er s Se r a n t " W hat we r e

’ ’ ’ ”
. v
,

th e y n o t all i n th e i r Su nday c loth e s Oh " th y w r ’

? e s e e
‘
y e ,

all i n th e i r Su nday c loth e s W a s t h e m a n w i th t h e fla g th e n

.
’ ‘

alon e i n t h e dr e ss of h i s trad e No Th e n how do y o u ’

l
.

k now h e was a b r e we r s s e r v ant Poor M r H a y’

N oth i ng .
—

b u t swe at and c onf u s i on ag a i n " A t last aft e r a h e s i tat i on , ,

wh i c h e v e r y b od y tho u g ht wo u ld ha v e e nd e d i n h i s r u n n i ng o u t
of c o u rt h e sa i d H e k n e w h i m to b e a b r e we r s s e r v ant oeca u se
l
’

l l
‘
, , ,

f t , t ne

l
t /zer e w a s s o m et /zi n g p
ec u ia r in t ze c u t o t i s coa cu t o f ni s
br eec/zes , a nd Me cu t o f zi s s tock i ng s .
”

I
s u r e g e ntl e m e n y o u wi ll not forg e t wh e n e v e r
am , , ,

o u s e e a m a n a b o u t whos e a p ar e l th e r e i s anyth i n e c u l i ar
y p g p ,

to s e t h i m down for a or ezver s se r a n t 1 ’

v .
”

A d e fi nition may b e u n c onvinc i ng not m e r e ly b e cau s e ,

it i s not c l e ar b u t al so b e cau s e th ough cl e a r i n it s e lf

, , ,

it b e gs t h e q u e st ion Wh e n t h e writ e r o n Fi n e A r ts .

d e fi n e s c ivil i z ation as t h e s u m of t h e mat e ria l an d m ora l

1 Sp ec i m en s o f A rg u m en t a t i on ( M o d e rn ) , p . I 1
5 .
 A R G U M E N T/ 1 TI OZV . 49

acquis itions of a r ac e t h e s e qual it i e s b e ing e m bo d i e d in

,

t h e F in e A rts d o e s h e do m o r e t han to s ay : C ivi l i z ation

,

an d d e v e lopm e n t of t h e F in e A r t s go hand i n hand ; t h e

civi l i z at ion of a r ac e i s h i gh e r o r l ow e r as t h e F in e A r t s
a r e mor e o r l e s s d e v e l op e d i n it i e as t h e r e i s a g r e at e r
, . .
,

”
o r l e ss e r e mbo di m e nt of mat e r ial an d mo r al acqu i sit ion s
I n oth e r wo r d s h e d e fi n e s i n a c i rc l e : civil i z at ion m e an s
,

t h e d e v e lop m e nt of t h e F in e A r t s ; t h e d e v e l opm e nt of

t h e F i n e A r t s m e an s c ivil i z at ion T h e d e fi n it ion b e gs .

t h e who l e qu e st io n s in c e w e w e r e ask e d wh e th e r t h e
,

e n j oym e n t of t hat upon which t h e d e v e l opm e nt of c ivil i z a

l l
t io n d e p e n d s i s e s s e nti a l to t h e high e st typ e of c ivil i z at ion

l
A goo d d e fi n it io n ( 3 ) s /t ou d n o t t /ze n d efi n e i n a c i r c e \ , , ,

s b o u d n o t be t /ze qu e s t i o n fo r by such d e fi n ing w e d o n o t

g ,

m ak e any h e ad way i n ou r work .

Wh e n Thwacku m i n t h e e xt r act f r o m To m J on e s
, ,

q uot e d p 4 3 ask e d
.
, C an t h e r e b e any ho nou r without
“

”
r e l igion ? an d l at e r add e d : Wh e n I m e nt i on r e l igion
“
,

I m e an t h e Ch r i st ian r e l igion an d not on l y t h e C h r i stian

,

r e l igion bu t t h e Pr ot e stan t r e l i gio n ; and n ot only t h e

,

Pr ot e stan t r e l igion but t h e C hu rc h of Eng l an d

,
-
And .

wh e n I m e nt io n honou r I m e an that m od e of d ivi n e g r ac e

wh ich is n ot only con s i st e n t w it h but d e p e nd e nt upon
thi s r e ligion an d i s con sist e nt with and d e p e n d e nt upo n
,

”
n o ot h e r ,it i s c l e ar t h at h e b e gs t h e qu e stion i n h is

l
d e fi n it ion .

l
l
l l
A lways too , a d efin i t i o n s b o u d be a s br i ef a s i s c o n

s i s t e n t w i tn u fi i n / i i
f g t ze r e
qu s t e s o
f c ea r n e s s a n d co n v i n

c i ng n ess .
A N A T T EM P T To N E ST A T E SM A N L I K E
DE F I , F I N E A RT S,
A N D C I V IL IZ ATION .

I f now w e t ry to g e t sat isfacto ry d e fi n i t i on s of stat e s

, ,

m anl ik e fin e arts and c iv i l i z at ion w e shal l not fi n d ou r

, , ,

task e asy I f w e look i n t h e C e nt u ry D i c tionary w e fi nd

.
,

t hat stat e sm anl i k e m e an s having t h e m an n e r or t h e wi s “

dom of a stat e s m an wo rthy of o r b e fitt in g a st at e s m an

, .

This forc e s u s to d e fi n e s t a t es m a n fo r w e a r e n o c l e ar e r ,

i n m i nd th an b e fo r e A stat e s m an a c co rding to t h e d i e
.
,

t i o n a ry i s a m a n who i s v e r s e d i n t h e a r t of gov e rn
,
“

t h e st u d e nt s vagu e d e fin i t i o n
’
m e nt ,
—
and e xhibits —
“

c on s p ic u o u s abil ity an d saga c ity i n t h e d i r e ct ion and

”
m anag e m e nt of p u bl i c a f fai r s T hat l ast cla u s e at fi rst .

s i ght i s h e lpful fo r it s e e m s p oss ibl e to d e bat e this : D i d

,

Dan i e l W e bst e r Show con s p i c u ou s ability and sagacity i n

t h e way i n wh i ch h e d i r e ct e d p u bl i c affa i rs in hi s s e v e nth

of M arch sp e e ch ? I n stant ly how e v e r w e fac e this q u e s , ,

t ion What a re to b e t h e t e st s of ability and saga c ity i n

,

t h e m anag e m e n t of publ ic affai r s what a r e t h e t e st s i n ,

thi s cas e I f i n ou r S e a r ch fo r a goo d d e fi n i tion of stat e s

,

m anl ik e w e c o m e u p on thi s d e fi nit i on by J am e s R uss e l l

,

l
L ow e ll w e shall s e e o u r way m o r e c l e arly :
,
“
Undoubt
ed t h e high e st f u n c tion of stat e s m an shi p i s t o a e com
y
m o d a t e by d e g r e e s t h e cond u c t of comm un it i e s to e thical

laws and to subo rd i nat e t h e con fl ict ing s e lf i nt e r e st s of t h e

,
-

1 ”
day to high e r and m o r e p e rman e n t c on c e rn s A t onc e .
,

now t h e q u e stion b e c om e s fo r u s D i d D an i e l W e bst e r i n

,

h i s s e v e nth of M arch sp e e ch d o anythi ng to a c co m m odat e

t h e c ondu c t of t h e c o m m un ity to e th i c al l aws and s u bo r ,

1 P o ll i t i ca E ssay s .
J . R . L o we l
l
. H o ugh to n , M i f fli n Co .
, 18
90 .
p . 1
95 .
 A R G U M E N TA TI O ZV . 51

d in a t e t h e con fl icting s e lf int e r e st s of t h e day to hi gh e r

-

an d m o r e p e r m an e nt con c e r n s ? W e sh al l c e rtainly fi nd
thi s t o b e a w o r ki ng int e r p r e tation of stat e s man l ik e .

I f fo r F i n e A rts w e c on sult t h e C e ntu ry D ictionary

, , ,

l
w e shal l fi nd t hat an a r t is a syst e m of r ul e s an d t r ad i
“

t ion a m e t hod s fo r facil itati ng t h e p e rforman c e of c e rta i n

act ion s R h e to ric A rgu m e ntat ion ; that F i n e A r ts
”

, ,

l
l
s e e k e xpr e ssion th rough b e a u tif u l m od e s an d a r e s p e ,

l
c i fic a y arch it e ct u r e
,
scul pt u r e pain tin g an d e ng r aving
, , , .

T h e t e rm bea u t if u m od e s is h e r e t r oub l e so m e and w e ,

shall probably tu rn to s om e sp e c i a l i st on t h e F i n e A r t s

l
fo r f u rth e r aid I n P rof e s so r Sid n e y C olvi n s a r t icl e o n
.
’

1
t h e F in e A rt s i n t h e E n cy c opa e d i a B r i t a n n i ca
,
he ,

d e fi n e s as foll ows : I n o th e r mod e r n l anguag e s b e s id e s

“

l
l
Engl ish th e y ( t h e F in e A rt s ) a re ca ll e d by t h e e qu i v a
l e nt na m e o f t h e b e aut ifu l a r t s ( be e a r t i bea u x a r t s
’

l
, ,

s c/zon e Ki n s t e T h fi n e o r b e au tiful a r ts th n
)
‘

. e e a re , ,

t hos e am on g t h e a r t s of man which m i n ist e r n ot to h i s

mat e r ial n e c e ssi t i e s o r conv e n i e nc e s but t o his l ov e of ,

b e auty ( u sing t h e wo rd b e auty i n it s wid e st s e n s e ) o r ,

if any art fulfil l s both t h e s e pu rpos e s at o nc e st il l as ful ,

fill ing t h e l att e r only i s it cal l e d a fin e art T h e r e i s n o .

diff e r e n c e of O pin ion c on c e rni ng t h e n at u r e of fin e art

and t h e fin e art s as con t ra d i st inguish e d fro m art and t h e
-

a r t s m e chan ical I t i s a c kn owl e dg e d th at o n e s e t of art s

.

e xists to sat isfy p ract ica l n e e d s and t h e oth e r s e t e xist s ,

to giv e d e l i ght an d sat isfy t h e s e n s e of b e auty wh i l e as ,

t o an i nt e r me diat e s e t of a r t s whi c h e xist fo r both pu r

pos e s i t i s p os sibl e to di st inguish in e ach c as e t h e p a r t
,

w hich i s b e aut if u l o r p l e as u rab l e from t h e p art whi c h i s

”
m e chanical o r m e r e ly u s e f u l H e r e w e hav e not gon e
.

1 Vo l
. IX , p . 1 74 .
 l
A R G U/ /[E N TA TI OZV .

’
m uch b e yon d t h e stu d e nt s d e fi n it ion b u t w e do know ,

now that art s p e c i al i st s support hi s d e fi nit ion an d that

th e y agr e e in giv i ng to all of t h e fin e arts t h e e l e m e nt of
b e a u ty St i ll how e v e r w e n e e d to know in what s e n s e
.
, ,

t h e wo rd be a u ty i s u s e d ; ind e e d w e shal l fi n d that t h e ,

l
q u e st ion p r a c t ically tu r n s o n t h e d e fi n it i on w e g i v e it
-

fo r w e shal l ult imat e y e vid e nt ly d e bat e thi s I s c u l tiva

, ,

t ion of t h e qual it i e s i n m e n fost e r e d by an a pp e al to th e i r

s e ns e of b e a u ty e s s e n t ial t o t h e h i gh e st c ivil i z at i on
I f now w e t u rn to R uski n s M od e r n P a i n t e r s w e can
’
1

g e t som e l ight on b e auty A n

y m .at e rial ob j
“
e ct wh i c h
can giv e u s pl e as u r e in t h e si m pl e cont e m plat ion of it s
outwa rd qual it i e s without any d i r e ct an d d e fi nit e e x e rt ion
of t h e int e ll e ct I cal l i n so m e way o r i n som e d e g r e e
,

b e aut ifu l . I do n ot m e an by e x c l u d ing d i r e ct e x e rt i on

of t h e int el l e ct f r om i d e as of b e auty t o ass e r t that b e auty ,

has n o e ff e ct upon no r con n e ct ion w i th t h e i nt e ll e ct

,
In .

all h igh i d e as of b e auty it i s m o r e th an p robab l e that

,

m uch of t h e p l e asu r e d e p e nd s on d e l icat e an d unt r ac e abl e

p e r c e pt ion s of fi tn e ss p r op r i e ty an d r e l ations whi c h a re
, ,

pu r e ly i nt e ll e ctua l an d th r ough wh ich w e a rr iv e at ou r

,

l
ll
n obl e st id e as of what i s com m only an d r ight l y ca ll e d i n
t e e c t u a b e auty . B u t th e r e i s no im m e d iat e e x e rtion
of t h e int e ll e ct th at i s to say if a p e r son r e c e I V I n g e v e n
,

t h e n ob l e st id e as of S impl e b e auty b e ask e d why h e l i k e s

t h e obj e ct e xciting th e m h e wil l not b e abl e to giv e any

,

di sti nct r e ason n o r to hav e in hi s mi nd any fo r m e d

l l
l
though t t o w hi ch h e can app e a l as a sou r c e of pl e asu r e .

H e wil l say that t h e th ing g r a t i fie s fill s h a o w s e x a t s

‘

, , ,

h i s m ind but h e w i l l not b e ab l e to say why o r ho w I f

, .

h e can and i f h e can show that h e p e r c e iv e s in t h e obj e ct

,

1 Vo l . I, ch .
3 .
 A R G U M E N TA TI OIV . 53

any e xp r e s sio n of d i st i nct t hought h e has r e c e i v e d mo r e ,

”
t han t h e id e a of b e auty i t i s an i d e a of r e l at ion —
.

l
l
T h e qu e st ion b e com e s th e n if w e acc e pt th i s d e fi n it ion
, ,

of b e a u ty : I s t h e cult ivat io n of t h e a r t s s p e c i fic a
y
—

arch it e ctu r e s cu l pt u r e p aint in g an d e ng r avin g

, ,
wh ich ,
—

c a n giv e m e n pl e asu r e i n t h e Sim p l e cont e m p l at ion of

t h e i r o u tward qua l iti e s withou t a n y d i r e ct an d d e fi n it e
,

e x e rt ion of t h e int e ll e ct e s s e nt i a l t o t h e h igh e st ty p e of

,

civi l i z at ion ? That l ast wo r d ho w e v e r i s O p e n to m i s in , ,

l
t e rpr e t a t i o n t h e s tud e nt b e gg e d t h e qu e st io n i n d e fin ing

.
’
it Wo r c e st e r s d e fi nit ion of t h e w o rd “
act of c i v i i z ,

l
”
in g giv e s no aid i n u n d e r st an ding it ; bu t i f i n ou r

l
’
s e a r ching w e h app e n o n t h e d e fi n itio n i n H a z i t t s t r an s
l at ion of Gu i z o t s H i s t ory of Ci v i i z a t i on
’
“
Two l e a d ing ,

fact s con st itut e c ivil i z atio n : 1 t h e d e v e l opm e nt of s o .

1 ”
ciet 2 t h e d e v e l opm e nt of t h e in d ivi d ua l sha l l w e
y .
,

n ot f e e l at o nc e that w e h av e fou n d a d e finition of t h e

w o r d t hat confo r m s t o a ll t h e t e st s l ai d d own fo r a goo d
d e fin i t i o n c l e a r n e s s convi ncingn e s s b r e vity ?
—
, ,

T h e qu e stio n now b e c om e s I s t h e cu l t ivat ion of thos e

art s w h ich giv e m e n p l e asu r e i n t h e s imp l e cont e mp l at ion
of th e i r outwa rd qual it i e s wit hout any d i r e ct and d e fi n it e ,

e x e r t io n of t h e int e ll e ct e s s e ntial t o t h e high e s t d e ve lop

,

m e nt ( I ) of t h e ind ivi d ua l ( 2 ) of soci e ty ? Wit h th e s e ,

d e fin it io ns w e can saf e ly i nv e st igat e t h e t opic fo r ou r s e l v e s ,

fo r w e a r e at l e ast c l e a r i n o u r m in d s as to t h e m e an ing
of t h e q u e stion .

1 l i l Wm l
i l
l
H i s t ory
. o
f C i v i i z a t i on . Gu zot . T ra n s a ted by . H az tt . Vo . I .

Tab e of C o n t en t s . F i rs t L e c t u re . H . G Bohn ,
. 1 88 6 .
 D I F F ER E N T M ET H O D S OF DEF I N I T I O N .

F ro m the xam i nat i on of t h e co m m on fa u lt s in d e fin i

e

l l
t i on and fro m t h e att e m p t t o fi nd sat isfacto ry d e fi nit i on s
,

for s t a t es m a n i k e fin e a r t s an d c i v i i z a t i on it should b e
, , ,

l
”
cl e ar that d e fin ing a wo rd has a v e r y var i abl e m e an i ng .

T h e s i m p e d e fin i t i o n stat e s only t h e c las s to wh i c h t h e

‘

ob j e c t b e longs t h e g e n u s an d i n what i t d iff e r s from t h e

, ,

oth e r m e m b e rs of t h e c lass i t s q u al iti e s as a sp e ci e s F o r , .

l
i nstan c e an e o z o on u s e d to b e d e fi n e d as ( genu s ) a fos si
,

i z e d o rgan ic body ( s p e c i e s ) b e l onging t o t h e Fo r a m i n if e r a ;

,

l
H e n ry Ward B e e ch e r at Liv e r p ool d e fin e d t h e R e pub
, ,

i c a n s as ( g e nu s ) t hos e m e n ( s p e ci e s ) who und e r took to

“
,

stand u p fo r t h e right s of al l m e n black as w e l l as wh it e , .

”

O ft e n t h e di c t ionari e s prov i d e u s w i t h th e s e simpl e d e fi

t ion s o r with synony m ou s ph r as e s that a r e cl e a r and
,

l
convincing ; or w e fi nd a sati sfacto r y ph r as e e l s e wh e r e ,

l
’

l
as wh e n w e h it o n Low e l l s s t a t es m a n i k e ; Gu i z o t s c i v i
’

i z a t i o n ; D e an Swift s s ty e i s t h e h
’

p rop e r wo r d s i n t e “

” ’
prop e r pl a c e s ; o r C ardina l N e w man s Styl e i s a think
”
ing out into l an g u ag e M or e oft e n how e v e r a m
.
, ,

stat e m e nt of t h e g e n us and t h e diff e r e nt ia i s not e no n

and t h e di c tionari e s d o not h e l p u s ; w e m u st th e n , ,

m in e t h e m e an ing t h e lim it s of ou r t e r m s by
, ,

m e thods ,
by analysi s of t h e wo rd by ca r e fu l e xpo ,

by antith e si s ill u st r at ion anal ogy i nd e e d by w h a t e

, , ,

m e thod w i l l m ak e cl e a r an d convi nci ng a t e r m that o r

nally i s n e it h e r .

D e fi nit ion of t h e wo r ds p oe t p oe t ry by e x a m i n a t , ,

of t h e h isto ry t h e e tymo l ogy of t h e word , t his e x t

,

fro m P h i l i p Sid n e y s D ef e n ce of P oes i e shows

’ ~

“
on g t h e Ro m ans a p o e t was c all e d vo tes wh i c h i s as m u
Am ,

as a d ivi n e r for e s e e r or p ro ph e t as b y h i s c on jo i n e d W O I
, , ,
56 A R G U M E N TA TI O /V
'
.

wh i c h i s a m i sta k e u s u ally c a u s e d by so m e m e ntal c onfu s i on .

L e xi c og rap h e rs stat e that i t i s an e rror d u e to st u p i d i ty and

c ar e l e ssn e ss b u t b l u n d e rs a r e of te n c a u s e d b y a too g r e at
,

shar p n e ss and q u i c k n e ss So m e t i m e s a b l u nd e r i s no m i sta k e

.

at all as wh e n a m a n b l u nd e rs on t h e r ig ht e x p lanat i on ; th u s
,

h e arr iv e s at t h e r ig ht g oal b u t b y an u northodo x road , .

So m e ye ars a g o th e r e was an art i c l e i n t h e Sa t u r d a y R evi ew on

t h e k nowl e d g e n e c e ssary to m a k e a b l u nd e r a n d th i s t i tl e
‘ ’
,
I
i v e s t h e c l u e to what a b l u nd e r r e ally I s I t 15 c a e d by a
g .

c onf u s i on of two or m or e th i ngs and u nl e ss s o m t i n g i s ,

known of th e s e th i n g s a b l u nd e r c annot b e m ad e A p e rfe c tly .

i g norant m a n has not s u fli c i e n t k nowl e d g e to b l u nd e r .

” 1

’
T he fol lo wi ng f r o m R L St e v e n son s l e tt e r to t h e R e v . . .

D r Hyd e in an s w e r to h i s l e tt e r att acking Fath e r D

.
, ien ,

l
e x e mp l ifi e s in t h e fi r st part d e fi n it ion by i t e ra t i o and
in t h e s e cond d e fi n it ion by e x e m p ific a t i o n
,

Co m m on hono u r ; not t h e hono u r of ha vi n g don e anyth i ng

r i g ht b u t t h e hono u r of n ot ha vi n g don e a u g ht c ons p i c u o u sly
,

fo u l t h e hono u r of t h e i n e rt ; that was what r e m a i n e d to y o u .

B u t wi ll a g e ntl e m an of yo u r r e v e r e nd p rof e ss i on allow

m e an e x a m p l e fro m t e fi ld s of g allantry
h e ? W h e n two g e ntl e
m e n c o m pe t e for t h e fa v o u r of a lady and t h e o n e s u c c e e ds ,

and t h e othe r i s r e j e c t e d and ( as w i ll so m e t i m e s ha p pe n ) m a tt e r

,

da m ag i n g to t h e s u c c e ssfu l r iv al s c r e d i t r e a c h e s t h e e a r of t h e ’

d e fe ate d i t i s h e ld b y pla i n m e n of no p r e t e ns i ons that h i s

,

m o u th i s i n t h e C i r c u m stan c e al m ost n e c e ssar i ly c los e d

,
Yo u r
, .

c h u r c h and Da m i e n s w e r e i n Hawa ii u p on a r iv alry to do we ll

’

to h e l p to e d i fy to s e t d ivi n e e x a m pl e s Y o u h a vi n g ( i n o n e
, ,
.

h u g e i nstan c e ) fa i l e d and Dam i e n s u c c e e d e d I m ar v e l i t sho u l d

, ,

not hav e o c c u rre d to y o u that y o u we r e doo m e d to s i l e n c e ;

that wh e n y o u had b e e n o u tstr i pp e d i n that h i g h r iv alry and ,

1 L i t e r a ry B l
u n d er s , pp . 1 , 2 . H . B . W h e a tl ey . Lo n do n : ll
Ei t St o , o ck

Co .
, 1 8 93 .
 A R G U M E N TA TI ON 57

sat i nglor i o u s i n t h e m i dst of yo u r we ll b e i n g i n yo u r p l e asant -

roo m and Da m i e n c rown e d wi th g lor i e s and honors to i l e d

, ,

and rott e d i n that p i g s t y e of h i s u nd e r t h e c l i ff s of Kalawao

o u t h e e l e c t who wo u ld not w e r e t h e last m a n on e arth to
y , ,

c oll e c t and p ro p agat e g oss i p on t h e vol u nt e e r who wo u ld and

1
d id .
”

I n h i s Liv e r poo l sp e e ch H e n r y Wa rd B e e ch e r used

ana l ogy as a m e an s of d e fi n it io n :

a v age i s a m a n of o n e story and that o n e story a

A s ,

c e llar W h e n a m a n b e g i ns to b e c i vi l i z e d h e ra i s e s anoth e r
‘

story Wh e n y o u c hr i st i an i z e and C i vi l i z e t h e m a n y o u p u t
.
,

story u pon story for y o u d e ve lo p fa c u lty aft e r fa c u lty ; and

,

o u ha v e to s u pply e v e ry story w i th yo u r p ro d u c t i o n s
Q ”

y .

D e fi n ition l
by e x e m p i fic a t i o n Pr of e sso r H ux l e y u s e d i n
e xp l ain i ng t e st imonia l an d ci r cu m s t ant ia l e vi d e nc e

'

l
t e st i m on i al e v i d e n c e m e an h u m an t e st i m ony ; an d by
By
c i r c u m stant i al e vi d e n c e I m e an e vi d e n c e wh i c h i s not h u m an

t e st i m ony Su ppos e that a m a n t e lls y o u that h e saw a

.

p e rso n str i k e anoth e r and ki ll h i m ; that i s t e st i m on i al e vi d e n ce

of t h e fa c t of m u rd e r B u t i t i s p oss i bl e to ha v e c i rc u m s t a n
.

t i al e vi d e n c e of t h e fa c t of m u rd e r ; that i s to say y o u m a y ,

fi nd a m a n dyi ng wi th a wo u nd u p on h i s h e ad ha vi ng e xa c tly
t h e for m and c hara c t e r of t h e wo u nd wh i c h i s m ad e b y an a x e ,

and w i th d u e c ar e i n tak i ng s u rro u nd i n g c i r c u m stan c e s i nto

,

a c c o u nt y o u m a y c on c l u d e w i th t h e u t m ost c e rt a i nty that t h e

,

m a n has b e e n m u rd e r e d ; that h i s d e ath i s t h e c ons e q u e n c e of

a blow i nfl i c t e d by anoth e r m a n w i th that i m p l e m e nt .

” 3

1 Fa t /i e r D a m i e n , pp 1 . 1 an d 12 . C ha t to W in d u s , 1 88 0 . Reprin ted
f r o m t h e Sc o t s O b s e r v e r
’
.

2
Spec i m e n s f
o A rg u m e n ta t i on ( M o d e r n
), p . 1 66.

3 I d em , pp 70 , 7 1
. .
58 A R G UM E N TA TI OIV .

D e fin ition by ca r e ful e xposition of t h e t e r m s i n wh i c h

t h e t r oub l e som e word has b e e n d e fin e d i s i l lu st r at e d by

t h e quotat ion from R uskin as t o B e auty p 5 2 The de fi , . .

n i t i o n h e giv e s of t h e word i s in it s e lf not e nt i r e l y cl e a r

and convinc i ng an d th e r e fo r e h e e xp l ain s ca r e ful ly what

,

h e m e ans by som e thing that can giv e p l e a s u r e without

any d i r e ct o r d e finit e e x e r t ion of t h e i nt e l l e ct Se e al so
l
.

Pr of e sso r Ge n u n g s d e fi nition of D e sc r ipt ion P r a c t i ca

’

R /ze t or i c pp 3 2 6 3 2 7
, .
, .

D e fi n it ion by d e sc r ipt ion i s il l ust r at e d by Pr of e s so r

l
H uxl e y s a c c ou nt i n t h e fi r st of hi s T/zre e L ec t u r es on
’

1
E vo u t i on of t h e s e cond hypoth e s i s an d by t h e follo w ing
, ,

f r om an a r tic l e on t h e St e am Engin e by G C V . . .

H ol m e s :
Ta k e a hollow c yl i nd e r t h e botto m c los e d wh i l e t h e t o p
,

r e m a i ns o p e n and p o u r i n wat e r to t h e h e i g ht of a f e w i n c h e s
, .

N e x t c o v e r t h e wat e r w i th a flat p lat e or p i ston wh i c h fi ts t h e ,

i nt e r i or of t h e c yl i nd e r p e rf e c tly ; th e n a pp ly h e at to th e wat e r ,

and we shall w i tn e ss t h e followi ng ph e no m e na A ft e r t h e lap s e .

of so m e m i n u t e s t h e wat e r w i ll b eg i n to b o i l and t h e st e a m ,

a c c u m u lat i n g at t h e u pp e r s u rfa c e wi ll m ak e roo m for i ts e lf

b y ra i s i n g t h e p i ston sl i g htly A s t h e bo i l i n g c o n t i n u es m or e
.
,

and m or e st e am w i ll b e for m e d and ra i s e t h e p i ston hi g h e r and ,

l
h i g h e r t i l l all t h e wat e r i s bo i l e d away and n oth i n g b u t st e a m
, ,

i s l e ft i n t h e c y l i nd e r N o w th i s m a c h i n e c onsi st i n g of cy i nd e r
.
, ,

p i ston ,
wat e r and fi,
r e i s t h e st e a m e
,
n g i n e i n i ts m ost e l e m
-

e n
tary for m For a st e a m e n g i n e m a y b e d e fi n e d as an a ppnr a t u s
.
-

for do i ng wor k by m e ans of h e at a pp l i e d to wat e r a n d fSi n c e -

ra i s i ng s u c h a w e i g ht as t h e p i ston i s a for m of d o m g work ,

th i s a pp arat u s c l u m sy and i n c on v e n i e nt tho u gh i t m a y b e a n

, ,

s w e r s t h e d e fi n i t i on r i s ly ” 2
p e c e .

1 Sp ec i m en s o
f A rg u m en ta t i on ( M o dern ) pp 66, 67
, . .

2 Sp ec i m en s o/ E x p os i t i on , p 4 2 . . H . La m o n t H H . . o lt Co .
, 1 8 94 .
 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV . 59

The impo r tant i d e a that al l th e s e quotat ion s il ust r at e l

i s that in d e fi n in g w e shal l b e fo r c e d v e r y oft e n to tu r n
asi d e f r om t h e d ictionari e s and by s e a r ch i n e ssays book s ,

by sp e cial ist s in ou r own e xp e ri e nc e by ca r e fu l e x a m i

, ,

l
nat ion of t h e wor d s an d by tho u ght upon t h e m t o r e ach
,
) ,

th r ough anal ogy e x e m p i fic a t i o n anal ys i s of t h e w o r d f

, , ,

d e tail e d d e sc r iption it e r at ion an t it h e s is t h e i r r e a l m e an

, , ,

ing .

A D V A N T A G ES OF P R E L I M I N A R Y D EF I N I T I O N OF T ER M S .

The ad v antag e s of t hi s p r e l i m ina r y e xam inat ion of t h e

t e rm s of t h e p r opos it ion t o b e d e bat e d a r e of s e v e r al
kind s B y i t ( 1 ) t op ics pa r t icu l a r ly s c i e nt ifi c subj e ct s
.
,

but al so l it e r ary qu e stion s that a r e vagu e on l y b e cau s e

,

th e y a r e t e ch n ical a r e c l e a r e d by t h e substitut io n of
,

t e r m s l ong e r p e r haps but m o r e ge n e r ally u nd e rs tood

, .

F o r in stanc e to t h e av e rag e m aga z i n e r e ad e r t h e subj e ct

, ,

“
I s t h e co rt e x of t h e c e r e b r u m i n m an divid e d into
”
d e fi nit e ly loca l i z e d c e nt r e s ? contain s at l e ast t wo t e r m s
t hat wil l p r obably not b e c l e a r : co r t e x of t h e c e r e b r um
an d l ocal i z e d c e n t r e s
“
Y ou m a y r e ph ra s e t h e qu e st ion
.
~

i n this w ay : I S t h e l ay e r of g r ay m att e r inv e st ing m ost

of t h e su rfac e of t h e b r ain an d d roppi n g d own into t h e
fi s s u r e s b e t w e e n t he convo l ut ion s of t h e b r ain d ivid e d ,

i nto a r e as whos e r e l at ion t o t h e n e r v e s n ot i n t h e b r ain

i s as fol lo ws : ( A ) t h e r e mova l of o n e of th e s e a r e as i n ~

vo l v e s ( I ) t h e abol ition of t h e vo l unta r y cont r ol of t h e

e f f e r e nt n e r v e s of a c e rtain pa r t o r ( 2 ) if t h e s e n so r y
,

n e rv e s a r e con c e r n e d t h e p r e cl u s i on of s e n s at io n s from
,

following t h e i r st i m u l ation ; on t h e ot h e r h and ( B ) s t i m u ,

lat ion of t h e s e sam e ar e as wil l giv e r i s e t o a s e n sat ion ,

a s i f in t h e part o r t o d e fin it e m u s c u l ar a ct ion i n t h e
,
60

”
1
pa r t ? This though l ong shou ld c e rtainly b e c l e a r e r fo r
, ,

t h e g e n e r al r e ad e r B u t to g e t thi s w e m u st subj e ct t h e
.

p roposit ion to t h e e xam inati on which has j ust b e e n a dv o

cated . Thi s l it e r a r y topic too I S t ran sv e rs e all it e r ation
, ,
"

i n pa r isoni c ant ith e t ical o r pa r a ll e l cl aus e s t h e i n d i s p e n s

abl e c rit e r ion o f t h e p r e s e nc e of Euphu ism ? a qu e s
”
t

t ion bas e d on an a ffir mation of D r Fr i e d r ich Landmann .

,

who has mad e a s tu d y of t h e s ubj e ct wou ld b e m e ani ng ,

l e ss t o m any A S a c r iti c has s ai d it n e e ds a com

.
“
,
”
m e ntary t o m ak e it i nt e l ligib l e Wh e n w e e xpand thi s .

by aid of e xp l anat ion s from D r Lan d man n as fo ll o w s .

,

i t b e com e s c l e a r e r Euphui sm i s t h e nam e giv e n to t h e

.

sty l e of J oh n Ly l y f r om h is n ov e l E upb u es H i s A n a t om i c
l
l
, ,

W
l
o
f i t
. T h e fo l lowing i s an in stanc e of t ran s v e r s e a i t e r

l
at ion : A l though hit h e r to Euphu e s I hav e s zr i n e d t h e e
l
“
, ,

i n my ze a r t fo r a t r u St i e f r i e n d e I wil l s /zu n n e t h e e ze r e ,

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aft e r as a t r oth l e s s f o e A r e th e n t h is t ran sv e r s e
.
, ,

a ll it e r ation an d an a nt ith e s i s n ot on l y of w e l l balanc e d -

s e nt e n c e s but a l so of wo rd s e ve n of syllab l e s whi c h , , ,

wh e n w e hav e a p r incipa l an d a subo r dinat e clau s e bal ,

au c e s two th r e e o r a ll of t h e wo rd s of t h e fo r m e r again s t
, ,

an e q ual n umb e r of t h e latt e r ind isp e n sab l e c r it e r ia of ,

t h e p r e s e nc e of Euph ui sm ?

N o r wil l t h e obj e ct io n t hat s in c e w e m u s t e xp l ai n th e s e

,

t e chni ca l t e r m s it woul d b e b e tt e r to giv e t h e topic o r igi

,

nal ly i n t h e ph r as in g that w e r e ach wh e n w e e xam in e it

a l ways ho l d good Th e s e t e chnical n am e s as t h e ast two
.

i ll ust ration s Show oft e n ph r a s e what can b e e x pr e s s e d

, l ,

:
oth e rwi s e on l y by awk w a rd ci r cu m l ocut ion an d t h e p r opo ,

s i t i o n which w e r e ach i n ou r e xamination of t h t r m s

e e

wou ld b e in th e s e cas e s too cumb e rsom e fo r a h e a d ing .

1
A r ra n
ged f r o m t h e Ce n t u ry D i ct i on a ry .
 A R GU M E N TA TI O / V . 61

M o r e ov e r it i s i mpo r tan t that t h e r e ad e r s hou l d r e a l i z e

,

t hat what h e und e rstan d s c l e ar l y e nough wh e n stat e d at

l e ngth is but t h e sam e th ing o r proc e s s whi ch t h e s e i e n
t i s t o r Sp e cial i st d e not e s by a S ingl e wo r d o r t e r m That .

i s his fi rst st e p int o t h e n e w kn owl e dg e t h at h e is a c qu i r

i ng U nl e s s t h e r e fo r e t h e t e chn ical ph r a s ing of t h e topi c
.
, ,

i s l ik e ly t o r e p e l a possibl e r e a d e r o r h e a r e r b e cau s e i t ,

conv e ys no m e an in g t o h is m in d and d o e s not pi q u e hi s

cu r ios ity it m a y w e l l b e r e tai n e d b u t sho u l d b e at on c e
, , ,

i n t h e i nt r o d u cto ry wo rk cl e a r e d of a l l vagu e n e s s
, .

Thi s p r oc e s s al so ri d s a topic of any confu s ion l i ab l e to

a r i s e f r om it b e cau s e it i s ( 2 ) ambiguou s o r ( 3 ) h as q u e s
t ion b e ggi ng t e rm s i n it T h e fo l lowin g topic fo r i n
-

.
,

stanc e contain s a n ambigu ou s t e r m : Was t h e t r e at m e nt

,

of t h e A m e r ican Loya l ist s by t h e Whigs j ust ifi abl e ?

Wh e n t h e subj e ct app e a r e d r e c e nt l y i n a l i st of fo r e n sic
top ics at H a r va rd C o ll e g e b r i e fs f r om two v e r y d i ff e r e nt
,

points of Vi e w w e r e d r awn on it Som e st ud e n ts t ook .

W/zig s t o m e an t h e Wh ig pa r ty i n t h e C ol on i e s that i s , ,

thos e who w e r e i n arm e d r e s istan c e t o Gr e at B r itain ,

whi l e ot h e rs i nt e r p r e t e d Whi gs to me an t h e Whi g m in i s

t r y of Lo rd Sh e l bu r n e A s fa r a s t h e m e r e wo r d i ng of
.

t h e qu e st ion i s con c e r n e d e ach i nt e r p r e tat ion i s ju st i fi

,

abl e T h e t r oub l e l i e s of cou rs e i n t h e ambiguo u s n e s s

.
, ,

of W/ ngs I f w e r e ph r a s e t h e qu e stio n thus Was t h e

.
,

t r e at m e nt of t h e A m e r ican Loya l i st s by t h e Eng l i s h

Whig s j u s t ifiab l e ? t h e d an g e r d i sapp e a r s .

l
H e r e i s an e xam pl e of a p ro p os i t ion c ontai n in g a qu e s

l l
’
t ion b e gging e pith e t
-

I S J oh n L y y s f u l som e fl att e ry of
,
“

Q u e e n El i z ab e th i n hi s E up /i u es a n d zi s E ng a n d com
, ,

m e ndabl e Thi s q u e st ion e vid e nt l y assu m e s that al l mu st

admit that t h e fl att e r y of El i z ab e t h w a s f u l som e and “
,
”
62 A R G U M E N T/ 1 TI O JV .

h e nc e it b e com e s important fo r u s to u nd e rstand j u st what

”
“
ful som e fl att e ry m e an s F ul som e a c c o rd ing to t h e
.
,

Ce n t u ry D i c t i on a ry i s som e t h i ng o f f e n s i v e fro m e xc e ss
,
“
,

”
gross na u s e ou s d i sg u stin g
, , B u t anyth i ng that d e s e rv e s .

t h e s e ad j e c t iv e s c a n hardly b e co m m e ndabl e a nd h e n c e ,

t h e t e rm f u l som e b e gs t h e q u e stion
“
.

T h e advantag e how e v e r of th i s p r e l i m inary e xam ina

, ,

t ion i s not m e r e ly to r i d t h e propos i t ion of t e chnical ,

ambiguo u s o r q u e st i on b e ggin g t e r m s it al so go e s a l ong

,
-

way (4 ) to ri d t h e e nti r e d i sc u s sion of vagu e n e ss If i n .

,

yo u r w r it ing o r sp e aking you g e t t h e aud i e nc e to ac c e pt ,

.

l
l
you r p r e l im inary d e fi n it ion s you a r e w e ll on t h e road to ,

convi ncing th e m A t h e i nt r od uct o ry p o rtion of P ro

.

f e s s o r H uxl e y s fi r st of h is th r e e l e ct u r e s on Evol ut ion

’

giv e n i n N e w Y ork i n 1 8 76 il l ust rat e s thi s H e so stat e s . .

t h e p r obl e m of t h e c r e at ion of t h e world that e v e ry fa i r

m in d e d man m ust ad m it that what e v e r h is p r e j ud ic e s i t , ,

has thus p r e s e nt e d it s e l f to him at som e t im e H e th e n .

e xplain s t h e t h r e e p os s i bl e hypoth e s e s so cl e a r ly so sim ply , ,

and s o fairly that t h e sam e h e ar e r m u st a d m it t h e ir fa i r

n e s s an d c l e arn e ss Th e n b e cau s e n e arly al l t h e p roof
.
,

to b e u s e d to r e fut e t h e ol d hy p oth e s e s an d to s u pport t h e

n e w will b e ci r c u m stant ial e vid e nc e Pr of e s so r H uxl e y ,

ca r e ful ly e xp l ai n s t h e di ff e r e nc e b e t w e e n it an d t e sti

l
mon ia l e vi d e nc e an d w hy t h e popular di st ru st of c i r cu m
st a n t ia e vid e nc e i s u n wo rthy sup p o r t Wh e n th e n h e .
, ,

b e gin s to arg u e e v e r y r e ad e r m u st u nd e r stand j u st what

,

t h e q u e stion m e an s and b e r e ady t o ad m it all that h e has

l
l
sa i d thu s fa r Y e t i f th e s e d e finit ion s and d ist inct ions
‘
.
,

b e g r ant e d e Sp e c i a y t h e val u e p u t u p on c i r c u m stantial

,

e vid e n c e t h e r e ad e r w i l l fin d that P rof e s so r H u xl e y s con

’

1
e l u sion s a r e w e ll n i gh i rr e s i st i bl e
-

1 S e e p p 60 72 , Speci m en s
.
—
o
f A rg u m e n t a t i on
( M o d e rn
) .
64 l
A R G U r /[E N TA TI O /V .

of i nt e rp r e tation do e s not e xist it wi l l n ot b e di fficu l t to

,

fi nd t h e pa r ti c ula r t e r m o r t e r m s wh ich a r e int e rpr e t e d

l
d iff e r e nt l y and t h e s e a r e al l that m u st b e d e fi n e d satis
,

f a c t o r i y b e fo r e t h e argu m e nt it s e l f can b e gin Ev e n if .

t h e cont r ov e r sy i s ca rr i e d on by l e tt e r o r th r ough t h e

p r e ss th i s m e an s that o n e of t h e two p e r son s arou s e d

,

l
t h e oth e r by som e thing which h e wrot e o r said This .

was p r obab l y fo r m ulat e d as a p r oposit ion o r m ay r e adi y ,

b e r e d uc e d to o n e an d t h e m e an ing giv e n t o its t e rm s

,

can b e r e ad i l y asc e r t a in e d by s tudy of t h e argu m e nt

d e v e l op e d f r om th e m B e for e r e plyin g t h e s e con d p e r
.
,

s on shou l d fi n d out what t h e p r oposition of h is oppon e nt

i s and what i s t h e int e r p r e tation giv e n by him t o it s
t e r m s I f t h e s e c ond p e rso n d iff e rs as to t h e i r m e aning
.
,

h e shou ld show why c l e arly b e fo r e h e b e gin s h i s a r gu

m e n t H e r e agai n o n e O ppon e nt r e al l y t e l l s t h e oth e r
.
, ,

what it i s i n t h e t e r m s upon which th e y d i f f e r an d upon

wh ich t h e y m u st r e ach an ag r e e m e nt b e fo r e t h e y can
a r gu e about anyt hing m o r e than t h e m e anin g of t h e
t e rm s .

Wh e n two m e n d is cu s s by l e tt e r o r th r ough t h e p r e s s ,

b e caus e som e thing t h e fi r st has said o r w r itt e n has a rou s e d

l
t h e oth e r t h e po s ition of t h e fi r st who launch e d hi s a r tic l e
, ,

o r sp e e ch i nto t h e wo rld with n o s p e qia ppp pne nt in o '

m i n d i s that of t h e m an w h o w r it e s fo r o r ad dr e s s e s
,

aud i e nc e H i s w o r k in d e t e r mi ni ng t o what e xt e nt
.

d e fi n e hi s t e r m s i s much mo r e d ifficul t than that of

man writ ing fo r o r sp e aki ng t o o n e ot h e r p e r son O f t .

as i n t h e cas e of an a r t ic l e i n a m aga z i n e h e w r it e s ,

l
an au d i e nc e of i nd e t e r m inat e si z e of many and wi d e ]
,

d i ff e ri ng point s of Vi e w som e of which h e can h a r d

,

fo r e s e e Ev e n if his w o rk b e a dd r e s s e d only t o an aud

.
 l
A R G U A E /VTA TI O /V . 65

e nc e of a hund r e d i n som e h al l th e r e wil l b e p r obably , , ,

s e v e r a l g r a d e s of i nt e ll e ct i n it an d va r iou s d e gr e e s of
know l e d g e of hi s subj e ct H o w is h e in e it h e r of th e s e
.

cas e s t o d e t e r m i n e what t e r m s wil l n e e d e xplanat ion what ,

h
i s l iab l e i n t e p r opos iti on to b e m isi nt rp r e t e d
e ? H e
m u st st r ik e an av e r ag e P utt ing asi d e fo r a m om e nt as
.
,

fa r as h e can t h e sp e cia l know l e d g e of hi s sub j e ct that

,

mak e s e v e n d i f fi cult matt e r s s e e m t o h im r u d im e nta r y and

s e lf e vid e nt h e mu st fo r an au di e n c e of maga z in e r e ad e rs
-

, , ,

t ry to plac e him s e lf i n t h e po s i t i o n o f a p e r son of av e rag e

'

int e ll ig e nc e and e d ucat io n wh o h a s no S p e cia l kn o wl e d g e

of t h e subj e ct but i s wi l l in g t o l e a r n about it
, H e wi ll .

th e n e xp l ain thos e t e r m s which it s e e m s t o hi m m u s t b e

, ,

vagu e to su ch a p e rs on I f h e i s w r it ing a po pu l a r a r t icl e

.

o n som e s ubj e ct i n whi ch h e i s a s p e cia l i s t t h e p r obab l e ,

n e e ds of a r e a d e r of t h e Ce n t u ry t h e H a rp e r o r t h e Scr i b
, ,

n e r who r un s ov e r t h e pag e s of t h e cu rr e nt nu m b e r fo r
,

s om e t hi ng i nt e r e s t ing kno w ing but l itt l e of t h e subj e ct of

,

any of t h e a r t icl e s m ay b e a conv e n i e nt stan d a rd Pr a e

, .

tic e i n such wo rk wil l s oon giv e hi m accu r acy of j u d gm e nt

as to t h e am oun t of d e fin it ion n e e d e d i n popul a r i z i ng a
subj e ct i n hi sto r y s ci e nc e o r l it e r atu r e
, I f h e i s d i r e ct l y
, .

to a d d r e s s an au d i e n c e h e m u st b e fo r e h e i s to e nt e r
,

t h e hal l o r r apidly as h e l ooks ov e r hi s au d i e nc e b e fo r e

,

b e gi nn ing j u d g e it s int e ll e ctua l st at u s and wh e n h e

, , ,

sp e aks i nc r e as e o r d i m in ish hi s d e fi n it ion as t h e con

,

d i t i o n s in t h e au d i e n c e s e e m to wa rr an t H e r e again .

p r act ic e th i s ti m e i n a ddr e s s i ng a u d i e n c e s mak e s a t ask

, ,

o r i ginal ly v e r y d iffi cul t inc r e as ingl y e as i e r .

I t mu s t b e c l e a r from t hi s att e m pt t o g e t som e rough

fo r l i m it in g ou r d e fin i ng th at i t wi l l vary as t h e
n e e s vary A writ e r m a y rang e f r om a n a r t icl e fo r
.
 A R G U AI E N TA TI OIV .

hild r e n on h is s p e c i alty i n t h e You t /z s Comp a n i on o r S t

l
l
’
c .

N i c zo a s th ro u gh an e s say on it st il l s impl e but by no

, , ,

m e an s cl e ar to C hild r e n i n t h e H a rp e r t h e Sc r i bn e r t h e
, , ,

Ce n t u ry t o a di scus sion i n r e ga r d to it fo r his f e l l ow

,

l
work e rs by no m e an s cl e ar not m e r e ly fo r ch ild r e n but
, ,

ll l l
e v e n fo r t h e av e rag e r e ad e r i n t h e H i s t o r i ca
, R evi ew t h e ,

P sy c /zo og i c a R e v i e w o r A ng i a , Evid e ntly t h e p r e i m i

.

nary d e fi n it ion r e qu i r e d i n t r e at ing t h e sam e sub j e ct fo r

th e s e th r e e d iff e r e nt audi e n c e s will va r y d e ci d e dly F o r .

t h e t h ird s e t of r e a d e r s h e wi l l n e e d to d e fi n e on l y thos e

t e r m s to wh ich h e giv e s an u n u sual m e aning ; i n r e ga r d

to al l t h e e ss e ntial s of t h e q u e s t ion t h e aud i e n c e will b e ,

as w e l l i nform e d as t h e writ e r T h e s e con d aud i e n c e wil l

.

n e e d con si d e r abl e d e fi n it ion t h e fi rst a g r e at d e al

, In .

t h e sa m e way a Sp e ak e r w ho i n t u r n ad d r e s s e s an aud i

e nc e at som e ch a r ity o r gan i z ation i n t h e s lu m s of a city ,

a l arg e gath e ring of p e op l e i n a popula r l e ctu r e cou r s e o r ,

a m e e ti ng of so m e h i sto r ical o r s ci e nt ifi c association will ,

much vary t h e a m o u nt of p r e l im inary d e fi ning that h e

do e s . C ommon s e n s e and p ract ic e a r e t h e b e st gui d e s
i n d e t e r mining t h e amount of d e fi ning to b e d on e fo r any
sp e cia l au d i e nc e .

TH E T H I RD ST E P IN A N A L Y SI S I N V O L V ED IN DEF I N I N G .

Thi s d e fi ning of ou r t e r m s fo r ou r o w n conv e n i e n c e o r

that w e m ay r e ach an u n d e r t a n di n g about t h e m w ith ou r
oppon e nt i nvo l v e s a thi r d s t e p i n ou r analytica l w ork
,
.

W e ag r e e t o o r r e f u s e t o acc e p t d e fin it ion s of t h e t e r m s
in o u r t opic as th e y s e e m to u s wh e n tak e n tog e th e r
m ak e c l e ar o r to fa i l t o m ak e cl e a r j ust t h e m att e r
, ,

w e wish to di s cu s s I n ot h e r w o rd s wh e n
.
,
 A R G UM E JVTA TI O/V .

t lon d fin it ion s of all

ed e os s ibl e vag u e t e rm s i n o u r
t he p

topi c o r hav e acc e pt e d d e fi n it ion s of th e m giv e n by o u r

l
O ppon e nt w e hav e d e ci d e d that t h e topic as r e ph r as e d in
,

t h e d e fin it ion s stat e s c l e a rl y t b e g e n e r a s t i on which

q u e

w e wi sh to t r e at N ow to know w hat thi s g e n e r al qu e s

.

t io n i s what i s t h e d i sputabl e topic w e mu st hav e e x

, ,

a m i n e d into t h e o r igin of t h e d i scu s sio n to s e e h ow i t

b e cam e d e batab l e Som e s t u dy of t b c or i g i n of t /ze qu e s

.

l
t i on t h e n i s i nvo l v e d i n t h e d e fi n it ion s of t h e t e r m s an d
, , ,

is a t ni r d , if s u bor d i n a t e, s te
p i n a na
y s is .

Fo r in stanc e wh e n w e a r e a s k e d to acc e pt th i s r e stat e

,

m e nt of t h e q u e st ion i n r e ga rd t o t h e s e v e nth of M a r c h
Sp e e ch of D an i e l W e bs t e r D i d Dan i e l W e b st e r in h i s
,
“
,

s e v e nt h of M a r ch sp e e ch accom m odat e t h e co n d uct of t h e

,

com m un ity to e th ical l aws and su bo rd i nat e t h e c o n fli c t

i ng s e l f int e r e st s of t h e d ay to high e r an d p e rman e nt c o n
-

l
c e r n s ? w e can not pas s any j udgm e nt on t h e s u f fici e ncy
of t h e d e fi n ition of s t a t es m a n i k e unl e ss w e k n o w t h e ci r ‘

c u m s t a n c e s whi ch gav e r i s e t o t h e q u e st ion Wh e n w e re .

m e mb e r o r fi n d by i nv e stigation that at a t i m e of co nfu s e d

, ,

an d con fl icti ng int e r e st s Dan i e l W e bst e r m a d e a sp e e ch

which s om e m e n th e n an d si nc e hav e d e nou nc e d as t ruck

l
l ing t o po l it ica l factio n in o r d e r th at h e might gai n t h e p r e si
d e n e y w e sha l s e e t hat t h e n e w ph r as ing of t h e topic
,

stat e s w hat w e w ish to d e bat e .

Fo r a s e cond i ll ust r at ion l ook at t h e t op ic H as t h e

, ,
“

Un it e d Stat e s a right t o e xc l u siv e j u ris d iction ov e r

”
B e h ring Se a ? I f w e a r e ask e d t o acc e pt sup r e m e “

”
c ontro l as t h e m e a n i n g of e xc l usiv e j u r i sd ict ion w e wis h
'

t o kno w in what way in wh at act s that sup r e m e con ,

“
,

t r ol w ou l d m an if e st it s e l f and al so by wh at t hat ,

”
“
s up r e m e cont r o l w ou ld b e giv e n Unt il w e kno w .
68 A R G U M E N T/ 1 TI ON

th e s e matt e r s w e can hard l y b e sat i sfi e d with s up r e m e

,
“

”
cont r ol . I n oth e r word s w e m us t look i nto t h e o r igin
,

of t h e qu e st ion W e shall fi nd t hat i n 1 8 8 6 1 8 8 7 and

.
, ,

1 8 8 8 U n it e d Stat e s cr u is e rs s e i z e d v e ss e l s said t o b e
B rit ish . Th e s e w e r e e ngag e d i n t h e w at e r s of B e hring ,

Se a out sid e t h e o r d ina r y l im it of t e rr ito r ia l j u r i sd iction

,

( th r e e m il e s f r om sho r e ) i n hu nting an d, taking fu r s e al s

wh i ch h ad th e i r b r e e din g g r ound s on two of t h e i s l and s
of t h e A l e ut ian grou p T h e U n it e d Stat e s act e d i n th is
.

way on t h e gro u nd t hat it m ust p r ot e ct t h e int e r e st s of

t h e s e al ing com p any t o w hich t h e r i ght t o tak e s e a l s on

t h e s e island s had b e e n g r ant e d I f s e a l s cou l d b e captu r e d

.

by oth e r p e r sons as t h e ani mal s w e r e o n th e i r way t o and

f r om t h e i slan d s th e r e was d ang e r at m o s t of e xt e r m ina
, ,

t ion at l e ast of s e r ious inj u r y to t h e i n t e r e st s of t h e A m e r

,

ican s e a l ing company Gr e at B r itain p r ot e st e d against

.
.

t h e act io n of t h e Un it e d Stat e s and t h e l att e r d e clar e d ,

that it had a right to cont rol t h e wat e rs of B e h ring Se a fo r ‘

t h e p r ot e ction of t h e s e al s sai d i n b r i e f t hat it ha d t h e , ,

right to e x c l u d e al l t h e v e ss e l s of al l oth e r n ation s from

t h e s e al fis h i n g i n B e h ring Se a Sup r e m e cont r ol
”
-
“
.
,

th e n i s sat isfacto r y and w e s e e too on w hat g r oun d s

, , , ,

t h e right mu st b e d e t e r min e d fo r h e r e w e h av e o n e gr e at
,

nat ion a rr ay e d again st anoth e r t h e fi rst m aki ng a cl ai m ,

l
to right s out s id e t h e l im it s that I nt e rnational Law the —

l aw of nat ion s s e t s as t h e o r d inary t e r rito rial imit

—
.

Evid e nt l y th e n w e m u st d e t e r m in e wh e th e r I nt e rnational
, ,

Law can b e i nt e rp r e t e d as grant ing t h e Un it e d

right t o sup r e m e cont rol ov e r B e h r ing Se a I n te .

t h e d e fin ition how e v e r w e hav e com e t o kno w t ne o

, ,

f
o t b c qu es t i o n .
 A DA N G ER T H AT TH IS ST U D Y OF TH E O RI GIN OF TH E

Q U EST I O N A V OIDS .

Th i s t e stin g of t h e d e fi n itio n s by e xam in ing t h e o r i gin

of t h e qu e s tion som e t im e s shows t h e i na d e quacy of t h e
p r opos ition as fo r mulat e d Fo r in s tanc e a f e w y e ars ago
.
,

som e H arva r d stu d e nt s w e r e e ag e r t o wr it e on t h e qua r an

t i n e r e g u lation s i n N e w Y o rk t o p r e v e nt t h e sp r e a d ing
of cho l e r a i n t hi s count ry Wh e n ask e d to fo r mu l at e a
.

topic th e y u sua l ly gav e it as fol lows : Shoul d th e r e b e

,
“

st r ict q ua r a nt in e r e gul at ions in N e w Y o r k ? C e r tainly

l
this was a q u e st ion but wh e n th e y w e r e a s k e d to s tat e
,

l
j ust what th e y m e ant by qu a ra n t i n e r eg u a t i on s an d s t r i c t
u a r a n t i n e r e u a t i o n s it app e a r e d that i n t h e i r m in d s t h e
q g
fi rst t e r m stoo d fo r t h e t r e atm e n t of pass e ng e rs of t h e
st e am e r N o r m a n n i a
s
. T hat d e fi nit ion m e ant t hat it was
n e c e s s a r y t o inqui r e as to t h e w ay t h e qu e st ion a r o s e i n

l
t h e min d of t h e stu d e nt fo r w hy s hou l d qu a ra n t i n e r eg u
“

a t i on s m e an t hi s pa r ticula r i d e a ? Su ch inqui r y show e d

that t h e d e t e ntion by t h e Un it e d Stat e s o fficia l s i n qua r
ant in e fo r s e v e r al d ays of t h e st e am e r N or m a n n i a wh e n ,

s h e cam e i n wit h s o m e cas e s of chol e r a o n boa rd h ad ,

cau s e d g r e at d i st r e ss t o t h e pas s e ng e rs an d t h e j u st ic e
, ,

t h e n e c e s sity fo r t h e d e tail s of t h e t r e atm e n t w e r e r e a ll y

,

what i nt e r e st e d t h e stud e nt s T h e r e fo r e e xaminat ion of

.

t h e o r igin of t h e qu e s tion sho w e d t hat t h e stud e nt s ha d

not phras e d th e i r t opic p r op e r l y N on e qu e stio n e d that

.

t h e r e should b e a s t r ict qu a r a n t in e in N e w Y o rk harbo r ,

but m any qu e st ion e d w h e t h e r i n t h e cas e of t h e N o r m a n

n i a it was not unn e c e s sa r i l y s e v e r e Th e r e fo r e t h e p r opo
.

s it iou t o d e bat e had t o b e chang e d t o : Was t h e t r e at

“

m e nt of t h e pa ss e ng e r s of t h e N or m a n n i a un n e c e ss a r i l y
s e ve re
70 A R G UM E N T/ 1 TI O/V .

WH AT TH E F I R ST T H REE ST E P S IN A N A L Y SI S GIVE Us .

To sum up t h e n fi rst w e g e t a p r opos it ion to di s cu ss ;

,

th e n w e e xamin e it s t e rm s to s e e what t h e y m e an s i ngly ,

and what th e y giv e as a m e an in g t o t h e p r opo s it ion as a

whol e ; an d in a c c e p ting t h e d e fi nition s as not m e r e l y
cl e ar bu t as satisfa c to ry fo r o u r pu r pos e s w e t e st th e m , ,

by e xa m i ning t h e o rigin of t h e qu e st ion t o s e e wh e th e r ,

t h e d e fin it ion s giv e to t h e propo s i tion as a w ho l e a m e an

in g that ph r a s e s t h e g e n e r al qu e st ion w e wish t o d iscu s s .

T H E FO U R T H ST E P 1N A N A L Y SI S : To FI ND TH E S P EC I A L
I SSU E IN TH E C A SE .

I n e v e r y cas e am id t h e tan gl e of id e as conn e ct e d with

,

it th e r e i s o n e c e nt r a l i d e a o r group of id e as about w hich

, , ,

t h e oth e r s c e nt r e To p r ov e thi s c e nt r a l id e a o r g r ou p of
.
,

id e as t o b e t r u e o r fal s e i s to wi n t h e cas e fo r t h e a f fir m
, ,

ativ e o r t h e n e gat iv e Fo r in stan c e i n Lo r d Er skin e s

.
,
’

d e f e n s e of L o rd G e o r g e G o rd on t h e g e n e r a l q u e st ion was
, ,

“
I s Lo r d G e o r g e G o rdon gui l ty of t r e ason ? b u t Lo r d ”

Er skin e in h i s ski ll fu l i nt r o d uct ion soon sho w s that t h e

, ,

qu e st ion tu r n s on t hi s : H as anyth ing i n t h e con d uct of

“

Lo rd G e o r g e G o r don b e e n an op e n unam biguou s and , ,

l
p r e m e d itat e d l e vying of wa r again st t h e king i n
rea l m ? That i s t h e sp ec i a i s s u e in t h e cas e A s .

an sw e r it affirmativ e ly o r n e gat iv e l y t h e cas e i s s e ttl e

,

fo r o n e sid e o r t h e oth e r ; on this qu e s t ion t h e d e bat

tu rn s .

I n t h e sam e way t h e q u e stion Was A a r on B u r r gui l

l
”
of t r e ason ? r e d u c e s fo r a lawy e r t r e ating it on c o n s t i t
t i o n a grou nd s t o th i s Was th e r e any ov e rt act of t r e a
“
72 A R G U M E N TA TI O /V .

wi th so lon g words Wyatt i n so g r e at tr u st w i th t h e K i n g s

‘ ’

Ma j e sty that h e hath m ad e h i m h i s a m b assador and for who m ,

h i s Maj e sty had don e so m u c h b e i n g am b assador hath had , ,

i nte ll ige n c e wi th t h e K i n g s r e b e l and tra i tor Pol e To u c h i ng ’

,
.
’

t h e say i n g a m o u n t e th to th i s m u c h : That sa m e W yatt b e i n g

, ,

also a m b assador m al i c i o u sl y fals e l y and tr a i toro u sl y sa i d That

, , ,

h e fe ar e d that t h e K i n g sho u ld b e c ast o u t of a c art s ta i l ; and

’

that by G od s b lood i f h e we r e so h e we r e w e ll s e r v e d and h e

’

, , ,

wo u ld h e we r e so T h e sol e a pp ar e l of t h e r e st of all t h i s
.
’

p roof p e rta i n e th to t h e p roof of t h e o n e or t h e oth e r of th e s e

two po i nts B u t i f th e s e two p o i nts a pp e ar u nto yo u to b e

.

m or e than fals e m al i c i o u sly i n v e nt e d c raft i ly d i s g u i s e d and

, ,

wors e s e t forth I do u b t not b u t t h e r e st of th e i r p roofs wi ll b e

,

b u t r e p roofs i n e v e ry hon e st m an s j u d g m e nt 1 ’ ”
-
.

I n hi s Liv e rpoo l Sp e e ch B e e ch e r , cut down t he d is cu s

sion to o n e sp e cial is su e as foll ows ,

T h e powe r to c r e at e r i c h e s i s j u st as m u c h a p art of t h e
A n g lo Sa x on vi rt u e s as t h e p owe r to
-
c r e at e g ood ord e r and

so c i al safe ty T h e th i ng s r e q u i r e d for p rosp e ro u s lab or p ros

.
,

p e ro n s m an u fa c t u r e s and p ros p e ro,

u s c o m m e r c e a r e thr e e .

F i rst l i b e rty ; s e c ond l i b e rty ; th i rd l i b e rty Tho u g h th e s e

, , , .

a r e not m e r e ly t h e sa m e l i b e rty as I shall show o u F i rst

y , .
,

th e re m u st b e l i b e rty to follow thos e laws of b u s i n e ss wh i c h

l
e x p e r i e n c e has d e v e lo pe d w i tho u t i m p osts or r e str i c t i ons or
, ,

g o v e rn m e ntal i ntr u s i ons B u s i n e ss s i m p ly wants

. to b e e t

alon e Th e n s e c ondly th e r e m u st b e l i b e rty to d i str i b u t e

.
, ,

and e x c han g e p rod u c ts of i nd u stry i n an y m a r k e t w i tho u t b u r

d e n s o m e tar i f fs w i tho u t i m posts and w i tho u t v e x at i o u s r e g u la
, ,

t i ons Th e r e m u st b e th e s e two l i b e rt i e s l i b e rty to c r e at e

.
—

we alth as t h e m a k e rs of i t th i n k b e st a c c ord i n g to t h e l i g ht
, ,

and e x p e r i e nc e wh i c h b u s i n e ss has g iv e n th e m ; and th e n , ,

l i b e rty to d i stri b u t e what th e y ha v e c r e at e d w i tho u t u n n

sary ve x at i o u s b u rd e ns T h e c o m p r e h e ns iv e law of t h e
.

1 T/ Al di
ze P t \V y t t
ne B l lC
oe s .
p p l xx l xxia . e o . .
, .
 A R G U M E N TA TI OIV . 73

i nd u str i al c ond i t i on of t h e world i s fr e e m an u fact u re and fr e e

trad e I hav e sa i d th e r e we r e thr e e e l e m e nts of l i b e rt y T h e
. .

th i rd i s t h e n e c e ss i ty of an i nt e ll i g e nt and fr e e ra c e of c u sto m
e rs. Th e r e m u st b e fr e e do m am ong p rod u c e rs ; th e r e m u st
b e fr e e do m a m ong t h e d i str i b u tors ; th e r e m u st b e fr e e do m
a m on g t h e c u sto m e rs I t m a y not ha v e o c c u rr e d to y o u that
.

i t m a k e s any d i ff e r e n c e what on e s c u sto m e rs a re b u t i t do e s

’

i n all r e g u lar and p rolon g e d b u s i n e ss T h e c ond i t i on of t h e .

c u sto m e r d e t e r m i n e s how m u c h h e w i ll b u d e t e r m i n s of what

y e ,

sort h e wi ll b u y Poor and i gnorant p e o p l e b u y l i ttl e and that

.

of t h e p oore st ki nd T h e r i c h e st and t h e i nt e ll i g e nt ha vi ng
.
,

t h e m or e m e ans to b u y b u y t h e m ost and always b u y t h e b e st

, .

H e re th e n a r e t h e thre e l i b e rt i e s : l i b e rty of t h e p rod u c e r

, , ,

l i b e rty of t h e d i str i b u tor and l i b e rty of t h e c ons u m e r T h e .

fi rst two n e e d no d i s c u ss i on ; th e y ha v e b e e n long thoro u g hly , ,

and br i ll i antly i ll u strat e d by t h e pol i t i c al e c ono m i sts of G r e at

B r i ta i n and by h e r e m i n e nt stat e s m e n ; b u t i t s e e m s to m e
that e no u g h att e nt i on has not b e e n d i re c t e d to t h e th i rd and ,

wi th yo u r p at i e n c e I w i ll dwe ll u pon that for a m o m e nt b e for e

,

1
pro c e e d i ng to oth e r to p i c s .
”

The w ay i n which an i nvo l v e d ca s e m ay s om e ti m e s b e

ma d e to t u r n on t h e s e tt l e m e n t i n t h e a ffir m at iv e o r t h e
n e gat iv e of o n e qu e stion t h e proof o r d isp r oof of o n e i d e a
, ,

’
an e xp e r i e nc e of A b r aham Li n co l n s il l u st r at e s T r e at ing .

a m u rd e r ca s e h e show e d by c l e a r e xpositio n t hat t h e

,

cas e r e s t e d o n t h e t e s ti mony of a wit n e ss t hat h e sa w t h e

fata l b l o w st r uck Wh e n t h e w it n e s s wa s ask e d ho w h e
.

happ e n e d to s e e it h e sai d that h e s a w it b e cau s e h e w a s

,

n e a r by an d th e r e was b r ight moon l ight Li nco l n .

,

g upon t h e j u r y t h e i mpo r t anc e of t h e w o rd s of

s as t h e o nly w e ighty e vi d e nc e again s t hi s cl i
Sp e e c h . H . W . B ee ch e r . Sp ec i m e n s f
o A rgu m en ta t i on

1 60 , I 6 I .
 A R G U M E N TA TI O ZV .

ent, an d t h e i d e a of t h e moon light as t h e convin cing pa r t

of that t e st i m ony t u r n e d to an a l manac and s ho w e d that
,

1
o n t h e n ight na m e d th e r e w as no m oonl ight .

TH E M ET H O D OF FI N D I NG TH E SP EC I A L I SSU E .

W e fi nd t hi s sp e cial i s su e wh e th e r o n e i d e a o r a g r oup ,

of id e as by fu r th e r analys is K nowing t h e o r i gin of t h e

, .

q u e st ion w e e xamin e a ll t h e m at e r ia l w e can gath e r on

,

l
t h e p r opo sit ion and d e cid e ( I ) PVna t i n reg a r d t o t /ze t op i c ,

bes i d es t i e d efi n i t i on of t b e t e r m s a n d fire or ig i n of t h e
W
l
l l l
l
i b d i d b b / i d 9 n i
'

q u e s t on m a
,y e a m tt e y o t c s e s
( )
2 a t d e a s .

ll l
a re w /zo y ex t ra n eo u s , t zo u
g /i us ua y c o n n ec t e d w i t h t /ze
s u b ec t
j a nd i ke y to c o n n ec t t /i e m s e vcs w i t /z i t ? In the

B e h r ing Se a qu e st ion t h e stat e m e nt s m a d e o u t h e

,
-

o rigin of t h e qu e st ion an d t h e n e c e s s ity fo r d e c id in g

t h e d i scu ss ion on ground s of I nt e r nationa l La w w ou l d

b e matt e rs a d m itt e d by bot h si d e s Er skin e i n b e .

,

ginni n g h is d e f e n s e o f Lo rd G e o r g e G o rd on a d mit s ,

t h e t r ut h of o n e op e n ing s tat e m e nt of his o ppon e nt a s ,

fol l ows
One obs e r v at i on h e has howe v e r m ad e on t h e s u b j e c t i n
, , ,

t h e tr u th of wh i c h I h e art i ly c on c u r V i z
»
that t h e c r i m e of , .
,

wh i c h t h e nobl e p e rson at yo u r bar stands a c c u s e d i s t h e v e ry

l
h i g h e st and m ost atro c i o u s that a m e m b e r of c ivi l l i fe c a n po s
s i b y c o m m i t b e c a u s e i t i s not l ik e all oth e r c r i m e s m e r e ly an
, , ,

i n j u ry to so c i e ty fro m t h e br e a c h of so m e of i ts r e c i p ro c al r e la
t i ons b u t i t i s an att e m pt u tt e rly to d i ssol v e and d e stroy
,

1
so c i e ty alto g e th e r .
”

Wyatt i n , t he e xt r act giv e n on p .

7 1 , b r oa dl y e xc l u d e s
1 L if e o f L i n co l
n . H
.
e rn d o n W e ik . Vo l . I I , p 3 58
. .

2 Sp ec i m en s f
o A rg u m en ta t i on ( M o d e rn ) , p
9 2 . .
 A R G U M E N TA TI O/V . 75

ext r an e ou s i d e a s an d Er skin e i n hi s d e f e n s e of G o r don

, , ,

mo r e sp e cifica ll y e xc l u d e s t h e m as fo ll o w s
I tr u st I n e e d not r e m i nd y o u ( t h e j u ry) that t h e p u r p os e s
of that m u lt i t u d e as or ig i n a y ass e m bl e d on that day and t h e
,
l
l ,

l
l
u rp os e s and a c ts of h i m who ass e m bl e d th e m a r e t h e sol e
p ,

O b j e ct of i n v e st i g at i on A t h e d i s m al c ons e q u e n c e s wh i c h
.

followe d and wh i c h nat u rally l i nk th e m s e l v e s wi th th i s s u b j e c t

,

i n t h e fir m e s t m i nds m u st b e altoge th e r c u t o ff and ab stra c t e d

,

fro m yo u r att e nt i on f u rth e r than t h e e vi d e n c e warrants th e i r

ad m i ss i on If t h e e vi d e n c e had b e e n coex ten s i ve w i th th e s e
.

c ons e q u e n c e s i f i t had b e e n p ro v e d that t h e sa m e m u lt i t u d e ,

u nd e r t h e d i r e c t i on of L ord G e org e G ordon had aft e rward ,

atta c ke d t h e bank brok e O pe n t h e p r i sons and s e t L ondon i n

, ,

a c o n fla g ra t i o n I sho u l d not now b e add re ss i n g yo u

,
Bu t .

wh e n i t h a s appe ar e d not only by t h e e vi d e n c e i n t h e c a u s e

, ,

b u t by t h e e vi d e n c e of t h e th i ng i ts e lf b y t h e i ss u e s of l i fe —
,

wh i c h m a y b e c all e d t h e e vi d e n c e of H e a v e n that th e s e —

dre adfu l e v e nts we re e i th e r e nt i r e ly u n c onn e c t e d wi th t h e

ass e m bl i ng of that m u lt i t u d e to atte nd t h e p e t i t i on of t h e
Prot e stants or at t h e v e ry worst t h e u nfor e s e e n u nd e s i g n e d
, , , , ,

u na b e tt e d and d e e ply r e gr e tt e d c ons e q u e n c e s of i t I c onf e ss

, ,

t h e s e r i o u sn e ss and sol e m n i ty of th i s tr i al s i nk and dwi ndl e

away O nly ab stra c t fro m yo u r m i nds al l that m i sfort u n e a c c i
.
,

d e nt and t h e w i c k e dn e ss of oth e rs hav e bro u ght u pon t h e

,

s c e n e and t h e c a u s e re q u i re s no ad v o c at e W h e n I say that

,
’
.

i t r e q u i re s no ad v o c ate I m e an t h a t i t r e q u i r e s no arg u m e nt
,

l
to s c r e e n i t fro m t h e gu i lt of t r ea s on Fo r tho u gh I a m p e r .

f e c t y c on vi n c e d of t h e p u r i ty of m y nobl e fr i e nd s i nt e nt i ons
’

e t I am not bo u nd to d e f e nd h i s r d n c nor to t i t as
y p u e e s e u p ,

a p att e rn for i m i tat i on : s i n c e y o u a r e not tryi n g h i m for i m p ru

d e n c e for i nd i s c r e e t z e al or for want of for e s i g ht and pre c a u
, ,

t i on b u t for a d e l i b e rat e and m al i c i o u s p re d e t e rm i nat i on to

,

o v e rp owe r t h e laws and g o v e rn m e nt of h i s c o u ntry by host i l e ,

r e b e ll i o u s for c e 1
.
”

1 Sp ec i m en s o
f A rg u m en ta t i on ( M o d e rn ) , pp 98 , 99
. .
76 A R G U M E N TA TI O ZV .

Pr of e s so r D ic e y i n h is i nt roductory c hapt e r t o hi s
,

study of t h e r e po rt of t h e C om m ission of 1 8 9 0 on t h e
Ti m es again st P a r n e ll is m an d t h e Land L e agu e t hus ,

i nsist s o n t h e e xc l u s io n of al l e xt ran e ou s matt e r from

t h e e xami nation to b e giv e n t h e r e po r t and stat e s what

m u s t b e e xc l ud e d .

O u r m i nds m u st b e ke pt fix e d u p on t h e m att e r and t h e s u b

stan c e o f t h e R e p ort and u pon that alon e Sc or e s of q u e st i ons
,
.

wh i c h ha v e o c c u p i e d d i strac t e d or e x c i t e d M e m b e rs of Parl i a
,

m e nt ha v e l i ttl e r e al c onn e c t i on w i th t h e R e p ort and a r e of no

p e r m an e nt i m p ortan c e what e ve r W h e th e r . t h e Co m m i ss i on
was ap po i nt e d at t h e s u gge st i on of t h e U n i on i sts or i n d e fe r
e n c e to t h e w i sh e s of t h e Parn e ll i t e s ; wh e th e r t h e or i g i nal

c r e at i on of t h e Co m m i ss i on was an a c t of p r u d e n c e or of i nd i s

l
c r e t i on ; wh e th e r t h e m ot iv e s of t h e Ti m es i n p u bl i sh i n g Par
l
n e is m and Cr i m e w e r e p atr i ot i c or m al i gnant ; wh e th e r
’

P i g ott s e vi d e n c e had b e tte r ha v e b e e n i ntrod u c e d at an

’

e arl i e r r i od of t h e i n v e st i at i on b e for e t h e c o m m i ss i on rs
p e g e

than that at wh i c h i t was b ro u g ht forward a re i n q u i r i e s wh i c h ,

to any m a n whos e e y e i s fix e d on t h e p e r m an e nt i nt e r e sts of

t h e nat i on m u st a pp e ar t ri fle s worthy n e i th e r of c ons i d e rat i on

nor answe r T h e q u e st i ons wh i c h do c on c e r n t h e we lfar e of

.

t h e stat e a r e of a v e ry d i ffe r e nt c al i b r e W hat i s t h e tr u e

.

c hara c t e r of t h e Parn e ll i t e m o v e m e nt ? do e s t h e L and L e a u e

g
m e r e ly tr e ad i n t h e st e p s of t h e A nt i Corn L a w L e ag u e a n d -

l
oth e r p e rf e c tly l awf u l asso c i at i ons ? a re i ts a u thors c o n s t i t u
t i o n a i s t s or c ons pi rators ag i tators or r e v ol u t i on i sts ?
,
Th e s e
a r e t h e q u e st i ons wh i c h a re of V i tal i m portan c e to e v e ry m a n

who has a c ar e for t h e p ros p e r i ty of t h e U n i t e d K i n g do m .

To th e s e i n q u i r i e s t h e Co m m i ss i on s R e p ort do e s i n so m e ’

m e as u r e g iv e an answe r ; to that answ e r and i ts r e s u lts i t w i ll

b e we ll as far as p oss i b l e to c on fi n e o u r att e nt i on 1 ”

.
, ,

1 Tire Ver d i c t . A V . . D i cey Q

, . C .
p 8
. . C as se ll Co .
, 18
90 .
 A R G U M E N TA TI O /V .
77

I t is t h e n by th e s e t w o m e thod s that Lo r d Ers kin e

, , ,

an d a ll car e fu l work e rs i n analy s is b r in g out c l e a r ly w hat,

i s t h e s p e cia l i d e a o r g r oup of i d e as in t h e c a s e .

T H E FI FT H ST E P IN A N A L Y SI S : To FI ND TH E R EL A T I O N
To TH E C E N T R A L I D EA OF I D EA S ESSE N T IA L IN TH E

C A SE .

Wh e n w e hav e s e pa r at e d f r om t h e m at e r ia l b e a r in g on
t h e ca s e w hat may b e ad m itt e d w e h av e l e ft t h e c e nt ra l
,

id e a su rr ou nd e d by a mass of u nco rr e l at e d an d s om e w hat

confus e d m at e ri al that appa r e nt l y has som e b e a r i ng not ,

as y e t acc u r at e ly d e t e rm in e d upo n t h e m ai n i s s u e D oubt

, .

l e s s i n ou r ana l y s i s thu s fa r w e hav e s e e n th at som e i d e as

l
in t h e mas s of m at e r ia l mu st b e e st ab l i sh e d as t r u e if t h e ,

m ai n i s su e i s t o b e s e tt l e d a fli r m a t i v e y i e w e s e e t h e , . .
,

r e l ati on of th e s e i d e as t o t h e m ain i d e a W e can not .

,

how e v e r know what w e b e l i e v e about t h e q u e stion u nt i l

,

w e u n d e r st and cl e ar l y in what way al l of thi s matt e r i s

r e lat e d pa r t to part an d c e nt r e s about t h e s p e cia l i s su e
, , .

O r to put it d i f f e r e nt l y w e m ust d e ci d e what i d e as a r e

, ,

to b e p r ov e d t r u e an d in w hat o rd e r if t h e sp e cia l i s s u e
, ,

i s t o b e s e tt l e d as w e wi sh H e r e w e a r e s t u d yin g by
.
,

ana l y s i s sti ll t h e in h e r e nt st ructu r e of t h e pa r t s of w hich

,

w e Spok e e a rl i e r Fo r in stan c e by t h e t r e aty b e tw e e n

.
,

G r e at B r itai n an d t h e U n it e d Stat e s it was ag r e e d t hat ,

but fiv e poin t s sho u l d b e s ubm itt e d t o t h e a r b it r ato r s

who i n 1 8 9 3 m e t i n P ari s to d e c id e what r ight s to s e a l
, ,

i n B e h r in g Se a t h e U nit e d Stat e s h as T h e y w e re .

th e s e
I . W hat e x c l u s iv e j u r i sd i c t i on i n th e now k nown as t h e
se a

Be hr i n g Se a , and what e x c l u s iv e r i g hts i n t h e s e al fi sh e r i e s

 A R G U M E N TA TI OIV .

th e r e i n d i d R u ss i a ass e rt and e x e r c i s e p r i or and u p to t h e t i m e

,

of t e c e ss i on of A laska to t e U n i t e d Stat e s
h h ?
i

2 How far we r e th e s e c la i m s o f ju r i s d i c t i o n as to t h e s e al
.

fi sh e ri e s r e c ogn i z e d and c on c e d e d b y G r e at B r i ta i n ?
“
3 W
. a s t h e body of wat e r now k nown as t h e B e hr i n g S e a

i n c l u d e d i n t h e phras e Pa c ifi c O c e an as u s e d i n t h e tr e aty
‘
,
’

of 1 8 2 5 b e twe e n G r e at B r i ta i n and R u ss i a and what r i ghts i f , ,

any i n t h e B e hr i ng Se a we r e h e ld and e x c l u s iv e ly e xe r c i s e d by
,

R u ss i a aft e r sa i d tr e aty ?
4 D i d not all t h e r ights of R u ss i a as to j u r i sd i c t i on and as
.

to t h e s e al fi sh e r i e s i n B e hr i n g Se a e ast of t h e wat e r bo u ndary ,

i n t h e tr e aty b e twe e n t h e U n i t e d Stat e s and R u ss i a of t h e 3 o t h

of Marc h 1 8 6 7 p ass u n i m pa i r e d to t h e U n i t e d Stat e s u nd e r
, ,

that tr e aty ?

“
5 .Has t h e U n i t e d S tat e s any r i ght and i f so what r i g ht of , , ,

p rot ec t i on or ro
p p e rty i n t h e f u r s e als fr e q u e nt i n
g t h e i slands
of t h e U n i t e d State s i n B e hr i ng Se a wh e n s u c h s e als a re fo u nd
o u ts i d e t h e ord i nary thr e e m i l e l i m i t 1 -
”

Th e s e a r e t h e fiv e matt e r s wh ich acut e m ind s s e l e ct e d

as es s e nt ia l f r om t h e mas s of m at e r ial attaching to thi s
invo l v e d qu e stion To fi x on t h e m a s e ss e ntial w as t h e
.

fi rs t st e p i n t h e d i s cus s ion T h e m e t ho d m u s t w h e th e r .
,

con s ci ou s ly o r u n con s cious l y u s e d hav e b e e n that j u s t ,

e xp l ai n e d at l e ngth Fi r st t h e c e nt r al i d e a t h e mo s t
.
, ,

i m po r tant was s e l e ct e d , 5 Th e n cam e t h e qu e st ion .

H ow can thi s b e an sw e r e d ? T h e r e p l y was B y con ,

s i d e r i n g t h e claim of t h e Unit e d Stat e s that s h e acqui r e d

c e r tai n r ight s f r om R ussia A n alysi s of t h e m at e r ial .

,

u nco r r e l at e d as y e t show e d that m uch of it cou ld b e pu t

,

i nto a d i scu ssion con si d e ring wh e t h e r thi s c l aim i s co rr e ct .

A t onc e how e v e r t h e q u e st ion aros e : D i d n ot t h e t r e aty

, ,

1 Be l
i r i ng Sea Tr i bu n a l
f o A r bi t r a t i on . Op in i o n s of Mr . J u sti c e H l
a r a n,

pp 58 , 5 9
. . Go vre nm en t P ri t i
n n
g O f fi ce , W as h i g t n on ,
1 89
3 .
 A R G U I II E N TA TI OA’
'

now why dr a w ing b r i e fs will

, be t he n e xt st e p in ou r
wor k .

TH E I M P O RT A N C E OF A N A L Y SI S .

A stu d e nt i n A rgu m e ntation cannot t r ain h ims e lf too

ca r e ful ly i n analys is fo r t h e pow e r to ana l y z e k e e n l y and
,

co rr e ct ly is fundam e nta l i n h i s wo r k A r e ady an d co r .

r e c t u s e of t his pow e r i s a m a r k e d cha r act e r ist ic of al l

m e n not e d fo r a r gum e ntat iv e ski ll Fo r i n stan c e M r .
, .

l
’
Linco l n s m i nd it i s said “
r an back b e h in d facts p r in
, , ,

c i p e s and al l things to th e i r o r igin an d fi r st cau s e

, ,

to t hat po int w h e r e fo r c e s act at onc e a s e f f e ct an d

caus e .H e wou ld st op in t h e st r e e t and an aly z e a
m ach in e H e wou l d w hitt l e a thing t o a point and
.
,

th e n count t h e n umb e rl e s s inc l in e d p l an e s and th e i r

pitch m aking t h e poi nt C locks om n ibu s e s lan
.
, ,

guag e padd l e wh e e l s an d i d iom s n e v e r e scap e d his o h

,
-

s e rvat ion an d anal ysis B e fo r e h e cou ld fo r m an i d e a .

of anything b e fo r e h e woul d e xp r e s s hi s O pin ion on a

,

s ub j e ct h e mu st kn ow it s o r igi n an d hi s to r y i n s u bstanc e
,

an d q ua l ity i n m agn itu d e and g r avity H e mu st know

, .

it i n si d e and out sid e up s i d e an d d own si d e , H e was .

r e m o r s e l e s s i n hi s ana l ysi s of facts an d pri ncip l e s Wh e n .

al l th e s e e xhaust iv e p r oc e ss e s h ad b e e n gon e t hrough

with h e could fo rm an i d e a an d e xp r e s s it but no soon e r , .

’ ’
H e had no fait h an d no r e sp e ct fo r say so s com e t hough ,

th e y might from t r a d it ion o r autho rity Thu s e v e rything .

ha d t o r un th rough t h e c r u c ibl e and b e t e st e d by t h e fi r e s

of hi s ana l ytic m in d ; an d wh e n at l ast h e d i d s p e ak his ,

utt e r anc e s ran g out w it h t h e c l e a r an d k e e n r i ng of gol d

l
l
upon t h e count e r s of t h e und e rstan d ing H e r e ason e d .

l ogica ll y t h r ough ana l ogy an d compa r ison A oppon e nt s .

 A R G U /V E N TA TI O /V . 81

d r e a d e d hi s origi na l ity of id e a hi s cond e n sat ion d e fi n ition , ,

and fo r c e of e xp r e ss ion ; and w o e b e to t h e man who

hugg e d to hi s bosom a s e c r e t e rr o r if Linco l n got on t h e
chas e of it Tim e cou l d h id e t h e e rr o r in no n ook o r
.

co rn e r of spac e in wh ich h e w oul d not d e t e ct an d e xpos e

”
1
it.

’
O f C h i e f J u st ic e M a rs hal l s m ind o n e w rit e r s ays : It ,
“

i s not v e ry r ichly s to r e d w it h kn ow l e d g e but it is s o c r e a ,

t iv e so w e l l o r gani z e d by nat u r e o r di sc ipl in e d by e a rl y

, ,

e d ucat ion an d con stant hab it s of syst e m at ic thi nking ,

th at h e e mb r ac e s e v e ry s ubj e ct w it h t h e cl e a r n e s s and
faci l ity of o n e p r e pa r e d by p r e viou s stu d y t o com p r e h e n d
an d e xp l ain it So p e rf e ct i s hi s an alysi s th at h e e xt r act s
.

t h e w ho l e m att e r t h e k e r n e l of inqui ry u nb r ok e n c l e an
, , ,

an d e nt i r e I n t hi s p r oc e s s s u ch a r e t h e in s t inct iv e n e at
.
,

n e s s an d p r e cision of h i s m i nd that n o sup e rfl uou s th ough t

o r e v e n wo rd e v e r p r e s e nt s it s e l f and stil l h e s ays e v e ry ,

2 ”
th ing t hat s e e m s app r op r iat e t o t h e su bj e ct .

A noth e r w r it e r says : I t w as a m att e r of s u r p r i s e to

“

s e e ho w e asi l y b e g r asp e d t h e l e ad ing p r in cip l e s of a cas e

an d c l e ar e d it of a ll it s accid e nta l i n cu mb r anc e s ; how

r e a d i l y h e e vo l v e d t h e t r u e point s of t h e cont rov e r sy ,

e ve n W h e n it w a s m an if e st t hat h e n e v e r b e fo r e h ad
cau ght a g l imp s e of t h e l e a r n ing upon whi ch it d e p e n d e d .

P e r hap s n o j u d g e e v e r e xc e ll e d h im in t h e capacity t o
ho ld a l e gal p roposit ion b e fo r e t h e e y e s of oth e rs i n suc h
va r ious fo r m s and colo r s I t s e e m e d a pl e asu r e t o hi m
.

to cast t h e d ark e st sha d e s of obj e ct ion ov e r it t hat h e

‘

m ight Show how th e y cou l d b e d is sipat e d by a S ingl e

g l anc e of l ight H e wou l d by t h e m o st subtl e an a l ys i s
.
, ,

l W e ik l
l
1 L if e do n
l
f
o L i n co n . H em . Vo . I I I , pp 5 94 , 5 9 5
. .

2 Sk et cb es an d Ess ay s on P u b i c C /za r a c t e r s . F W G m er
. . i .
 A R G U M E N TA TI OJV .

r e so l v e e v e ry a r gum e nt into it s ul timat e p r incip l e s an d ,

th e n w ith a ma rv e l ou s facil ity apply t h e m to t h e d e

, ,

1 ”
c i s i o n of t h e cas e .

1 L if e and L ett e r s . J u dg e y
St o r . Vo l
. II, p .
50 5 . Fo r b o t h qu o ta tion s
see J oh n M a rs h a ll . A m er i ca n St a tes m en , p . 1 71 .
 C H A P T ER III .

B R IEFS AN D B R IEF DR A W I N G
- .
1

TH E O RI G I N OF A B RIEF .

T U D Y of ana l y s i s has shown that t h e p roc e s s of fin d

i ng what i s t h e q u e st ion t o b e d iscus s e d an d what t h e
w o r k to b e d on e g r a d ual l y d e v e lops i n ou r mind s a r ough
d iag r am of t h e fi e l d w e a r e t o cov e r W e l e a r n that t h e r e .

is o n e e s s e nt ia l i d e a o r o n e e s s e nt ial g r oup of i d e as t o
, ,

p r ov e t r u e o r fa l s e an d t hat a variab l e n u m b e r of oth e r

,

id e as b e a r c e r tai n r e l at ion s t o t h e sp e cia l i s su e and to o n e

anoth e r an d m ust b e tak e n u p wit h som e r e ga r d fo r t hi s
,

fact .
I t is e vi d e n t t hat t o put t hi s inh e r e nt st r u ctu r e o n
pap e r mu st h e l p u s i n gat h e r i ng e vi d e n c e fo r w e sha l l ,

kno w w hat p r oof w il l b e n e e d e d fi r st an d sha ll hav e ,

pock e t s so t o sp e ak into wh ich w e may pu t e vi d e n c e

, ,

b e a r ing on t h e i d e a wit h w h ich e ach pock e t i s l ab e l e d .

1 ys t e m i ie f s e xpl a i e d i t h i
l
The h a s b e en d e
l
of d ra w
s n
g br n n s c h a pt e r

d i g ye t h e w rk i n ic s va
ll
ve o
pe d ur n th e as t fiv e a rs of o f o re n s a t H ar rd

ic
ll
Co eg e . Lest th e to n e Of th e ch a pte r m a
y see m to o dogm a t it m a b
y e
tha t s i t h e s s te m y y isa r of f l ti
n sic on , ea ch w o rk
l
we to sa
y n ce e a n e vo u
e or

m ak i g so m e i m p o e m en t
n r i n i t t e a c h s wi l p o b a b ly fi d i t w is e t o
v s , er r n

m a ke s o m e ch m e e t t h e pa t ic l a r ee ds o f th i cl

l l l
ge s t
an o r u es The
n e r a ss .

s t e m i s o ff e e d s i m p y a s a m e t h o d w h i c h h a s g r e a t y a i d e d l o gi c a t h i k
r n
s
y
i g a n d c o n vi n c i g a g m e t a t i o n a m o n g H a r va r d s t d e t
n n r u n d h s be n u n s, a n a e

se d b o m e r e c e t g ra d u a t e s wi t h m a rk e d s c c e s s i e i r p a c t ic

l
u
y s n t h as u n r e

a wye rs .
 T H E R EL A T I O N OF TH E B R I EF To TH E SU M M A R Y .

T h e r e a r e of cou r s e m any poss i bl e fo r m s int o w hich

, ,

an out l i n e can b e th r o w n I t m ay va r y f r om a m e r e
.

s e t of i d e as t hat wil l sugg e st on l y to t h e work e r him s e lf

t h e o r d e r in which h e wi s h e s to tak e u p t h e pa r t s of hi s

cas e to an e l abo r at e stat e m e nt of t h e work to b e d on e

t hat n e e d s but l itt l e fi ll ing i n to b e t h e compl e t e a r gu
’
m e nt T h e latt e r i s t h e l awy e r s o r d ina r y b ri e f I n
. .

oth e r w o r d s t h e su mma r y of t h e w o rk t o b e don e m a y

,

va r y in l e n gt h d e tail and fo r m A stu d e nt of A r gu

, , .

m e n t a t i v e C omp osit ion how e v e r dr a w s up th e s e plan s

, ,

that h e may mak e a cl e a r an d fo rcibl e p r e s e ntat ion of hi s

cas e an d t hat hi s out l in e m ay b e c r itici z e d by hi s t e ach e r
,

b e fo r e t h e fo r e n s ic t h e writt e n argum e ntati on d e v e l op e d

,

from it i s h a n d e d i n
, H is p l an m u st t h e r e fo r e b e som e
.
, ,

t hi ng th at wil l m ak e a p e rson w h o h as not giv e n any

sp e cial thought t o t h e cas e i n qu e s tion s e e e xact ly what
i s t o b e d iscu s s e d and e xact l y w hat t h e st u d e nt wish e s to
d o with i t I t mu st t e l l t h e e x am i n e r what t h e qu e stion
.

i s : m u st that i s stat e t h e p r opos ition ; mak e c l e a r i n

, ,

w hat s e n s e im po r tant t e rm s a r e u s e d ; show h im t h e

o r igi n of t h e qu e s ti on by m aki ng h im u nd e r stan d w hat
i s g e n e r a ll y a d mitt e d i n r e ga r d t o t h e subj e ct an d w hat
m at t e r u sua ll y associat e d w ith it i s r e a l ly e xt ran e ous put ,

t h e sp e cia l i s su e b e fo r e h im ; an d m ak e him s e e c l e a rl y
what r e l ation s t h e oth e r id e a s b e a r to t h e m ain i d e a and
t o o n e anoth e r Th at i s it m u st conv e y t o anoth e r p e r
.
,

l
l
son j ust t h e i nfo r m at ion that t h e w rit e r o f t h e pl an fou n d
it n e c e ssa r y t o gai n b e for e h e cou ld t r e at h i s t opic i n t e i
g e nt l y M o r e ov e r thi s out l in e mu st conv e y t o a r e ad e r
.
,

an i d e a of t h e g e n e r a l t r e atm e nt t h e wr it e r i nt e nd s to
 A R G U M E N TA TI O /V .

giv e t h e st r uctu r e j u st m app e d o ut an i d e a t hat i s of t h e , , ,

nat u r e of hi s e vid e n ce .

C l e a rl y th e n m e r e r ou gh not e s o r h e a d ing s w i ll not

, ,

su ffic e w h e r e t h e wr it e r s pu r pos e i s to m ak e c l e a r t o
’

anoth e r p e r son j ust w hat h e w i sh e s t o d o w it h h i s ca s e .

F o r i n stanc e h e r e i s such a s e t of not e s as a sp e ak e r fu ll

,

of h i s subj e ct an d w it h it w e ll m app e d out i n h is own

m in d m ight ho l d i n h i s han d as h e add r e s s e d an au d i e n c e ,

but t o a s e cond p e r son u nac q uaint e d wit h t h e t opi c o r ,

i nd e e d to any o n e not so conv e r sant wit h it as t h e sp e ak e r ,

t h e out l i n e w ou l d b e hop e l e s sl y vagu e .

e mf A .

TH E I R I SH J U ST I FI ED IN U S I NG I L L EG A L M EA SU R ES OF

R ES I ST A N C E TO ENG L I S H R U L E ?
D e fi n i t i on of i ll e g al m e as u re s .

I ll e gal m e as u r e s so m e t i m e s j u st ifi a b l e R e v ol u t i on C ivi l .
,

W a r r e s i stan c e to F u g i t iv e Sla v e A c t
,
.

R e s p e c t i n wh i c h th ey a r e j u st i fi abl e .

Do Eng l i sh r u l e a n d I r i sh r e s i stan c e s u pply t h e c ond i

t i ons ?
Con c l u s i on .

l
AS a v e ry s l ight sum m a r y to ai d a sp e ak e r thi s c e r
t a i n y m ight b e of u s e but as a b ri e f s om e thin g to b e
, ,

s ubm itt e d to a s e co nd p e rs on t hat h e m ay u nd e r stand

w hat t h e w r it e r w is h e s to t r e at as hi s qu e st io n an d ho w
h e wi sh e s t o t r e at it such a s u m m a r y fai l s comp l e t e l y
, .

l l
Evid e nt l y th e n w hat i s want e d i s not m e r e l y any sum
, ,

ll ll
e d on e but a p a r t i c u a r k i n d of p a n

l
r
y of what i s t o b ,

t s /za za v e t /ze g r ea t es t p os s i b e c e a rn es s

er o
f w or d s . That i s w hat
 86 A R G U M E N TA TI OJV .

lo r
the s u b d ivi s i o n br i ef ( to be x p la i n e d i n thi s chapt e r ) of
'

the g e nu s p an su m m a ry i s s u pp os e d t o O f f e r .

TH E T H R EE D I V I SI O N S OF A B R I EF .

A good b ri e f o r d i nar i ly has thr e e d ivi s ions t h e I nt ro

l
d u c t i on t h e B r i e f P rop e r and t h e C on c l u s i on
, , .

Tb e I n t r o d u c t i on sho u d stat e as concis e ly as poss i bl e ,

l
by s u gg e st i v e phras e s of a l i n e o r two t h e fact s n e c e s sary ,

to an u nd e r standing of t h e d i scus s i on : n a m e y j h o w t h e
q u e st i on aros e what a r e t h e fa c ts ad m itt e d by both
S id e s an d by d e fi n i t ion an d e x p osit i on what i s t h e
, ,

e xa c t p o i nt at i ssu e I t Shoul d c l e ar away all e xt ran e o u s

.

matt e r an d sho u l d p la c e t h e e ss e nt i a l i d e a o r grou p of ,

id e as c l e arly b e fo r e t h e r e ad e r
, .

I
Tb e B r i ef P r op e r sho u ld by a s e ri e s of h e ad i ngs a n d
,

s u b h e ad i ngs
-

v e ry con cis e ly m ak e cl e a r to any i nt e l lig e nt

,

r e ad e r t h e d e v e lo p m e nt of t h e a rg u m e nt by wh i c h t h e
w r i t e r e x p e c t s to p rov e t h e a f fi r mativ e o r t h e n e gativ e of
’

t h e q u e s t i on h e has c l e arly stat e d i n t h e I nt rod u ction .

T h e wr i t e r sho u l d fi rst s e l e ct t h e m ain id e as that p r ov e

h is con c l us i on Th e s e h e sh ou ld arrang e so that h is p l an
.

shall S how t h e r e lat ion s th e y n atu ral ly b e a r t o o n e anot h e r

and t o t h e e ss e nt i al id e a o r grou p of id e as I n arranging .

l
l l
t h e m at e rial h e shoul d as fa r as p oss i bl e r e ga r d cl i max s e e
(
l
l
p . A t h e m a i n zea d i ng s a n d s u b b e a d i ng s s /i ou d -

r ea d a s r ea s on s o r t b e co n c u s i o n T h c r r l ation of all h
f e o e . t e

l
part s Should b e disti nctly m ark e d by l e tt e rs an d numb e rs .

l
T/ze Co n c u s i on si m ply s u ms u p b ri e fl y t h e argu m e nt
[
,

Showing c l e ar l y how it ha s
p. e d t o a d e ci sion i n t h e cas e .

Th i s d e c is ionM
u nl e s s i t i s giv e n at t h e b e gin ning of t h e
—

B r i e f P ro p e r as t h e p ro p os it ion shou l d always b e s t at e d .

88 A R G U AI E N TA TI OJV .

B R I EF P R O P ER .

I
Ill e g al m e as u r e s m a y b e j u st ifi ab l e for
.

1 So c i al r e asons
. .

( )
a E x a m p l e .

2 Pol i t i c al r e asons
. .

( )
a E x a m p l e .

3 Moral . r e asons .

( )
a E x a m p l e .

I I T h e c as e s i n Ir e land f u l fi ll th e s e c ond i t i ons for

.

1 So c i al g ro u nds d e m and e d t h e a c ts
. .

( )
a E x a m p l e .

2 Pol i t i c al r e asons d e m and e d th e m

. .

( )
a E x a m p l e .

3 Moral . n e e ds c all e d for t h e a c ts .

( )
a E x a m p l e .

I I I For all th e s e r e asons t h e d e e ds of t h e I r i sh tho u g h

.
,

b e for e t h e law i ll e g al we r e j u st ifi abl e , .

Th is B r i e f A 1 how e v e r is a b r i e f only by cou r t e sy fo r

, , ,

it i s n e c e s sari l y vagu e i n t h e sub d ivisions an d d o e s not -

fulfill all t h e condition s j ust na m e d as cha r act e r istic of a

good b ri e f L e t us now t h e r e fo r e l ook at this d r aft no
.
, , ,

long e r in t h e ro u gh but fi ll e d i n Co m p arison of it wit h

, .

B ri e f A Sho u l d m ak e cl e a r t h e d iff e r e nc e b e tw e e n a m e r e
1
sum ma r y an d a b r i e f .

1 A s t u d e n t Sh o u ld th a t n o n e of l ie f s il
l
n ote th e br u s ed to u s t ra te the

i b i i y
l
d f f e re n t f a u t s
q l l
of r ef d ra w and how the y be is to be
i l
-
ng m a o v e rc o m e

ke n a s a m o de f or yt h i iy y
l l
ta an ng e x c ep t th e ua t Sp e c a com m en ded i n
x y y y
l
i t b y th e t e t So m e o f t h e m a re f a u t i n m
l
‘

. an re s
pe c t s , bu t on on e

i
f a u t ca n b e p o n t e d o u t a t a t m e B ri e f s t h a t i . a re m ode s t h ro u g h o u t a re

i
p r n t e d a t t h e en d o f t h e c h a p t e r .
 l
l
A R G U / E N TA TI O ZV . 89

B r i ef A 2 .

I NT R O DU CT I O N .

I B y bo y c ott i n g and b y for c i b l e r e s i st a n c e to e vi c t i o n and

.

oth e r harsh m e as u r e s O f En g l i sh r u l e i n I r e l a nd t h e I r i sh ha v e
,

ra i s e d t h e q u e st i on wh e th e r th e i r wron g s a re g r e at e no u g h to
j u st i fy i ll e g al a c ts
.

I I Ill e g al m e as u r e s m e an what i s c o n tra r y to t h e law o f

.

t h e land .
[ C en t u r
y D i ct i on a r
y ]
I I I B y th i s d e fi n i t i o n t h e I r i sh ha v e b e e n g u i lty of i ll e g al
.

a c ts i n that
,

I. Th e y ha v e for c i b ly r e s i st e d e vi c t i o n s m ad e i n a c c ord
an c e wi th t h e L and L aws .

( )
a A s i nd i vi d u als
.

( )
b A s m o.b s
2. Th e y ha v e c o m m i tte d assa u lts u pon landlords who
had e vi c t e d t e nants b y law .

3. Th e y ha v e e v e n c o m m i tt e d m u rd e r for r e asons ar i s
i n g fro m t h e laws i n for c e i n I r e l a nd .

I V A n a c t i s j u st ifi ab l e that i s d e f e ns i b l e warrantab l e
.
,
.

[ C en t u ry D i ct i on a ry
] W e m a
y j u d g e t h e d e f e ns i b i l i ty of an

a c t on so c i al , p ol i t i c
,
al and m oral g ro u nds .

V T h e q u e st i on b e c o m e s th e n th i s
.
, ,

1. Can any i ll e g al a c ts b e d e f e ns i b l e on so c i al pol i t i c al

, ,

or m oral g ro u nds ?
2. Can t h e ad m i tt e dly i ll e g al ac ts of t h e I r i sh b e d e
fe nd e d o u th e s e gro u nds ?
90 A R G U M E N TA TI O IV .

B R I EF P R O P ER .

I . M e as u r e s not str i c tl y l e g al m a y b e warrantabl e d e f e u ,

s i bl e ,
for
1 So c i al r e asons for
.
,

( )
a W h e n so c i al c orr u p t i on i n Sa n Fran c i s c o i n i ts

e arl y days was not s u c c e ssf u lly c ontroll e d b y t h e

r e g u larly a pp o i nt e d o ffic e rs t h e Vi g i lant e C o m

,

m i t t e e r e m o v e d t h e tro u bl e s b y m e t h ods not

str i c tly l e g al .

2 Pol i t i c al r e asons f o r
.
,

( )
a W h e n G r e at B r i ta i n o pp r e ss e d t h e A m e r i c an

Colon i e s th e y g a i n e d b y r e v olt and for c e what

,

th e y c o u ld not g a i n b y a pp e al and arb i trat i on .

3 Moral
. r e asons for ,

( )
a Post e r i ty has j u st ifi e d t h e r e f u s a l at a t i m e of ,

r e l i g i o u s p e rs e c u t i on of m e n to c onfor m to laws
,

c ontrary to th e i r b e l i e fs .

( )
b L at e r g e n e rat i ons a p p ro v e t h e c ond u c t of thos e

who i n t h e U nd e rg ro u nd Ra i lway ac t e d c ontrary

to t h e Fu gi t iv e Sla v e L a w
l
l
.

II A . th s e e gro u nds for r e s i stan c e e xi st i n I r e land ,

be c au s e
I . The so c i al e xi st for ,

( )
a T h e laws of En g land i n c r e as e p ov e rty m i s e ry , ,

c r i m e and d e ath a m on g t h e e o l e
, , p p .

2 . T h e p ol i t i c al e xi st for ,

e En g l i sh laws d e p o p u lat e I r e land thro ugh

( )
a T h ,

d e ath an d i m m i g rat i on .

3 . Th e m oral e xi st for ,

e s e ns e of wron g and t h e m i s e ry t hat i n c r e a s e

( )
a T h
y e arly i n Ir e land a r e d e m oral i z i n g t h e p e opl e ’

I I I Mor e o v e r h i story shows that c o m p l i an c e p l e ad i ng

.
, , ,

arb i trat i on wi ll not m a k e England do I re land j u st i c e ; e v e ry

,
 92 A R G U M E N TA TI O ZV .

i n an i nt r odu ct i on O ft e n how e v e r s o much d e t ai l i s

.
, ,

not n e e d e d T h e o rigin of t h e qu e s t io n m ay b e kn o w n
.

to al l as in any d is c u ss ion o n s om e top ic of t h e h ou r

, .

F o r i nstan c e wh e n Lo rd C hatham spok e i n t h e H ou s e of

,

L o r ds i n favo r of t h e r e m ova l of t h e t r oop s from B oston

th e r e was n o n e e d at a ti m e w h e n al l B r iti sh e y e s w e r e
,

o n t h e A m e rican co l oni e s t o e xp l ain t h e o r igin of t h e ,

q u e st ion O ft e n too t h e r e is n ot hing t o b e a d mitt e d by

.
, ,

both S id e s b e yond t h e d e fi nition s an d t h e o r igi n of t h e

q u e st ion o r nothin g r e al l y e xt r an e ou s th at co nn e ct s it s e l f
,

wit h t h e discus s ion Som e t im e s th e r e is no n e e d to

.

d e fin e t e r m s fo r al l a r e cl e a r upon t h e i r fac e s
, P lain l y .
,

t h e n t h e i ntro d uction t o a b ri e f may va ry f r om som e thing

,

that do e s litt l e mo r e than stat e t h e e xact i ssu e t o b e d is

‘

c u ss e d t o a mo r e e l abo r at e plan t hat e mbod i e s two t h r e e , ,

fou r o r a ll of t h e po ss ib l e d uti e s of an int r o d uct ion

, .

TH E T E ST OF AN I N TRODU CT I O N
l
l
.

l
V
Tno t es t of an i n t r od u c t i on t o a br i ef i s taa t i t s /za

su pp y a r ea d e r w i t /t w /i a t e ve r i nf or m a t i on m u st be n ee d e d

by firm, f i be is to r ea d t b e br i ef p r op e r u n d e rs t a n d i n
g /y .

If fo r any r e ason t h e n e c e s sary i nform at ion has not b e e n

giv e n t h e S ign ifi canc e of t h e h e ad i ngs of t h e b r i e f p r op e r
,

wil l not b e appa r e nt at s ight as Shou l d b e t h e cas e Fo r , .

e xa m p l e

B r i ef B .

C A R L Y L E S E ST I M A T E
’
OF TH E E I G H T E EN T H C EN T U R Y IS

I N C O R R ECT .

I . Introd u c t i on Carl y l e s e st i m at e
.
’
.

II Th e e i g ht e e nth c e nt u ry was not a “

d e c r e p i t d e ath Si c k ,
-

e ra , b e c a u s e b e n e ath t h e a ppar e nt lass i t u d e of t h e a g e for c e s

 A R C U M E N TA TI O N .
93

we r e at work m e ntal m oral and so c i al wh i c h c onta i n e d t h e

, , , ,

s e e ds of t h e b e st fr u i t that t h e n i n e t e e nth c e nt u ry has p rod u c e d .

I I I T h e e i g h t e e nth c e nt u ry was not an e r a of hypo c r i sy and

.

c ant e t c
,
etc .
,
.

Th e h e a d ings I I an d I I I of what is r e a ll y t h e b r i e f
. .

p r op e r i n thi s i ll u st r at ion hav e no s ign ifi can c e no conc l u ,

s i v e n e s s a s a r gu m e nt s b e cau s e t h e r e ason fo r taking as ,

t e st s of t h e qu e st ion wh e th e r t h e t im e was a d e c r e p it ,
“
,
”
d e at h s ick e r a-
an e r a of hypoc r isy and cant i s not
,
“
,
”

c l e a r Why e v e n if t h e s tat e m e nt s m ad e i n I I an d I I I
.
, . .

l
l
C a rl y l e s e stimat e i s n e c e ss a r ily fa l s e
’

a r e p r ov e d t r u e , ,

n e e d s e xp l an at ion A t hi s u nc e r tainty aris e s b e caus e

.

t h e w r it e r has n ot s e e n fit i n h i s int r oducto r y matt e r to

’
q uot e C a rl yl e s e stim at e an d t o bri ng out st r ongly that
t h e t wo t e st s C arly l e app l i e s a r e thos e wh ich ap p e a r in I I .

and I I I C omparison of t his bri e f with a r e vi s ion of it

.

wi ll S ho w t h e advantag e that com e s f r om a good i n t ro d u c

t ion t o a b r i e f .

B r i ef B 2 .

I N T RO DU CTI O N .

A .
Th e r e i s m u c h lyi ng y e t u nd e v e lo p e d i n t h e lo v e of
“

B osw e ll for J ohnson A c h e e r i n g p roof i n a t i m e wh i c h e ls e

.
,

tt rly want d and st i ll wants s h th t l ivi n w i sdo m i s q i t

l
u e
u e e u c a g ,

i nfin i t r e c i o u s to m a n i s t h e sy m b ol of t h e G o d l ik e to h i m
e y p
-

, ,

wh i c h e v e n w e ak e ye s m a y d i s c e rn ; that loyalty D i s c i pl e sh i p
l
, ,

all that was e v e r m e ant by I f er o w or s i ip l iv e s p e r e nn i ally i n -

h
t e h u m an boso m and wa i ts e v e
,
n i n th e s e d e ad days only for , ,

o c c as i ons to u nfold i t and i ns p i r e all m e n wi th i t and ag a i n , ,

m a k e th e worl d al iv e J a m e s B osw e ll .
w e c a n r e g ard as a p ra e

t i c al w i tn e ss or r e al m a r ty r to th i s e v e rlast i n g tr u th A won
l
.

, ,

d e rf u m artyr i f y o u w i ll ; and i n a t i m e w h i c h m ad e s u c h
94 A R G U M E N TA TI OJV .

m artyrdo m do u b ly wond e rf u l : y e t t h e t i m e and t h e m a rtyr

p e rha p s s u i t e d e a c h oth e r For a d e c rep it d e ath s i c k Er a
.
,
-

wh e n C A N T had fi rst d e c i s iv e l y op e n e d h e r p o i son b r e ath i ng -

l i p s to p ro c la i m that G o d worsh i p and Mam m on worsh i p a r e

l
- -

o n e and t h e sam e that l i f e was a L i e and t h e e arth B e e z e , ,

b u b s wh i c h t h e Sup r e m e Q u a ck sho u ld i nh e r i t ; and w all

’

th i ng s we r e fall e n i nto t h e s e r e and ye llow l e af and fast hast e n ,

i n g to no i so m e c orr u pt i on for s u c h an Er a p e rhap s no b e tt e r ,

p p ro h e t than a p art i c olor e d Z any Pro p h e t c on

-
c e al i n g fro m -

h i m s e lf and oth e rs h i s p ro ph e t i c s i g n ifi c an c e i n s u c h u n e x
'

v e st u r e s was d e s e r v e d or wo u ld ha v e b e e n i n p la c e
”

p e c t e d ,
—
, .

T Carlyl e . Essay on B oswe ll s L i fe of J ohnson

.
“
E ssay s
’
.
”
,

H . M 1 88 1 .
[p p
,
8 2 . .

B 1
B r i e fly t h e n Carlyl e ass e rts that t h e Ei ght e e nth C e n
.
, ,

t u ry was
I D e c r e p i t d e ath s i c k a t i m e wh e n all th i ng s w e r e
.
,
-

hast e n i n g to no i so m e c orr u pt i on .

2 T h e r e i g n of Cant i nst e ad of Tr u th
. .

C T h e q u e st i on b e c o m e s th e n
. A r e th e s e two stat e m e nts ,

c orr e c t ?

B R I EF P R O P ER .

I . We canp pro e rly ass u m e that th er e i s g ood g ro u nd for

d i ff e r i n g w i t h Carlyl e as to h i s stat e m e nts for
' ,

n h i stor i an of at l e ast e q u al ran k w i th Carlyl e

( ) A
l
a ,

L e c ky draws i n h i s If i s tory of E u r op ea n M or a s
, ,

q u i t e o ppos i t e c on c l u s i o n s as to t h e E i g ht e e nth
C e nt u r y .

II . T h e E i g ht e e nth C e nt u ry was not t h e tr i u m p h of Ca n t .

A B e c a u s e Sw i ft and J ohnson m e n who d e s p i s e d

.
,

t h e fals e t h e u ntr u e we r e t h e l e ad e rs of
, ,

tho u gh t
i l
l b ri ef g a in s i n c l is
l
1 A re a d e r w see how m u ch th e e a rn e s s f ro m th
s ta t em e n t o f th e g is t Of th e l
o n g a n d i n v o ve d q u o t a t i o n .
96 1 4IP GNYZ I ZQAFTZ I YYT1 AK

Goth e n b u rg syst e m
( )
a D efine d ( 1
),
i ts aim
( ) g
2 ro u nd i d e a
,
.

( )
b A d v anta g e s .

()c D i sad v anta g e s .

A r g u m e nt 5

I . Has b e e n tr i e d s u c c e ssfu lly i n N orway and Swe d e n .

N O r e ason w h y i t s h o u ld not p ros p e r i n M a s s a c h u

s e tts .

2 . It i s lawfu l .

3 . Mon e y I S u s e d for t h e b e n e fit of t h e p u bl i c at

large .

4 Cons u m e rs of l iq u or wo u ld b e sat i s fi e d .

5 . Proh i b i t i on i sts wo u ld b e sat i s fi e d .

6 In c r e as e i n sa vi n g s bank d e pos i ts i n Swe d e n

.
-
.

7 Mod ifi c at i ons .

8 T h e d e c r e as e of c r i m e .

T h e d e c r e as e of t h e c ons u m p t i on of l iq u or
9 . .

Con c l u s i on .

I t mu s t b e c l e ar at onc e to any thoughtful r e ad e r of

thi s b r i e f t hat 2 6 of t h e A rgum e nt l ack al l convin cing
—
“

n e ss e v e n s ignificanc e
,
H e w i ll a s k him s e l f
.
“
Ev e n
though I s e e t hat t h e p l an mu s t b e l awfu l if it i s to b e
p r act icab l e why mu st it dist r ibut e mon e y fo r t h e publ ic
,

at l a r g e why mu st it satisfy consum e rs of l iquor and

,

Pr oh ibit ion ist s ; why a r e th e s e v e r y impo r ta n t t e st s ?

M o r e ov e r g r ant e d that th e y a re w hat hav e I r e a d i n thi s

, ,

b r i e f wha t d o I no w r e a d t hat Sho w s t h e t r uth of th e s e

, ,

”
stat e m e nt s ? To app r e ciat e t h e sign ificanc e t h e fo r c e , ,

of t h e h e a d ing s a r e ad e r n e e d s t h e in fo r mation to wh ich

,

t h e w r it e r r e f e rs vagu e l y i n hi s int r oducti on i n t h e w o r d s

“
T h e e vi l s of t h e p r e s e n t syst e m of l iquo r s e ll ing ; t h e -

G ot h e nbu rg Syst e m (a ) d e fi n e d ( 1 ) its aim ( 2 ) groun d

, , ,
 A RG U M E N TA TI O N .
97

I dea H e n e e ds t oo in fo r m at ion which t h e w r it e r d o e s

.
, ,

not giv e h im as to t h e t e s t s t hat mu s t b e app l i e d if t h e

p l an i s t o b e j udg e d not a s t h e w r it e r s e e m s t o think , ,
,

goo d i n t h e o ry but p r acticabl e i n M assach u s e tt s N e v e r

, .
,

i n an int r o d u ctio n t o a b r i e f th e r e fo r e wr it e “ D e finition , , ,

of t h e t e r m s Pr ovi s ion s of t h e t r e aty “ T h e condu c t

, ,
”

C
’
of H am i l ton a rl yl e s e st imat e
,
“
T h e G oth e nbu rg ,

syst e m d e fin e d “
Sou r c e s of t h e t r oub l e
, i e N e ve r i n , . .
,

an i n t r od u c t i on u se va
g ue p a ra s e s r
ef e r r i ng to i m p or t a n t
a t t e rs tha t a d er m u s t u n d e rs t a n d

l
m r ea if t /ze si
g ni fica n ce of
tb e b ea d i ng s f t ne b r i ef

l
o
p p ro e r as t es t s i s t o be c ea r to
firm
l
I n s t ea d , te tb e

l
. s ta n e ce s s a ry i d ea s so t /za t i e ca n n o t

l l
f a i to g ra s
p t /ze i r m ea n i n
g . Be as br i ef a w ay s as i s p os
sib e w i t /t ou t ifi i f Tb e bes t p /zr a s i ng
‘

s a cr c ng c e a r n es s . or

s u c n i n or m a t i o n i s a s t a t e m en t
f That i s it i s b tt r to
'

e e .
,

s ay : C a rl y l e a ss e r t e d this o r that (quotat ion ) rath e r

“ ”

’ ”
t han C a rl y l e s e st im at e F r an c e and t h e Unit e d
Stat e s ma d e a t r e aty i n 1 7 78 “
I t s provis ion s w e r e , ,

etc r ath e r t han T h e t r e aty of 1 778

.
,
“
I ts prov i s i ons , .

C ompa r ison of B ri e f c w i th t h e br i e f that fol lows will .

S h o w t h e c l e a r n e s s an d t h e e ff e ctiv e n e s s gain e d by carry

ing out t h e d i r e ction s giv e n t h u s fa r .

B r i ef CI .

WO U L D TH E N O RW EG I A N SY ST EM OF L I Q U O R SEL L I NG
-

BE

P R A CT I CA B LE IN M A SSA C H U SETT S ?

I N T RO D U CT I O N .

I .
I
T h e N orwe gi an Syst e m .

A . The l iq u or t r a fli c i n any town i s c ontroll e d b y a

s i ngl e sto c k c o m p any Th i s c o m p any i s l i c e ns e d .

1 R e po rt of th e H o u se ,
pp .
9 1
0 —
67 .
 A R G U M E N TA TI ON

to s e ll l iq u ors and i ts laws a r e ap p rov e d by state

,

au thor i t i e s I t i n v e sts onl y t h e c ap i tal n e c e ssary

.

to c ond u c t t h e b u s i n e ss and r e c e iv e s i n r e t u rn
,

b u t a fa i r p e r c e nt on t h e c a p i tal i n v e st e d Th e .

p ro fi ts g o to b e n e fi t o b j e c ts e sta b l i sh e d for t h e

p u b l i c g ood .

B . I ts s aloons a r e c ond u c t e d b y m anag e rs who a r e

p a i d fix e d salar i e s who a r e allowe d to s e ll noth i n g
,

for t h e i r own p ro fi t and who m u st ord e r all l iq u or

,

fro m t h e c o m p any s war e ho u s e s ’

.

C . A s f e w saloons as p oss i bl e to s u pp ly t h e d e m and

a re ro vi d e d Th e a m o u nt of l iq u or sold t o e ac h
p .

c ons u m e r i s l i m i t e d L iq u or m a y not b e sold at

.

all to m i nors or to i nto xi c at e d p e rsons T h e .

c ons u m e r m u st l e a v e t h e p la c e on fi n i sh i n g h i s

dra m R u l e s g o v e rn i n g t h e p la c e and p r i c e l i sts

.
-

a re
p ost e d i n i ts bar roo m s -

D Th a t t h e c o m p any m a y not vi olat e i ts p r i n c i p l e s

.
,

i ts b oo k s and t h e d e ta i ls of t h e b u s i n e ss a r e
o pe n to t h e i ns p e c t i on of stat e a u thor i t i e s and ,

ann u al r e ports of t h e d e ta i ls a r e p u b l i sh e d That .

t h e c o m p any m a y e nfor c e i ts p r i n c i p l e s i t e m p loys ,

i ts own d e t e c t iv e s to s e e that i ts l i c e ns e s a r e n o t
i nfr i ng e d and i t e m plo y s I ns p e c tors to e x a m i n e
,

t h e ac c o u nts of i ts m a n a g e rs to s e e that t h e r u l e s

of i ts b a r roo m s a r e e x e c u te d
-

A b i ll to i ntrod u c e t h e syst e m c a m e b e for e t h e Mas

s a c h u s e t t s l e i slat u r e last s r i n
g p g .

A . B y t h e b i ll shar e hold e rs c o u ld r e c e iv e b u t fiv e
e r c e nt on t h e c a i tal It f u rth e r s p e c ifi e d that
p p .

p ro fi ts sho u ld g o to b e n e fi t t h e p u b l i c ; that t h e

b u s i n e ss sho u ld b e s u b j e c t to t h e i ns p e c t i on o f
t h e Sa vi n g s B an k Co m m i ss i on e r ; that ann u al

1 R e po r t of H o use , pp 6 1
5
—
. .
1 00 I E N TA TI OI V
A R G U /V .

B r i ef D .

D O ES TH E GO R G E OF TH E N I AGARA
R I V ER A FFO R D A SU FFI
CI E NT I N D Ex OF TH E D U R A T I O N O F P O ST G L A C I A L T I M E ? -

I N T RO DU CT I O N .

It i s ad m i tt e d b y all that t h e g org e as w e now k now i t has , ,

b e e n c u t s i n c e t h e c los e of t h e i c e a g e that i t i s i n c r e as i n g i n ,

l e n g th at t h e c atara c t e n d and that t h e c atara c t i s t h e c a u s e

,

of t h e i n c r e as e I n att e m pt i ng to e st i m at e t h e d u rat i on of
.

p ost -

g la c i al t i m e c e rta i n g e ol,og i sts l ik e W r i g ht Sp e n c e r and , ,

L ye ll stat e that i t i s m e r e ly n e c e ss ary to d e t e r m i n e t h e rat e at

,

l
wh i c h t h e l e n g th of t h e g org e i w o w i n c r e as i ng and th e n to
~
,

l
i

c o m p u t e fro m t h e known ength df f h e g org e t h e t i m e i t has

ta k e n to for m t h e whol e O t h e rég e o o g i s t s s u c h as G i lb e rt

.

and Shal e r ass e rt howe v e r that t h e rat e of e ros i on has v ar i e d

, ,

for s e v e ral c a u s e s and al so that th e r e was a p e r i od of u nknown

,

d u rat i on b e twe e n t h e c los e of t h e i c e a g e and t h e b i rth of t h e

r iv e r and that th e r e for e t h e m e thods and r e s u lts of W r i g ht
, , , ,

Sp e n c e r and L ye ll a r e i na c c u rat e
, .

In t he fo ll owing the sam e m at e r ia l i s p r op e rl y co rr e

l at e d
I N T RO D U C T I O N
l
ll
.

It i s ad m i tt e d b y a g e o o g i s t s th at ‘

e g or g e of t h e N i a ara R iv e r as w e know i
( ) T h ' '
a
g ,

has b e e n c u t s i n c e t h e c los e of t h e i c e a g e .

( )
b It i s i n c r e as i n g i n l e n g th at t h e c atara c t e n d .

e c atara c t i s t h e c a u s e of t h e i n c r e as e
( )
c T h .

C e rta i n g e olo g i sts a m on g th e m W r i g ht L ye ll and

,
—
, ,

Sp e n c e r i n att e m pt i n g to e st i m at e t h e d u rat i on of
,
—

p ost g la-

c i al t i m e th i nk i
,
t n e c e ssary
( )
a M e r e ly to d e t e r m i n e t h e rat e at wh i c h t h e l e ngth

O f t h e gor g e i s now i n c r e as i ng
'

,
 A R G U M E N TA TI O JV .
1 01

( )
b An d th e n to c o m p u t e fro m t h e known l e n g th of
the gorg e t h e t i m e i t has tak e n to form t h e
whol e .

O th e r g e olog i sts am ong th e m G i lb e rt and Shal e r

—

th i n k that t h e m e thods and t h e r e s u lts Of W r i ght and

t h e oth e rs a re i na c c u rat e i n that

( )
a T h e rat e of e ros i on has var i e d for s e v e ral c au s e s .

( )
b Th e r e was a p e r i od of u nknown d u rat i on b e twe e n

t h e c los e of t h e i c e a g e and t h e b i rth of t h e

r iv e r .

C e r tai n l y it i s e a s i e r to u n d e rs tan d t h e o r igin of t h e

qu e s t ion t h e fact s a d m itt e d by both sid e s e t c i n t h e
, , .
,

l l
s e con d b r i e f Such co rr e l at ing bot h m ak e s t h e i d e as
.

l l
c l e a r e r an d s av e s t im e Ca r e s no u d be u s ed i n c or r e a t i ng
.

l l f
t te
p a r ts o f an i n t rod u ct i on t o s ee t /za t t b e e t te ri n
g or t /ze

num be r i ng su
gg es t s ex a c t y t /ze re a t i on o a ny i d ea t o i nos e
i d e a s w /i i c/i s u r rou n d C fo r instanc e A B C
it . In B ri e f , , , , ,

and D a r e n ot r e a ll y on t h e sam e footi ng A and D a r e .

so a r e B an d C but t h e y a r e s ubo rd inat e to A T h e wr it e r

,
.

shou ld hav e co rr e l at e d hi s w o r k i n o ne of th e s e t w o w ays

I N T R O DU C T I O N .

A . The vi ls of t h e p r e s e nt syst
e em of l iq or s ell i n g
u -
.

B . G oth e nb u rg syst e m e t c ,
.

A R GU M EN T .

A . Introd u c t i on .

I T.h e e vi ls of t h e p r e s e nt syst e m of l iq u o r s e ll i n g -
.

2 G oth e nb u rg syst e m e t c
. ,
.

B . A rgu m e nt .
1 02 A R G U M E N TA TI O/V .

I n a w or d i d e as of e qu al val u e sho u l d b e m a r k e d by
’

l e tt e r s o r numb e r s of t h e sam e kin d A chang e in num .

b e r s o r l e tt e rs shou l d d e not e a chang e i n t h e r e l ation s of

t h e mat e r ia l
”

DOU B L E M ARKIN G .

A fault i n co rr e l at ion that oft e n cau s e s con s i d e r ab l e

Confusion i s d oub l e ma r king H e r e i s a ca s e of it .

B r i ef E .

DI D TH E C OU NC I L OF C O N ST A N C E M AI N TA I N T H E P R I N C I P L E
TH AT IT WAS N EC ESSA R Y FO R T H E C H U RCH To K EEP
FA I T H WI T H A H ER ET I C ?
I . Introd u c t i on : ( a ) Pl e a for i m p art i al i ty ; ( b) A rg u m e nt ,

O u tl i n e of .

II . 1. D e fi n i t i ons of i m portant words and phras e s as ( a )

Co u n c i l of Constan c e ( b) Ma i nta i n ( c) Ch u r c h ( d ), , ,

H e ret i c .

2. R e stat e m e nt of p ro p os i t i on .

I t i s cl e ar that t h e s e con d pa r a g ra ph i s h e r e t r e at e d a s .

bot h I I and I . B u t e vi d e ntly it cann ot b e both fo r if it

.
,

i s t h e fi r st it i s of e q ual va l u e with I ; if it i s t h e s e co nd
, .
,

it i s subord inat e t o I Th e q u e stion i s which i s t h e .

co rr e ct marking Sin c e co rr e l ating i s u s e d simp l y to

.

sho w r apidly t h e r e lation s of t h e i d e as o n e to anoth e r ;

thi s ov e r co rr e lat in g d e f e at s it s o w n e nd s an d i s no b e tt e r
-

than non e at a ll R e al ly I shoul d b e st r uck out Th e n

. . .

l
t h e co rr e ct r e l at ion s of t h e pa r t s a r e s e e n at onc e In a .

br i ef o n e e tt e r o r fig u r e i s s ufic i e n t f o r o n e i d ea or s t a t e
'

m en t C o r r e ct co rr e l at in g i s not u sual l y d i f ficu l t i n an

.

i nt r oduct i on b u t as We s hal l soon s e e it i s n ot a l way s

,

e asy i n t h e bri e f p r op e r .
1 04 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV .

I I Th e s e g la c i e rs we r e c onfl u e nt not only fi ll i ng

.
,
t he
1
v all eys b u t flow i n g o v e r m o u nta i ns
,
.

I I I Th e y a r e k nown to hav e b e e n a m i l e and a half d e e p

.

i n N e w En g land and we r e p e rha p s d e e p e r i n oth e r ,

p la c e s 2
.

B . Pr e s e nt st u dy of g la c i e rs shows c e rtai n c ond i t i ons to b e

n e c e ssary for th e i r for m at i on v i a 3
, ,

I Cold e i th e r fro alt i t u d e or h i g h lat i t d e for

.
—
m u —

t h e for m at i on and a c c u m u lat i on of snow .

I I H u m i d i ty to p ro vi d e t h e m at e r i al f o r snow
.
,
.

I I I A lt e rnate thawi ng s and fr e e z i ng s for t h e c onsol i da

.
,

t i on O f snow and i c e .

C . Poss i bl e c a u s e s for t h e Gla c i al Epo c h .

I . G e o g ra ph i c al .

( )
a G ro u p i ng
of t h e lands i n p olar r e g i ons S i r .

Charl e s Lye ll s th e ory ’

.

( )
b G e n e ral e l e v at i on and b road e n i n g of north e rn

c ont i n e nts toge th e r w i th t h e d e fl e c t i on of t h e

,

G u lf Str e a m i nto t h e Pa c ifi c O c e an .

II . As trono m i c al .

( )
a V ar i.o u s th e or i e s wh i c h ha v e b e e n e x lod e d
p .
1
‘

( )
b Croll s th e ory
5 ’
.

T h e e c c e ntr i c i ty of t h e e arth s orb i t v ar i e s

’
1 .
,

t h e l e ngth of t h e m aj or ax i s C han g i ng ; and

th u s t h e rat i o b e twe e n a ph e l i on and pe r i

h e l i on d i stan c e v ar i e s a ph e l i on and p e r i ,

1 Sh a ler a nd D a vi s , I l
l u st r a t i on s o f tb c E a rt z s /
’
S u rf a c e, G l
a ci e r s , e d . 1 88 1 ,

l f
p 38
l
2 I dem
. .
, p 45
. .

3 L e C o n t e, E em e n t s o Ge o ogy , ed . 1 8 94, p 46 . .

ll
1

ll
I d em
‘

p 5 90
, . .

5 T h o u g h wh a t f o o ws is c a re f u y d o n e, it at b es t S h o ws t he n eed in
th s,i in m an y b ie f s i a g ra m ly i is y
l l
as r , of a d . On by a d ra w ng ca n th the o r
b e m a de c ear to t h e g en e ra re a d e r .
 A R G U M E N TA TI O I V .
1 05

h l i on b e i n g r e s p e c t iv e ly t h e e arth s g re at e st
e ’

and Shorte st d i stan c e s fro m t h e s u n 1 .

2 T h e p r e c e ss i on of t h e e q u i no x e s c a u s e s t h e
.

l
s e asons of e a c h h e m i s ph e r e to o c c u r s u c c e s
s i ve i n e v ry part of t h e orb i t e g
y e
, . .
,

( )
a O u r w i nt e r o c c u rs now d u r i n
g p e r i h e l i on ,

b u t aft e r a b o u t t e n tho u sand ye ars we

,

shall ha v e a ph e l i on wi nt e r 2
.

“
3 A h i g h c ond i t i on of e c c e ntr i c i ty t e nds as we
.

ha v e s e e n to prod u c e an ac c u m u lat i on O f
,

snow and i c e i n t h e h e m i s ph e r e whos e wi n

t e rs o c c u r i n aph e l i on 3
.
”

W e a re to c ons i d e r th e n wh e th e r or not c on c u rr e n c e of
, ,

m axi m u m e c c e ntr i c i ty and a h e l i on w i nt e r i s a s u fl ‘

i cie n t
p
c a u s e for t h e la c i e rs wh i c h a re known to hav e e xi st e d
g
d u r i ng t h e G la c i al Ep o c h .

P R EJ U D I C E D I N T R O D U C T I O N S .

A kin d of in t rodu c t io n to avoid i s t h e p r e j udic e d and

th e r e fo r e p r e j udicia l T his s tat e s as indisputabl e m att e rs
.

w h ich a r e d e batab l e A sh r e wd r e a d e f w il l at onc e chal

.
‘

l e ng e th e s e p r e j udic e d s tat e m e nt s an d t h e ca r e l e s s wri t e r ,

w i l l b e fo rc e d to b egin d e bat ing i n his i nt r oduction b e fo r e ,

’
h e i s r e al ly r e ady I f t h e w rit e r s stat e m e nt s a re n ot
.

chal l e ng e d h e has won hi s cas e b e for e h e b e gin s to a rgu e

, ,

fo r hi s r e ad e r ta c itly as s e nt s t o stat e m e nt s that g r ant him

e v e r yth ing fo r which h e can a s k H e r e i s a p r e j u d ic e d .

int r od u cti on

1 Sh a ler and D a vi s , I l
l u stra t i on s o
f tb c E a r t /z
’
s S u rf a ce , G l a c i er s , ed .

1 88 1 ,p 74
. .

2
G o df re y
, A Tr ea t i s e on A s t r o n om y , ed . 1 8 8 0, p . 22 .

3 Se e n ote I .
1 06 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV .

B r i ef G .

IT W I SE FO R A DA M S TO SE ND TH E ENV O Y S To FRA NCE

IN ?
1
799

1 . R e lat i ons b e twe e n Fran c e and t h e U S i n 1 799 . . .

l
A .Fran c e had h e ld t h e U S i n c ont e m pt and had i n . .
,

s u t e d t h e nat i on b
y
( )
a T h e c ond u c t of h e r own m i n i st e rs i n t h e U S . .

I In 1 79 3 G e n e t had a c t e d i n a p r e s u m pt u o u s
.

and o v e r b e ar i ng m ann e r tryi ng to fi t o u t sh i p s ,

and r e c r u i t m e n for Fran c e as i f t h e U S ,

. .

we r e a d e p e nd e nt p ro vi n c e .

2 A d e t had tr i e d to i nfl u e n c e t h e e l e c t i on of
.

1 79 6 .

( )
b H tr e at m e nt of o u r e n v oys
er .

I . T h e r e c all of G o u v e rn e u r Morr i s had b e e n d e

m a n d e d b e c a u s e h e d i d not fa v or t h e e x c e ss e s
,

of t h e Fr e n c h R e vol u t i on .

2 . C C P i n c k n e y was not r e c e iv e d b e c au s e t h e
. .
,

D i r e c tory we re ang ry at t h e r e c all of Monro e

and at t h e r e s u lt of t h e e l e c t i on of 1 79 6 .

3 . T h e d i s g ra c e f u l X Y Z d e.m ands for a br i b e

. .

we r e a d i r e c t i ns u lt .

r d e p r e d a t i ons on o u r c o m m e r c e c ontrary
() y
c B h e

l
,

to tr e aty a n d n e u tral r i g hts .

B .
( )
a A da m s i n 1 7 8
9 d e c ar e d d i p lo m at i c r e lat i ons
b ro k e n o ff .

n ar m y and a na vy w e r e or an i z e d r hants
( )
b
’
A g ; m e c

v e ss e ls we r e ar m e d ; and s e v e ral s uc c e ss e s g a i n e d
at s e a .

C . Fran c e b e c am e alar m e d and i n an i nd i r e c t way s ig

,

n i fie d a d e s i r e to r e n e w n e ot i at i ons
g .
108 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV .

l
of t h e unp r e j u d ic e d i nt r o d uct ion w i l l b e e vi d e nt T h e .

pr e j u d ic e i n an i nt r o d uct ion i s n ot u s ually d i fli c u t to d e

‘

t e e t fo r s om e ph r a s e l ik e p r e sumpt uou s and ov e r b e a r

,
“

” ”
i ng m an n e r , t h e d isg r ac e fu l X Y Z d e m ands of thi s
. . .
,

wr it e r w i ll s ho w t h e r e ad e r t hat h e i s d e a l ing w ith a m an

w h o s e vocabu l a r y i s not impa r t ial an d who th e r e fo r e i s , , ,

p r obab l y n ot i mpa r t ia l i n h i s O pinions .

N A R RO W I N G TH E Q U EST I O N .

I t i s oft e n h e lpful wh e n t h e i n t i o d u c t i o n i s l ong o r t h e

‘

e xact topic to b e di s cu s s e d d i f f e r s i n wo rd in g f r om t h e

qu e s tion h e a d ing t h e b r i e f to stat e as t h e l a s t d ivi s ion of

,
\

t h e i nt r oduction to j ust what t h e d is cu s sio n n a rr o ws .

T hi s has b e e n d on e in B r i e f C I p 9 9 an d in d ivi s io n D
, .
,

un d e r B r i e f F p 1 0 5
, . .

SU M M A R Y .

I n t h e in t r o d uct io n of a b r i e f t h e n a wr it e r ph r a s e s
, ,

on l y what both s i d e s m u st a d mit to b e t r u e T h i s h e .

w o rd s a s b r i e fl y an d y e t c l e a rl y a s h e pos s ib l y can in ca r e ,

fu ll y co rr e l at e d s tat e m e nt s H e m ak e s c l e a r t h e e xact
.

i s s u e t o wh i ch t h e di scuss ion n a rr o w s T h e fi n a l t e s t .

of hi s w o r k i n an i nt r o d uction is that it shal l l e ad

cl e a rl y to t h e b r i e f p r op e r givi ng a r e a d e r j u st t h e i n f o r
,

m at ion h e n e e d s if t h e significanc e of t h e s tat e m e nt s

ma d e i n t h e b r i e f p r op e r t h e t r e n d of t h e a r gum e nt i s t o
, ,

b e c l e a r to h i m .

T H E BR I EF P R O P ER .

I n t h e b r i e f p r op e r a w r it e r ph r as e s as s uccin ct l y as
po ssib l e t h e i d e as which h e th ink s mu st b e prov e d t r u e if
hi s conc l us ion i s t o b e ad m itt e d Fo r t h e suppo r t of th e s e
.
 A R GU AI E N TA TI OYV . 1 09

i d e a s h e gat h e r s p r oof what e v er g e n e r at e s b e l i e f i n t h e

,
—

m in d of a r e a d e r and h e m u st conv e y to hi s r e a d e r s om e
,

i d e a of t h e nat u r e of t h e p r oof by w hich h e int e n ds to

Sh ow t h e t r ut h of e ach of t h e i d e a s h e ph r a s e s in t h e
1

b r i e f p r op e r T h e p r oof t hat a wr it e r w i ll u s e d ivi d e s i t

.

s e l f r oughl y i n to t w o pa rt s : d i r e ct p r oof an d r e f u t a t
Wh e n a wr it e r s im p l y stat e s an i d e a of h i s o w n and ,

p o rt s it t hat i s d i r e ct p r oof wh e n h e tak e s an id e a

,

"
u r g e d agai n st him by h is O ppon e n t and t r i e s to ov e rcom e , .

it h e r e fut e s
, I f t h e O bj e ct ion i s a b r oa d o n e
. to t h e ,
-

wr it e r s cas e a s a wh o l e it s hou ld stand by it s e l f ; if it

,

i s an obj e ct ion t o s om e d ivi sion o r s ub d ivisio n of t h e wr i t

’

e r s w o r k h e wi ll m e e t it b e s t i n t r e ati ng that d ivis ion o r

,

s u b d ivi s ion That i s h i s i d e a i s p r ov e d t r u e not on ly by

.
,

p r ovin g a b an d c r e ason s fo r it bu t by d i s p r ovi ng t h e

, , , ,

s tat e m e nt d in r e ga r d to it mad e by hi s O ppon e nt .

T H E T w o K I N DS OF R E F U TA T I O N .

Lo r d C hat ham i n u r ging t h e r e moval of t h e

\Vh e n ,

t r oops f r om B o ston a r gu e d that th e y shoul d b e with

,

d r a w n b e cau s e
“

A .
It wi ll Show t h e w i ll i ngn e ss of t h e Engl i sh to tr e at
a m i c ab ly ;
C . The m e ans of e nfor c i n g t h e m e as u r e s of Parl i a m e nt ha v e

fa i l e d ;
D .
If Parl i am e nt tr i e s by t h e a i d of t h e ar m y to e nfor c e i ts
m e as u r e s t h e r e s u lt w i ll b e bad ;

h e s tat e d h i s o w n i d e as u s e d d i r e ct p r oof ,
.

Wh e n ho w e v e r h e u r g e d t h e with dr awa l of the t 1 0 0p s

, ,

b e caus e
1 10 A R G U M E N TA TI OJV .

E . The stat e m en t t h a t t h e ar m i e s i n A m e r i c a c annot last i s

,

l
u ntr u e for ,

r .T h e e vi d e n c e of t h e “
c o m m e r c i al bod i e s i s u n re i
abl e for e t c , ,
.
,

he an sw e r e d an obj e ct ion ma d e by hi s O ppon e nts to hi s

m ai n p r oposit ion Thi s part of hi s w o r k th e n E i s
.
, , ,

g e n e r a l r e futation .

I f n o w w e l ook at t h e d e v e l opm e nt of d ivision C of hi s

, ,

w o r k w e shal l s e e that a thi r d ki n d of w o r k app e a r s in it

,
.

C . T h e m e ans of e nfor c i n g t he obno xi o u s m e as u r e s hav e

fa i l e d for ,

The ar m y of G e n e ral G age i s p e nn e d p “

i
l
n u
I p
—
.
,

i n g i n i n g lor i o u s i n a c t i v i t y
”

2 . Tho u g h i t i s sa i d that t h e ar m y i n A m e r i c a i s
a safe g u ard y e t th i s i s not tr u e for
, ,

( )
a It i s p ow e rl e ss and c ont e m p t i bl e and ,

( )
b I t i s i rr i tat i n g to t h e A m e r i c ans .

3 . Tho u g h i t i s sa i d that Ge n e ral G ag e i s n e e dl e ssly

i na c t iv e y e t th i s i s u ntr u e for
, ,

n y a c t ivi ty on h i s p art wo u ld m e an c ivi l

( )
“
a A
and u nnat u ral war .
”

H e r e Lo rd C h atham Shows t h e t r uth of t h e s e nt e nc e C ,

by gi ving an id e a 1 of hi s own an d by r e futi ng two stat e ,

m e n t s of h i s O ppon e nt s 2 an d 3 w h ich th e y mak e i n con , ,

t ra di c t i o n of h i s ass e rt ion C T h e wo r k don e i n C 2 and .

,

3 is th e n sp e cial r e f u tat ion fo r t h e ob j e ction s m e t a re

, , , ,

not mad e to t h e m ain p r o p os it ion that t h e t r oops sho u ld ,

b e wi thd rawn from B oston but to o n e of t h e i d e as by ,

which Lord C hatham hop e d to mak e good that s tat e m e nt .

O b j e ct ion s mad e t o t h e m a i n p r opo sit ion c a ll th e n fo r , ,

g e n e ra l r e futation ob j e ction s rai s e d t o oth e r pa r t s of t h e

wo r k t han t h e main p roposit ion cal l for s p e cial r e futation .
1 12 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV .

An a ct i s j u st ifi ab l e that i s d e fe ns i bl e , warrantabl e
1
en t u ry D i ct i on a ry
( C ) .

B oth p art i e s ag re e that t h e e x p u ls i on was not m ad e 2

,

p r i m ar i ly on r e l i g i o u s g ro u nds
,
th e r e for e I shall s et ,

as i d e th i s c ons i d e rat i on i n m y d i s c u ss i on of t h e q u e s
t i on .

R EF U T A T I O N .

A . I t i s c la i m e d that t h e e x p u ls i on of t h e J e ws i s d e fe ns i bl e on
I Ec ono m i c and so c i al g ro u nds for
.
,

I T h e J e ws a r e a p aras i t i c rac e
. .

Th e y do not e n g a g e i n p rod u c t iv e labor n e i th e r

( )
x ,

l
( )
a Man u al la b or nor ,

r i c ri t u r e
( ) g
r A .

( ) y
y B e x p lo i tat i on th e y a b sc r b t h e nat i onal w e alth .

2 Th e y d e m oral i z e t h e pe o p l e and c a u s e t h e dr u nk e n
.

n e ss of t h e p e asants for ,

( )
x Th e y s e ll th e m v od k a “
.

I I N at i onal g ro u nds b e c a u s e
.
,

I T h e J e ws do not ass i m i lat e wi th t h e p e o pl e b u t a r e

.
,

3
e x c l u s iv e and tr i bal “ ”
.

( )
x Th e y u n i t e i n t h e c or p orat i on of t h e Kabal for

t h e e x p lo i tat i on of t h e Chr i st i ans .

( )
y Th e y a r e s e p arat e d fro m t h e r e st of t h e p e o p l e

b y t h e r i t e O f c i r c u m c i s i on .

2 Th e y a re not loyal s u b j e c ts
. .

( )
or Th e y sh u n m i l i tary s e r vi c e .

( )y Th e y a r e t h e so u r c e of N i h i l i s m and d i s a f f e c

t i on .

1 l i i i
l
rea d e r

l
A sho u d n o te t h a t t h e wr t e r o f th s Br ef , t h o ugh h e s e e m s
i fie d y i ion
de fin t y
l
wi t h is t, a n d a s in A
l
sa t s a ver va g u e , re a no he sh o ws

i b y whic h j u dg e i
l
I . an d II .
, h as t e s t s i n m n d to “
d ef en s b e, w a rr a n t a b e .

2
G o d wi n Sm t h , i n i N or t b A m e r i ca n R ev i ew , A u g u s t , 1 8 9 1 , p 1 3 9 , .

a ffir m a t ve i ; I s a a c B e s h t B e n d a ri d , i n
-
N or t /i A m e r i ca n R ev i ew , Se p t e m b e r , ,

i
li
1 8 91 , p 2 5 8 , n e g a t ve
. .

3 G o d w n Sm t h , s a m i e r ef e re n c e , p . 1
38 .
 A R G U /V
I E N TA TI O/V . 1 13

ex p u ls i on of t h e J e ws i s n ot d e fe ns i bl e on
Ec ono m i c and so c i al g ro u nds for ,

T h e J e ws a r e not a p a ras i t i c rac e .

( or) In s e v e ral of t h e towns of t h e Pal e th e y form

9 0
p e r c e nt of t h e w hol e p po u lat i on and
,
i n
all t h e towns a larg e m a j or i ty and i t i s ab s u rd ,

to s u p p os e th e y c o u ld b e s u pport e d b y t h e
r e m a i n i n g 1 0 p e r c e nt or 2 0 p e r c e nt .

( )
x Th
‘
e y do e ngag e i n p rod u c t iv e labor .

( )
a I n 1 888 1 2
p e r c e nt of al l t h e J ews w i th i n

t h e Pal e we r e a rt i sans a larg e r p ro port i on

,

than t h e sa m e C lass m a i nta i ns i n Fran c e

1 0 p e r c e nt or Pr u ss i a r c e nt
( ) p e
) .

( )
b In fa c t t h e J e ws v e ry n e arly m ono p ol i z e

t h e m an u al trad e s w i th i n t h e Pal e p e r ,

for m i n g e v e n t h e ro u g h e st lab or as b la c k ,

s m i ths d i g g e rs c arr i e rs e t c
, , ,
.

()
c Th e r e a r e b e s i d e s a c ons i d e rab l e n u m b e r
, ,

of art i sans o u ts i d e t h e Pal e wh o a re p e r ,

m i t t e d to l iv e o u ts i d e t h e Pal e b e c a u s e

l
of th e i r o c c u p at i o n .

( )
x
2
If th e y do not e n g ag e e x t e ns iv e ly i n a g r i c u

t u r e i n Ru ss i a i t i s not b e c au s e th e y a r e not i n
l
,

c i n e d to b u t b e c au s e th e y a r e forb i dd e n b y
,

t h e laws

( )
a To own or l e as e land ;

( )
b To l iv e i n t h e c o u ntry .

Th e y ha v e shown th e m s e l v e s to b e s u c c e ss
( )
l
3
x

f u a g r i c u lt u r i sts w h e n g iv e n an O pp ort u n i ty
,
.

I .
In H u ng ary and T u rk ey i n t h e p ast .

2 .
I n t h e c olon i e s r e c e ntly fo u n d e d i n t h e
A r g e nt i n e R e pu b l i c and i n Pal e st i n e .

h fa i l r of h olon i s fo nd d b N i holas
( ) T t e c
x 4 e u e e c e u y
was not d u e to t h e J e ws b u t to t h e c ond i t i ons
by wh i c h th e y w e r e r e str i c t e d and ha m p e r e d .
1 14 A R G U M E N TA TI O/V .

I t i s tr u e that m any of t h e J e ws a r e m i ddl e

m e n y e t th i s i s not a good r e ason for e x p e ll i ng
,

th e m for , 5

1 .Th e y have b e e n for c e d to b e c o m e s u c h by t h e

laws that sh u t th e m o u t fro m
e p rof e ss i ons
( )
l
l
a T h ,

( )b A o ffi c i al p osts fro m m a y or down to

,

s c hool t e a c h e r ,

() g
c A r i c u lt u ,
r e and
( )
d S h u t th e m i nto t h e towns wh i c h b e c o m e,

so c rowd e d that th e r e i s not e no u g h

l
work for all
l
.

2 .A m i ddl e m e n a r e not e x p lo i t e rs .

3 .T h e n u m b e r of e x p lo i t e rs m u st b e s m all for ,

n e arl y 8 0 p e r c e nt of t h e J ews a r e wr e t c h e dly

p oor and
,
half of t h e r e st a r e art i sans .

4 T h e r e p r e ss i on of t h e J e w i sh e x p lo i t e rs wo u ld
.

'

c r e at e a m ono p oly for t h e O r t h o d o x e x plo i t e r ,

and so r e ally ra i s e t h e i nt e re st for t h e ar

t i san and p e asant .

Th e y do not d e m oral i z e t h e p e o p l e and c a u s e t h e

dr u n k e nn e ss of t h e p e o p l e for ,

a ) T h e p e asants a r e f u lly as m u c h add i c t e d to

(
dr u n k e nn e ss i n t h e p art of R u ss i a wh e re t h e
J e w s a r e not allowe d as th e y a r e w i th i n t h e
Pal e .

h e J e w i s no m or e j u stl y to b e a c c u s e d
( )
b T Of

s e ll i n g v od k a than t h e Chr i st i an
“
.

N at i onal g ro u nds .

Th e y for c e d ap art fro m t h e r e st of t h e p e o pl e

a re

b y t h e laws of t h e go v e rn m e nt for
‘

e c or p orat i on of t h e Kabal was for c e d on

( ) T h
‘
x

th e m b y t h e r u l e rs of E u ro p e for th e i r fi nan c i al
b e n efi t
1 16 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV .

( )
z G oldwi n Sm i th th e i r o pp on e nt h i m s e lf ad m i ts
, ,

that t h e Je w i s always and e v e rywh e r e a c o n

“

for m i ng c i t i z e n and r e fu s e s non e of t h e b u r

,

d e ns of stat e tho u g h m ak i ng th e m as l i g ht as
,

1
h e c o u ld
”
.

G EN E R A L P ROO F .

I . The r e s u lts of t h e e x p u ls i on of t h e J e ws a re i n j u r i o u s to
t h e c o u ntry .

1. Co m m e r c e i s s e r i o u sly c r i pp l e d by i t .

( )
a I t i s alr e ady a pp ar e nt that t h e flo u r i nd u stry has

b e e n i n j u r e d b y i ts w i thdrawal fro m t h e hands of

t h e J e ws .

e r e c e nt fa i r of N ij n i N o v g orod was a fa i l
( )
b T h

l
u re ow i n g to t h e a b s e n c e of J e wi sh trad e rs
, .

2. T h e stron g and e n e rg e t i c p art of t h e J e wi sh p o p u a

t i on a r e e m i g rat i ng l e a vi ng t h e fe e bl e and h e l pl e ss to
,

b u rd e n t h e g o v e rn m e nt .

3 . Th e s e i m m i g rants a r e s p r e ad i n
g i nfl u e n c e s host i l e to

R u ss i a o v e r t h e world .

4 . T h e p arts of t h e c o u ntry whos e loyalty i s of p r i m e

.

i m portan c e i n c as e of a G e r m an or Pol i sh i n v as i on
, ,

ha v e b e e n r e nd e r e d d i sa ff e c t e d
l of tho s nds of i nno
.

Th e e x pu s Io n unt and i m p ove r i sh e d

a ce

e
p p o l e fro m t h e land that th e i r fath e rs i nha b i t e d c e nt u r i e s
b e for e i t c a m e i nto p oss e ss i on of t h e R u ss i ans i s an O f fe ns e
aga i nst t h e m oral s e ns e of t h e c ivi l i z e d world .

R EC A P I T U L A T I O N AN D C O N C LU SI O N .

Si n c e ,
th e n t h e e x p u ls i on of t h e J e ws fro m R u ss i a i s not d e
l
,

t e ns i bl e on e c ono m i c so c i a or nat i onal g ro u nds and Si n c e I n

, , , ,

i ts r e s u lts i t i s i n j u r i o u s to t h e c o u ntry of R u ss i a and s i n c e

, , ,

1 I n N or t l
z Am er i c a n R ev i ew , A u g u s t , 1 8 91 , p . 1 41 .
 A R G U M E N T/ 1 TI O /V . 117

f u rth e r m or e i t o ff e nds t h e m oral s e ns e of t h e C i vi l i z e d world I

, ,

c on c l u d e that t h e e x p u ls i on of t h e J e ws fro m R u ss i a i s not

j u st ifi abl e .

Wh e n on t h e ot h e r h and an audi e n c e i s unp r e j udic e d

, , ,

o r kn ows sca r c e ly anyth ing about e ith e r si d e of t h e qu e s

ti on a w r it e r m a y fi rst d e v e l op h is own cas e an d t h e n at
,

t h e e n d con s i d e r t h e g e n e r al obj e ct ion s O f cou r s e if h e .

,

fo ll o w s th is m e thod h e m u s t b e s ur e that h i s an sw e rs to
,

t h e g e n e r al O bj e ct ion s a r e e ith e r by th e m s e l v e s o r tak e n

,

with h i s p r e c e din g d i r e ct p r oof conc l u s iv e fo r h e cann ot , ,

a f fo rd to giv e his r e a d e r j u st at t h e e n d o f t h e a r gum e nt

t h e f e e l ing th at impo r tant ob j e ct ion s of t h e oth e r s id e

hav e n ot b e e n sat i sfacto r ily m e t T hi s a rr ang e m e nt .

,

w hich put s t h e g e n e r a l r e futat ion at t h e e n d t h e fo ll o w ing ,

b r i e f s hows
B r i ef I .

WA S SW I FT M A R R I ED To ST EL LA ?

B r i ef f or tb c A fif
rm a t i ve .

l
l
I N T RO D U CT H H L

A . A agr ee that
I . Sw i ft was for m any ye a rs on i nt i m at e t e r m s w i th
t lla and addr ss d h i n words of war e st

l
S e e e e r m

a ff e c t i on i n h i s j ou r n a ;
V 2 . Sh e was i n lo v e wi th h i m ;
H e n e v e r o p e nl y r e c o g n i z e d h e r as h i s w i f e

l
3
.
.

B . Bu t i t has b e e n fr e q u e n tly c ont e nd e d that h e was s ecr et y

m arr i e d to h e r .

P RO O F .

A The e
.
vi d e n c e shows that Sw i ft m arr i e d St e lla for ,

I P e rsonal
.
a c q u a i ntan c e s of S w i ft d i s c los e t h e fa c t of
t h e m arr i ag e .
1 18 A R G U M E N TA TI OIV .

I . O rr e ryass e rt e d i t .

2 T h e o b j e c t i on t h a t O rr e ry m ad e q u al i fyi ng stat e
.

m e nts i s not w e ll fo u nd e d for ,

( )
a Th e s e r e f e r not to t h e fa c t O f t h e m arr i ag e ,

o n l y to d e ta i ls .

l
D e lany ass e rt e d i t .

T h e O b j e c t i ons that D e a n y s stat e m e nt ( a ) m e r e ly

’

“
c on fi r m s h i s b e l i e f i n O rr e r y s R e m ar k s ; ( b)
’ ”

that n e i th e r g o e s b e yond ass e rt i on ; ( c) that th e y

iv no vi d e n c e to s u pp ort th e i r V i e w do not
l
g e e ,

we ak e n D e a n y s t e st i m ony for
’

( a Th i s ar g u e s for t h e tr u thf u ln e ss of O rr e ry s ’

t e st i m ony .

1
( b 1
c ),
O rr e ry and D e lany we r e p e rsonal ac

u a i n t a n c e s of Swi ft and d i d not c ons i d e r i t

q
n e c e ssary to c on fi r m a s i m p l e stat e m e nt O f

fac ts b y oaths or b y t h e t e st i m ony of oth e rs

, .

T h e u n so u g ht e vi d e n c e wh i c h oth e r p e rsons ha v e g iv e n
c on fi r m s t h e stat e m e nts of O rr e ry and D e lany .

1 Dr A sh e t h e B i sho p of Clogh e r who pe rfor m e d

. .
, ,

t h e c e r e m ony c on fi r m s t h e fa c t of t h e m arr i age :

,

h i s t e st i m ony c o m e s d i r e c tly thro u g h B e rk e l e y to ,

who m b e c o m m u n i c at e d i t .

Th e O b j e c t i on that th i s e vi d e n c e i s not we ll
fo u nd e d : ( a ) b e c a u s e t h e m arr i ag e i s sa i d to have
take n p la c e i n 1 7 1 6 ; ( b) A sh e was i n I r e land i n
1 7 1 6 and 1 7 1 7 and d i e d n e ar t h e e n d of 1 7 1 7 ;
,

e r k e l e y was abroad f ro m 1 7 1 5 to 1 7 2 1 do es
()
c B ,

not hold for ,

( )
a
1
It i s n o t ass e rt e d th a t t h e c o m m u n i c at i on

was m ad e by word of m o u th .

1
( )
b It i s not only p oss i bl e b u t v e ry p robabl
,
e ,

that B e r k e l e y wh i l e abroad c orr e s p ond e d

, ,

w i t h A sh e ; for h e was away as t u tor of

A sh e s son
’
.
1 20 A R G U M E N TA TI OIV .

(3 )
1
Mrs D i n
.
g y e l s
’
answ e r i s not c l e ar ;

(3 )
2
S h e was not a p t to k now S t e lla s g r e at e st ’
s e c r e t ,

for
e was t h e c o m p an i on u t not t h e con
( )
a S h b ,

fid a n t e of St e lla .

4 . Mrs B e nt and Mrs R i dg way Sw i ft s ho u s e ke e p

. .
,
’
«

e rs ,
d i d not b e l i e v e that Sw i ft was m arr i e d to
St e lla y e t ,

( 4
1
) Th e y w e r e only s e r v ants and ,
S w i ft wo u ld not
ha v e b e e n a pt to c o m m u n i c at e h i s s e c r e ts to th e m ;
5 . S w i ft sa i d h e had n e v e r s e e n t h e wo m an who m h e

wo u ld l i k e to m arry y e t ,

(5 )
1
T h e stat e m e nt was e vi d e ntly m ad e to o n e w i th
who m Swi ft d i d not s pe ak fr e e ly ;
(5 )
2
T h e m ann e r of h i s s p e e c h was s u c h that i t
wo u ld c on c e al h i s r e al fe e l i n g s
3
(5 ) T h e na m e of t h e p e rson to who m t h e r e p ly was
m ad e i s not g iv e n and t h e whol e e vi d e n c e i s i n
,

d e fi n i t e as to t h e p o i nt at i ss u e .

6 Dr L yon a p e rsonal a c q u a i ntan c e of Sw i ft had

. .
, ,

a c c e ss to all of Swi ft s p a pe rs b u t d i d not b e l i eve

’
,

that Swi ft was e ve r m arr i e d y e t ,

1
( )
6 Dr L
. yon kn e w S w i ft only i n t h e y e ars of t h e

latt e r s d e c l i n e and i m b e c i l i ty
’
.

2
( )
6 S w i ft wo u ld hardly ha v e l e ft i n h i s
p pa e rs e v i
d e n c e of what h e w i sh e d c on c e al e d .

1
( )
6 Dr .L yon bas e s h i s c oncl u s i on on a p r e m i s e

wh i c h i s fals e .

CO N C L U SI O N .

The t e st i m ony of m any wi tn e ss e s both a c q u a i ntan c e s of Swi ft

,

and thos e who l e arn e d t h e fa c t fro m a c q u a i ntan c e s as to t h e ,

m arr i ag e and as to t h e c on fi r m at i on of A sh e an d of St e lla of

'

t h e fa c t and t h e ag r e e m e nt of th e s e w i tn e ss e s i n t h e g e n e ral
,
 A R G U M E N TA TI OI V . 1 21

f ac t,i n stat e m e nts m ad e at d i ff e re nt t i m e s and u nd e r d i f fe r e nt

c ond i t i ons l e ad m e to say that Sw i ft was m arr i e d to St e lla
, .

I n t h e f r e qu e nt cas e s i n w h ich a w r it e r i s not ab l e

’
com pl e t e ly t o b r e ak d o w n h i s oppon e nt s O bj e ction s but ,

m u s t aft e r h e h as w e ak e n e d t h e m s om e what d e p e n d o n
, ,

t h e co nvincingn e ss of h i s d i r e ct p r oof i t m u s t b e c l e a r w hy ,

p l acin g t h e g e n e r a l r e futat ion i n t h e mi ddl e of t h e b r i e f i s

t h e b e s t p l an I t c e nt e rs t h e att e nt ion of t h e r e a d e r
.
,

both i n s ta r ting an d at t h e e n d t wo c r iti ca l p l ac e s not , ,

on w hat t h e O ppon e nt s can s ay again st t h e wr it e r but on ,

w hat h e can p r ov e t r u e I t i s thi s po s it ion which Lo r d

.

C hat ham gav e hi s g e n e r a l r e futat ion i n t h e s p e e ch to

w h ich r e f e r e n c e h a s a lr e a d y b e e n m a d e .

L O RD C H ATH A M ’
S SP EEC H ON TH E M OT IO N To R EM O VE TH E
1
TROOP S FR O M B O ST O N .

I NT R O D U C T I O N .

I . T h e p r e s e nt
ac t i on of t h e M i n i stry s u gge sts u nfa i rn e ss .

II Th e r e has b e e n u nfa i rn e ss b y t h e Go v e rn m e nt nam e ly

. , ,

l
m i sr e p r e s e ntat i on i n that ,

A r
Th e ep e e
.
r s ntat i ons that e d to t h e m e as u r e s O bno xi o u s
to t h e A m e r i c ans we r e fals e as i s shown b y t h e fa c t that ,

I T eh m i n i stry
.
sa i d that t h e m e as u r e s wo u ld o v e raw e

th e Am e c r i ans b t
u th e s e m e as u r e s ha
,
v e u n i t e d
t h e A m e r i c ans i n r e s i stan c e to En g land .

I I I Th e r e for e t h e troo p s Sho ld u b e i m m e d i at ly r o v d

e e m e
.
,

fro m B oston .

ll l S i f A rg u
l
S i p m en s o

l
1 Se e P o i t i ca Or a ti on s , Ca m e ot er es , pp 4 49 ;
0 .ec —

m en ta t i on , p 7 ; G o o d r c h
. i ’
s Se ec t B r i t t s /z E oqu en ce
'

.
1 22 A R G UM E N TA TI Oi V .

IV . I n c ons i d e ri n g th i s p ro pos e d ac t i on a h ar e r Sho l d r e ,

e u n

m em b e r that to b e j u st to A m e r i c a do e s not m e an to ex

e m p t h e r fro m all ob e d i e n c e to G r e at B r i ta i n .

B RI EF P R O P ER .

I . Th i s r e m oval of t h e troo p s i s n e c e ssa ry for ,

A It w i ll Show t h e w i ll i ngn e ss of t h e Engl i sh to tr e at :

.

a m i c ably .

B T h e r e s i stan c e of t h e A m e r i c ans was j u st b e c a u s e

.
,

l
T h e p ro c e e d i ngs o f Parl i a m e nt had b e e n tyran
'

I .

n ica .

C . T h e m e ans of e nfor c i ng the O bno xi o u s me as u r e s ha v e

fa i l e d for
,
5

I . arm y of Ge n e ral Gage i s p e nn e d u p p i n i ng ;

The —

i n i nglor i o u s i nac t ivi ty .

”

2 Tho u g h i t i s sa i d that t h e ar m y i n A m e r i c a i s a t
.

safe g u ard y e t th i s i s u ntr u e for

, ,

( )
a It i s p ow e rl e ss and c ont e m p t i bl e and ,

( )
b It i s i rr i tat i ng to t h e A m e r i c ans .

3 Tho
. u gh i t i s sa i d that G e n G ag e i s n e e dl
. e ssly

l
i nact i v e ye t th i s i s u ntr u e for
l
, ,

( )
a A n
y a c t i v i ty on h i s p art wo u ld m e an c i vi
and u nnat u ral war .
”

l
D . If Parl i a m e nt tr i e s st i ll to e nforc e i ts m e as u re s t h e re ,

s u t s w i ll b e bad for ,

I If Parl i a m e nt i s Victor i o u s i t w i ll b e ov e r an e m
.
,

b i tt e re d pe o pl e and ,

2 T h e troo p s a r e not strong e n ou gh to r e s i st thr e e

.
s

m i ll i on u n i t e d c o u rag e o u s p e o pl e and
, ,

3 P
. e rs e c u t i on of thos e m e n whos e fath e rs fl e d to
e s c a pe i t sho u ld c e as e s i n c e ,

e ob j e c t i on that t h e e r i c ans m u st
( ) T h A “
a m
not b e h e ard i s wrong b e c a u s e
”
,

( ) I It l u m p s t h e i nno c e nt w i th t h e g u i lty .
1 24 A R G U M E N TA TI O/V .

( )a Th e i d e a of t h e A m e r i c ans i s

En g l i sh W h i gs who i n c ons i ste n c y

, , ,

s u pp ort t h e A m e r i c ans and ,

e I r i sh hav e always m a i nta i n e d th e A m

( )
b T h
i c an i d e a .

c) T h e m e an s to o pp os e th i s u n i on w i ll
(
i nad e q u ate for,

e w r e g i m e nts i n eric a and

( )
I A f A m i

l
l
l
abo u t m e n at ho m e m u s t t

O pp os e m i ll i ons i n England and a

I r e land and A m e r i c a .

G . Th i s re moval of t h e troo p s m u st p r e c e d e any oth e r st e p ,

l
l
for
1 . Fe ar and r e s e nt m e nt m u st first of a b e r e m o ve d l
i n t h e Am e r i c ans and ,

2 . Wh i l e t h e troo p s r e m a i n r e s entm e nt wi ll r e m a i n
,

for
( )
a A n
y m e a s u r e s s e c u r e d by fo r c e w i ll b e d ou bly
'

i rr i tat i ng wi th t h e ar m y st i ll i n i ts p lac e and " ,

( )
b W h e n as i s now t h e fa c t for c e c annot b e
, ,

u se d the m e re p r e s e n c e of t h e ar m y
, ” ,

altho u gh i t i s i ts e lf i n dange r i s an i rri ta ,

t i on
.

Th e vi ews of Congr e ss a r e m od e rat e and r e asonabl e .

Th e s u pe r i or Sho u ld tak e t h e i n i t i at iv e i n c on c e ss i ons .

W h i l e e v e ry m ot iv e of p ol i c y u rg e s w i thdrawal of t h e
troo p s v e ry gr e at dange rs thr e at e n i f th e y a re k e p t i n
,
.

p os i t i on ,
for
I . If t h e old c o u rs e i s p u rs u e d for e i gn war hangs
,

o v e r t h e h e ads of t h e Eng l i sh for ,

( )
a Fran c e and Sp a i n a r e wat c h i ng f o r an a d va n

l
t a g e o u s c han c e to i nt e rf e r e and ,

2 . T h e O d m e thods w i ll br i n g r u i n at ho m e for ,

( )
a T h e ki n g w i ll los e all h i s p ow e r ,
and
e ki ngdo m w i ll b e u tt e rly u ndon e
( )
b T h .
 A R G U /V E N TA TI ON . 1 25

I n s ho rt th e n e xc e pt wh e r e t h e g r ound m ust b e c l e a r e d
, ,

b e fo r e a cas e can b e d e v e l op e d it i s p r obab l y b e tt e r t o,

p u t t h e r e futat ion if it i s conc l u

, s iv e at t h e e n d of t h e ,

b r i e f ; in t h e m i ddl e w h e n it i s n ot , .

M AR K IN G R E F U TA T I O N .

I t i s s om e t im e s an ai d t o c l e a r n e s s t o m a r k g e n e r a l
r e futatio n wit h t h e wo rd R ef uta t i on T hi s i s t r u e wh e n .

it com e s at t h e b e gin n in g o r t h e e n d of a b r i e f o r wh e n ,

th e r e i s a g r oup of g e n e r a l obj e ct ion s t o b e con si d e r e d .

Wh e n ho w e v e r t h e g e n e r a l r e fut at ion com e s i n as it d o e s

, ,

in t h e C hatham s p e e ch fir s t an obj e ction and it s an sw e r ;

,
-

s om e d i r e ct p r oof t h e n anoth e r g e n e ra l obj e ct ion it i s ,

—

not n e c e s s a r y to m a r k t h e r e futat ion d ivision s by s uch a

h e ad l i n e
-
.

H OW TO P H R A SE TH E I D EA S OF TH E B R I EF P R O P ER
lf l l
.

d i rzg s s /zo u d
l
I n t /ze br i ef p r op e r , c o c i o tb c m a in i ea

u s i on , a n d e a c b o t /t e s u bo r d i
r e a d a s a r e a s on f or fire c o n c f
na te l
i ea d i ng s as a r e a s on f or t i re b e a d i ng u n der w /zi c/z i t

s ta n d s Thi
.
s s p e cial ki nd of p h rasing i s o n e of t h e c hi e f
d isti n ction s b e tw e e n an o rd i na r y outl i n e and a g e nui n e .

bri e f . T h e g r e at e r c l e a r n e s s and fo r c e giv e n by this

ph r as i ng of t h e i d e as a s r e aso n s stu d y of t h e fo ll o w ing ,

b r i e f s w i ll s ho w

FA IT H W IT H A H ER ET I C ?

I .
I ntrod u c t i on : ( a ) Pl e a for i m part i al i ty ; ( b) A rgu m e nt ,

O u tl i n e of
1 26 A R G U M E N TA TI OIV .

II D e fi n i t i ons of i m p ortant words and phras e s as ( a )

. 1 .

Co u n c i l of Constan c e ( b) Ma i nta i n ( c) Ch u r c h , , ,

( )
d H e reti c .

2 R e stat e m e nt of p ro pos i t i ons

. .

I I I A nt e c e d e nt p robab i l i ty Fo u nd i n
. .

I R e l i gi o u s i ntol e ranc e j u st p r i or to and d u r i ng t h e

.

fi fte e nth c e nt u ry .

2 Th e c o u n c i l r e p r e s e ntat i ve body ; th e r e for e nat u

.
, ,

rally e x p r e ss i n g f e e l i ng O f t h e t i m e s .

I V Sp e c ifi c m ot iv e s :
I D e s i r e to p u n i sh h e r e sy i n p e rson of o n e J ohn H u ss
.
, ,

d e s p i te h i s royal saf e c ond u c t -

2 N e c e ss i ty ( a ) of p e rs u ad i ng t h e e m p e ror Si g i s m und
.
, ,

to br e ak h i s work and ( b) O f d efe nd i ng h i s honor .

V Proofs
.

I T e st i m ony ( a ) of Sig i s m u nd ( b) of H u ss ( c) of
.
, ,

m e m b e rs of t h e Co u n c i l .

2 Do c u m e ntary
. .

3 I n zp f
.s o a ct o i e t h e tr
,
eat m e nt. fi.nal,p u n i sh m e nt of ,

H u ss .

V I Con c l u s i on : Short s u m m ary of t h e argu m e nt g iv e n

. .

T h is th r oughout w e l l Shows t h e u n sat isfacto r i n e s s t h e ,

vagu e n e ss of a m e r e topical out l in e i n which h e ad ing s a r e

, ,

not ph ras e d as r e aso n s fo r t h e co nc l u s ion T h e fau l t s .

of an int ro d uct ion l i k e I an d I I hav e a lr e a d y b ee n . .

po int e d out on pp 9 2 99 I f t h e n w e l ook on l y at t h e

.
-

.
, ,

b r i e f pro p e r which b e gin s with I I I w e Sha ll gain in

, .
,

cl e a r n e s s if w e r e ph r as e I I I so that i t shal l r e a d
-

I I I Th e r e i s ant e c e d e nt p robab i l i ty that t h e c o u n c i l m a i n

.

t a i n e d th i s p r i n c i p l e for ,

1 R e l i g i o u s i ntol e ran c e j u st p r i or to and d u r i n g t h e

.

fi ft e e nth c e nt u ry was v e ry g r e at and wi d e s p r e ad -

.

2 T h e Co u n c i l as a larg e r e p r e s e ntat iv e b ody m u s t

.
, ,

have e x p r e ss e d t h e f e e l i ng of t h e t i m e .
1 28 A R G U M E N TA TI OIV .

( )
a Pow e r of p rod u c i n g t and l e avi ng a e ff e c ,

d e fi n i t e i m p r e ss i on ( Cf A f t er n oon L ec . .

t u r es on A r t a n d L i ter a t u r e V 4 Matth ew
“
. .
,

A rnold s p o e tr y )
’ ”

Styl e D i c t i on
—
A rnold St u dy of P oet ry ,

Mo v e m e nt p 2 2 .

I I Tr u th and s e r i o u sn e ss i n all g r e at p o e ts
. .

( A rnold S t u dy of P oet ry
) .

Matth e w A rnold
s p o e try ’

I 1 . Has M A s po e try Tb oug rt ? Cf T h y r s i s

. . .
’
l .
“
,

R e s i g nat i on
“
Se lf D e p e nd e n c e R u g by ,
”
-

,
” “

Cha p e l T h e Forsa k e n M e r m an
,
” “ “
B ald e r ,
”

D e ad .
”

2 .Has M A s p o e try A r t ? Cf . T h yr s i s
.
’
.
“
,

Se lf D e p e nd e n c e “
T h e Forsa k e n M e r
“ ”
-

“
Sohrab and R u st u m and so m e of
” ”
m an ,

t h e lyr i c s i n E m p e do c l e s on Etna “ “ ”
A ,

So u th e rn N i g ht .

Has M o try Cf ’

3 . A s p e T r u t/i ?
. T .h y r s i s .
“
,

Se lf D e p e nd e n c e Do v e r B e a c h
“ “ “ ” ”
-
Th e , ,

Sc holar Gyp sy
”
.

4 .Has M A s p o e try S er i ou s n es s ?
. Cf.
’ “
Thyr .

“
sis Se lf D e p e nd e n c e
,
” “
R e s i g nat i on-

,
”

and oth e rs ( e l e g i a c p o e m s) .

II . M r A rnold s b e st p o e try j u d g e d by t h e
.
’
—

c hara c t e r i st i c s of t h e g r e at e st p o e ts i s ( a ) ,

T h yr s i s Se lf D e p e nd e n c e ; ( b) Sohrab
“ ” “ “ ”
-

and R u st u m Th e Sc holar G yp sy ,
” “
B ald e r
“
,
”

D e ad “
T h e Forsak e n M e r m an
,
”
.

C Con c l u s i on
. .

Matth e w A rnold wi ll l iv e as a p o e t b e c a u s e h e has wr i tt e n

T h y rsi s and Se lf D e p e nd e n c e two po e m s wh i c h c o m e
” “ - —
,

n ear est to t h e work of t h e g r e at e st po e t s .

 A R G U M E N TA TI O IV . 1 29

P utting as i d e at p r e s e nt A t h e v e r y ba d i nt r o d uction
l
, ,

e t u s l ook at t h e a rr ang e m e nt i n B t h e b r i e f p r op e r It , .

i s confusing Evi d e nt l y t h e wr it e r wi sh e d to s ho w t hat

.

’
M atth e w A r n o ld s po e t r y has thought a r t t r uth an d , , ,

s e r iou s n e ss but h e s imp l y a s k s fou r qu e stion s and l e av e s

, ,

t h e r e a d e r t o su r m i s e t hat i n t h e po e m s t h e t it l e s of ,

wh ich a r e c it e d an aff i rm at iv e an sw e r w i ll b e foun d

, .

Ev e n if a ll thi s b e g r ant e d him ho w e v e r h e sti l l ha s not , ,

l
’

l
sho w n t hat if A r no ld s po e t r y ha s a r t an d thought t h e y ,

a re i n on e an d an i mpo r tant d ivi s ion i s m i ss ing A

,
.

th i s n e e ds r e vi s io n B 1 1 fo ll o ws vagu e l y f r om B I an d
. . .

it s cont r ibut ion t o w a rd t h e conc l u s i on i s n ot v e r y e vi d e nt .

B r i ef M
WI L L M ATT H EW A R N O LD LI VE AS A P O ET ?

I NT RO D U C T I O N .

1 . Th e gr e at p o e ts a r e Ho m e r, M i lton Shake s pe ar e ,
.

Th i s A rnold ad m i tt e d sayi ng ,

l
1 Ho m e r s work i s t h e m ost i m p o rtant p o e t i c al
.
“ ’

m on u m e nt e xi st i ng ( L ect u r es on .
T r a n s a t i ng

H om er A rnold p , ,
.

2 and H e who “
w i sh e s to k e e
p h i s standard O f
3 .

x ll n h i h c annot ha v e two b e tt e r o b j e c ts
e ce e c e g
of r egard and hono u r than M i lton and Shak e
s p e ar e E s s ay ou M i ton
.
” 1
l .

I I T h e gr e at p o e ts h av e c e rta i n c hara c t e r i st i c s
.

1 Mast
. e rly tho u g ht i e t h e p ow,
e r of . p rod
.
u
,
c i n g
e ff e c t and l e a vi ng a d e fi n i t e i m p r e ss i on ( Q u ot e .

fro m Af t L ect u r es v 4 as s u b h e ad ) -

l
.

l
.
,
.
,

l
i i
l
j d
l
A d ’ ’

l
h h w t rn o s

l
1 A s t d e t sh
u n d c ou s d wh t
on e t e
er te p r g e r er s an o u

y i ik l y d
l
l
d h f t i t h t m t t t o ea o a

l
e
b h d d A m s se a os

cl
t st ar s rn o se
p o e tr y e an

con
i
us on a s t A o d rn ow n w ’
k w
s o h i h orr y w i g c t e ve on e ra n .
13 0 l
A R G UI /I E N TA TI OIV .

2 . ast e rly styl e ; that i s m od e l d i c t i on and

A m ,

p e rf e c t m o v e m e nt
( Q u ot e as s u b h e ad fro m .

St u dy of P oet ry ) .

3 Th
. e s e two m ast e rly tho u ght and mast e rly styl e
, ,

m u st b e u n i t e d ( Q u ot e fro m St u dy o f P oet ry .

as s u b h e ad ) -
.

4 Tr u th ( I dem )
. . .

5 .S e r i o u sn e ss ( I d em
) . .

T h e q u e st i on th e n i s : Do e s Matth ew A rnold s p o e try

’

show th e s e five c hara c t e r i st i c s of t h e po e try that l i ve s ?

B RI EF P R O P ER .

M a tth ew A rnold s po e try has ’

I Tb oug /zt for th i s i s shown i n ( a ) Th yrs i s ( b)

.
,
“
,
.

R e s i g nat i on ( c) Se lf D e pe nd e n c e e t c
“
,
”
-

, .

1 1 A r t for th i s i s shown i n ( a ) T h y rs i s ( ) lf ”
b Se

l
.
, ,

D ep end e nc e e t c ,
”
.

I I I T h e Tho u g ht and Ar t a re c o m b i n e d for th i s i s

.
,

shown i n ( a ) T h y rs i s ( b) Se lf D e p e nd e n c e “
,
”
-

.
”

I V H i s p o e try has Tr u t/c for th i s i s shown i n ( a )

.
,

“
Do v e r B e a c h ( b) Th e Sc holar Gyp sy e t c
“
, ,
”
.

V Ser i ou s n ess for th i s i s shown i n ( a ) R e s igna

.
“
,

t i on ( b) T h yrs i s e t c
“
,
”
, .

CO N C L U SI O N .

Si n c e ,
fro m the p r e c e d i n g , we c a n
that s e v e ral of se e

A rnol d s p o e m s “
Sohrab and R u st u m ,
T h e Forsak e n M e r
’ “ ”
,

“
T h e Sc holar Gyp sy c onta i n two of t h e fo u r e ss e nt i al
” ”
m an , ,

c hara c t e r i st i c s of r e at o e ts that t w T h i and S lf

g p ; o
y r s s e ,

D e p e nd e n c e c ontain all fo u r w e m a y say that e v e n as t he

,
1)
,
13 2 A R G U M E N TA TI OA’ .

H e r e e vid e ntly t h e c l a u s e i nt r od u c e d by f or is not a

, ,

r e aso n to p r ov e t h e t r u t h of t h e stat e m e nt that F ranc e

wish e d to m ak e t h e Un it e d Stat e s d e p e nd e nt but an e x ,

planat ion of that stat e m e nt A p r op e r s ub h e ad fo r V .

-

woul d r e a d
( ) a ondHu cter i n t h
c e n e g ot i at i ons for p e a c e

b e twe e n G r e at B r i ta i n and t h e Colon i e s shows

th i s for ,

Th is shoul d b e fol l ow e d by sub h e a d s Sho w ing h ow -

V e r g e nn e s int r igu e d d u r ing th e s e n e got iat ion s t o k e e p

, ,

l
t h e po w e r of F r anc e and e v e n of Spai n d ominant i n t h e
” ”
N e w Wo rl d Fo r a n d beca u s e s k ou d t /i e n be k ep t a s
“
.
“
, ,

l
t /re c on n ec t i on s -
be t w een i d ea s f
o tb c br i ef p r op er w k i ck bea r
t /ze re a t i on s / p f p p
u o ro os i t i on a n d p r oo f .

W RO N G C O NN EC T I V E S : H EN CE ,
T H ER E F O R E .

St ud e nt s oft e n conn e ct t h e p a r t s of t h e b r i e f p r op e r by
k e n ce and t/zer ef or e as in t h e foll o w ing il l ust r at ion
,

W I LL TH E N EW R U L ES IN F O O T BA L L
-
I M P RO VE TH E GA M E ?

1 T h e g am e w i ll be i m pro v e d fro m the lay r s o i nt of

’
.
p e p
V i e w for ,

C T h e p laye rs w i ll not ha v e so m u c h h e a vy work to do for

.
,

( )
a It i s an ad m i tt e d fa c t that t h e g a m e has m or e

of t h e ki c ki n g e l e m e nt i n i t h e n c e ,

( )
b Cont i n u i ty of t h e r u sh i n
g i s b rok e n and ,

()
c Play e rs ha v e a br e ath i n
g p S e ll -

I I T h e g am e wi ll b e i m p ro v e d fro m a s p e c tator s stand

.
’
‘

p o i nt .
 A R G U M E N TA TI O N : 133

For t h e g a m e i s ad m i tt e dly m or e o p e n by t h e n e w
I .

ru l e s h e nc e ,

e c a n se e t h e
( )
a H p lay e rs to b e tt e r ad v antag e ,

c a n follow t h e ball b e tt e r
( )
b H e .

Wh e n thi s ph r asing s e e m s n e c e ssa r y a s tu d e nt may b e

su r e that t h e o rd e r of t h e pa r ts of hi s b r i e f i s w r ong I f .

h e t r i e s t o put f or an d be ca u s e i n t h e p l ac e of his k en c e
and t k e r cff ore t h e t r oub l e wi l l b e c l e a r C (a ) i n t h e
, . .

abov e i ll u st r at ion i s n ot t r u e b e cau s e of ( b) an d (c) In .

st e ad th e y a r e t r u e b e cau s e it i s to b e acc e pt e d a s a
,

co rr e ct s tat e m e nt I n t h e sam e way I un d e r I I in this

.
, . .

il lu st r ati on i s no t t r u e b e caus e (a ) and ( b) a r e but th e y ,

a re t r u e b e cau s e t h e s tat e m e nt i n 1 must b e b e l i e v e d . .

l
That i s t h e wr it e r ha s m is s e d t /ze cor r ec t or d e r f or t/ze
,

d i v i s i on s tb c br i ef p rop e r , r o os i t i on ,
f o p p p f a w ay s roo ,

an d ha s u s e d i n st e a d p r oof proposition A stud e nt w il l, .

fin d that t h e u s e of f or an d beca u s e w il l a l ways th r o w h is

i d e as int o t h e co rr e ct r e l ation ships that Ae n ce an d tk e re ,

r e wil l r e v e r s e t h e co rr e ct o rd e r R e vis e d t h e d ivision s

f o .
,

j u st cit e d w ou ld r e a d :

B r i ef IV
. I .

I . T h e g am e wi ll be i m p ro v e d fro m th e p laye r s ’
po i nt of
V i e w for ,

C T h e p laye rs wi ll not hav e so m u c h h e a vy wor k to do

. ,

for
( )
a Th e y w i ll ha v e br e ath i n g s p e lls b e c a u s e ,

I T h e c ont i n u i ty of r u sh i n g of t h e old g am e i s
.

bro k e n for ,

x I t i s ad m i tt e d that t h e n e w g am e has m or e
.

ki c k i ng i n i t .

A n d t h e ga m e w i ll b e i m p ro v e d fro m a s p e c tator s stand

p o i nt for ,
13 4 A R G U M E N TA TI OIV .

( )
a H e wat c h t h e g a m e to b e tt e r ad v antage
can ,

( )
x as to p lay e rs ; ( )
y as to t h e ball b e c a u s e ,

1 T h e n e w g am e i s ad m i tt e dly m or e O p e n by
.

t h e n ew r u l e s .

P H RA S I N G R EFU TA T I O N .

I n ph r a s in g ob j e ction s bot h g e n e r a l an d sp e cia l a

, ,

w o rd ing should b e cho s e n which at on c e m ak e s cl e a r that

t h e w r it e r i s at t h e m om e n t r e fut ing T h e foll owing .

f r om t h e b r i e f of C hatham s Sp e e ch pp 1 2 1 1 2 4 sho ws
’

, .
—
,

d i f f e r e nt u s e fu l ph r as e s
I . The troo p s sho u ld b e r e m o v e d for ,

C
. T h e m e ans of e nfor c i n g t h e obnox i o u s m e as u r e s ha v e
fa i l e d for
,

2.
( p
S e c i al R e f u tat i on .
) Tho u g h i t i s sa i d that
t h e ar m y i n A m e r i c a i s a safe g u ard y e t th i s i s ,

u ntr u e for ,

( )
a It i s p ow e rl e ss an d c ont e m t i bl e and
p ,

( )
b It i s i rr i tat i n g to t h e A m e r i c ans ,
'

or 2 . Tho u g h i t i s sa i d that t h e ar m y i n A m e r i c a i s a
safe g u ard y e t ,

It i s powe rl e ss and c ont e m pt i bl e and ,

It i s i rr i tat i ng to t h e A m e r i c ans .

D . If Parl i am e nt tr i e s to e nfor ce i ts m e as u r e s t h e r e s u lt ,

wi ll b e bad fo r ,

3. P e rs e c u t i on of thos e m e n whos e fath e rs fle d to

e s c a pe i t sho u ld c e as e for ,

( ) ( p
a S e c i al R e f u tat i on .
) T h e ob j e c t i on that
the “
A m e r i c ans m u st not b e h e ard is
w ron g b e c au s e
,

E .
( G e n e ral R e f u tat i on .
) T h e stat e m e nt that t h e U n i on

i n A m e r i c a c annot last i s not tr u e for ,

136 A R G U M E N TA TI OIV .

u s e d by t h e w r it e r and r e f e r e nc e s to pag e s a n d i n e s a r e ,
'

l
add e d t o t h e n a m e s of t h e po e m s A way in wh i ch thi s .

m ay b e don e is sho w n i n t h e int roductory h e a d s of B r i e f

F . Th e r e fo r i n stanc e C I I a ,
P os sib l e caus e s of , . .
“

t h e G l a c ial Epo c h A st r onom ical V ar iou s th e o r i e s w hich . .

”
hav e b e e n e xpl od e d woul d if e xpand e d fi ll too much —
,

4
spac e Th e r e fo r e t h e writ e r put s ( ) again st t h e wo r d s
.
, ,

l
of a and at t h e foot of t h e pag e t h e r e f e r e nc e L e C ont e
l
“
, ,

E e m e n t s of Ge o og y e d 1 8 94 p 5 5 2 T h e b r i e f on , .
, . .

’
M atth e w A r nold s po e t r y if t r e at e d i n thi s w ay w ou l d , ,

r e ad l ik e this
I . Matth e w A rnold s p o e try has ’ 1

I Tho u g ht for th i s i s shown i n

.
,

( )
a T h y rsi s p 2
99 p a ss i m
“
; ,
.
,
e s pec i ally , 20

( )
b “
R e s i g nat i on p ,
.
49 : e s p e c i ally 11 . 1 0— 1 6 .

3
() p c Se lf D e p e nd e n c e
-

, . 2 6
7 p,
a ss i m , e tc .
,
e tc .

O n e m e thod that oft e n p r oduc e s vagu e n e s s in a b r i e f i s

fo r a wr it e r to b r i ng i n t h e nam e s of p e rs on s o r e v e nt s
as sign ificant o r un d e r stoo d by al l wh e n th e y a r e not
, ,

n e c e s sarily w e ll kn own to a r e ad e r T h e fo ll o w in g shows .

th i s fau l t
M a t t k ew A r n o d , M a c m i l l l
l ill
1 Tk e P 88 4
f
l
oem s o an 1 .

2 The r ef e r e n c e s i to i n e s a re m y ere f or u s t ra t o n .

h o l d b e g i e n i n a b i ef m u s t
i
ll
3 T h e e t e t t o wh f
c h re f e r e n c e s
x n s u v r , o

y
t h e s b j e c t t re a t e d W h e th e q estio t n s
l
co se d epe d a g e
ur , o n r n u . n u n ur ,

i p a t o d e fi i t i o s e i d en t y t h e a t h o i t i e s s e d m s t b e c i t d
l
e e v n n r , n n n , v u r u u e .

C e t a i y B ie f F p 1 03 g a i s f
r n r m th e c , e w i t h w h i c h r e f e e c e s a e g i ve
.
, n ro ar r n r n .

C i t i n g e f e re n c e i n b i e f t a i s s t d e t s i h a b i t s f c c a c y a d m a k e s
l l
l
r s r s r n u n n o a ur , n

e y m o re o t h e w it Si c e h o w e u s in g

l
the ea de r r r n ef e e c we r er . n , ve r, r r n es

a k o w e dg e o f e i d e c e wh ich a b e g i i b i ef d a wi g h a
l ll
d ep e d s
l
n on n e v n nn r n r -
r n s

o t a c q i e d i t i s p ro b a b y b e t t t ai b egi n n e s o n y t o g i e a b s o t e y
l l
n u r , s o r n r v u

i d isp e s a b e ef e re n c ike t h o s e f o d fi i t i o n s a d f o r p s s a g e s re f e e d
l l
n n r es, r e n n a rr

t o a d t o e a ve s o c a e f f re f e e c e s s t h a t o f t h e w i t e o f B ri e f
l
, n a se r u u o r n a r r

F n t i t h e c l a s s h a s s t d i e d e vi d c e
u u en .
 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV .
13 7

B r i ef 0 .

WAS SW I FT M A R R I ED To ST EL LA ?

A . The evi d e n c e wh i c h i s u s e d to p ro v e that Swi ft was not

m arr i e d to St e lla i s not g ood for tho u h i t i s sa i d that
g ,

3 . Mrs D i ngl e y d i d not e x p r e ss t h e b e l i e f that

.

l
St e lla was m arr i e d to Swi ft y e t ,

3 . Mrs D i n g e y s answ e r i s not c l e ar e t c

I
.
’

, .

4 . Mrs B e nt and Mrs R i dg way d i d not b el i e v e

. .

that Sw i ft was m arr i e d to St e lla y e t ,

Th e y we r e only s e rvants and Sw i ft wo u ld not ,

ha v e b e e n l i k e ly to c o m m u n i c at e h i s s e c r e ts to
th e m .

6 Dr L yon d i d not b e l i e v e that Swi ft was e v e r

. .

m arr i e d y e t e t c , , .

H e r e M r s D i ngl e y Mrs B e nt M r s R idgway and D r

.
, .
, .
, .

Lyon app e a r as if t h e y an d t h e i r sign ificanc e as witn e ss e s

w e r e kno wn to t h e r e a d e r A S was po i nt e d out in t r e at .

ing t h e I n t r o d u ct ion it w ou ld b e b e s t t o giv e in it su c h

,

i nfo r m ation a s w ou l d m ak e th e s e p e op l e an d th e i r Sl g n i fi
canc e c l e a r wh e n a r e a d e r m e e t s th e m in t h e bri e f p r op e r .

I f fo r any r e a s on t h e wr it e r w i s h e s t o imp r e ss th e i r
Signifi canc e o n h i s r e ad e r h e m a y d o a s t h e wr it e r of t h e

Swift St e ll a B r i e f w hos e i nt r o d uction i s i na d e quat e has

-

, ,

o n e an d say
,

A . The evi d e n c e wh i c h i s u s e d to p ro v e that Swi ft was not

m arr i e d to St e lla i s not g ood for tho u gh i t i s sa i d that ,

3 . Mrs D i.n g l e y St e lla s c o m, p a n i on d i’

d not e x p r e ss ,

t h e b e l i e f that St e lla was m arr i e d to Swi ft y e t ,

4 . Mrs B .e nt and Mrs R i d g way S w i ft s

. ho u se ,
’

ke e p e rs d i d not b e l i e v e that Swi ft was m arr i e d

,

to St e lla y e t ,
138 A R G U M E N T/ { TI ON

Dr Lyon a p e rsonal a c q u a i ntan c e of Swi ft had

6 . .
, ,

a c c e ss to all of Swi ft s p ap e rs ; y e t h e d i d not ’

b e l i e v e that Swi ft was e v e r m arr i e d y e t ,

I t wil l b e s e e n that t h e clau s e s add e d giv e t h e n e c e ssary

info rm at ion I t cou ld b e s t ho w e v e r b e giv e n fi r st in
.
, ,

t h e int r o d uction .

T R A N SI T I O N S FRO M D I V I SI O N To D I V I SI O N OF TH E

B R IEF PRO P ER .

Th e main d ivis ion s of t h e b r i e f p r op e r s houl d b e

ph r as e d car e fu ll y so t hat t h e t r an s it ion i n thought f r om
o n e to anoth e r s hould b e c l e a r at sight Each d ivision .

shou l d d e v e l op c l e a r ly f r om t hat p r e c e d ing it and shou l d ,

l e a d a s cl e a r ly t o t h e d ivis ion fol l owin g it T hi s w as not .

’
t r u e of B 11 of t h e b r i e f on M atth e w A r no ld s po e t r y
.

p r int e d on p 1 2 8 I t d i d not fo ll o w c l e a rl y f r om B I
. . .

I n t h e fo ll o w ing bad b r i e f t h e ph r asi ng d o e s con n e ct A I .

I I an d 1 11 B u t how B I V fo ll o w s f r om B I I I ; ho w it
. . . .

l e ads to B V a r e matt e rs by no m e an s cl e a r
. .

D O ES LAM B R I G H T LY EST I M A T E TH E
“
A R T I FI C I A L C O M ED Y
OF TH E L A ST C EN T U R Y ”
?

Th e r e a r e two m a i n d ivi s i ons : ( A ) Introd u c tory and ( B ) ,

A rg u m e ntat iv e .

A . I Congr e v e s c o m e d i e s a re thos e w e sho u ld c o

.
’

s i d e r and th ey a re l i c e nt i o u s
, .

I I L am b m a i ntai ns that th e y a r e n e v e rth e l e ss i n

.
, ,
~

o ff e ns ive b e c a u s e u nr e al to u s
, .

I I I Y e t r e a li ty i s t h e c h i e f q u al i ty of g ood dra m at i c
.

work .
1 40 A R G U M E N TA TI OIV .

TH E I M P ORT A N C E OF C A R EF U L C O R R EL A T I N G IN TH E

B R I EF P R O P E R .

W e hav e s e e n that in a rr angin g t h e i nt r oducto ry

mat e r ial of a b r i e f car e ful co rr e l at ion h e lp e d d e cid e dly to
,

cl e a r n e ss I t h e lps e v e n mo r e i n t h e b ri e f p r op e r H e r e
. .

a r e two b r i e f s w h ich s h o w how confu s ing i s ba d co r

r e l at ion

W I L L M A T T H EW A R N O LD LI VE As A P O ET ?
Matth ew A r n old w i ll l iv e as a p o e t .

I.
( )
a S ty l e t h e c h i e f t e st of worth

i n p o etry as i n p ros e .

Matth e w A rnold s styl e p e r

( )
l
’
b
m a n e n t y g ood b e c a u s e ( 1 )

h i s nat u ral tast e was s u r e

and d e l i c at e i n t h e whol e
r e al m of l e tt e rs .
( )
2 H e

was p e rha p s o n e of t h e m ost

c u lt iv at e d wr i t e rs a m on g h i s

c ont e m p orar i e s.

2 T h e only p o e t of s i g n ifi c an c e S‘d
f
m r

V t
.

ic o ri a n

who tr u ly e x p r e ss e d t h e wa v e r i ng p t oe s .

and ske pt i c al m ood of h i s day .

In lat e r t i m e s m e n wi ll t u rn to
h i m to s e e t h e i nt e ll e c t u al Sp i r i t
of o u r day b a l a n c i n g b e tw e e n
fa i th and u n c e rt a i nt y .

Thi s b r i e f s hows t h e confu sion that good m at e r ia l may

b e th r own into by a lack of c ar e ful ly s e l e ct e d h e ad ings
and sub h e ad s and of e xact co rr e lation T h e bri e f Should
-
.

b e giv e n int r oducto r y h e adings as to t h e m e aning of t h e

 A R G U M E N TA I 141

’
qu e st ion T h e compil e r s as s e r t ion a s to s ty l e n e e d s
.

suppo r t i ng s ub h e ad s t o tu r n it f r om a m e r e as s e r tion to
-

a ca r e fu l l y con sid e r e d O pi n ion T h e compi l e r ca l m l y

.

as s um e s fo r A r no ld a m ast e ry of s ty l e which n e e d s som e

con s id e r at ion an d t u r n s t o t h e qu e s tion of t h e p e r man e nc e
,

’
of A r n o ld s r e putat io n a s a s ty l i s t ( I ) an d which .

a r e pa r t s of t h e s e nt e n c e b
( ) s hou ld b e giv e n l in e s by
,

t h e m s e lv e s ; t h e r e f e r e nc e s s catt e r e d a l on g t h e e dg e s of
’

t he s h e e t shou ld b e b r ought i n un d e r t h e h e adings o r

s u b h e ad s which th e y a r e to s uppo r t 1 ) s e e m s mo r e
-

( .

impo r tant t han an d Shou l d fol l o w it 2 a dd s an i d e a . .

,

apa r t f r om styl e an d i s a c r o wd e d s e nt e nc e i n w hich

,

h e a d ing s and sub h e a ds a r e t h r o w n confusingly tog e th er

-
.

R e st at e it i n thi s way p e rhaps ,

2 Matth e w A rnold s po e try wi ll l iv e not only b e c au s e i ts

.
’
,

styl e i s m aste rly b u t also b e c a u s e i ts tho u g ht m u st

,

stron g ly i nt e r e st f u t u r e g e n e rat i ons

A .Si n c e i t b e st e x p r e ss e s t h e wa v e r i n g b e twe e n fa i th
and u n c e rta i nty of t h e p r e s e nt day ;
B .Si n c e i t b es t i n p o e try phr as e s t h e sk e pt i c i s m of
, ,

tod ay .

C e r t ainly t h e compi l e r shou ld d e fi n e w hat h e m e an s by

s tyl e i n po e t r y an d shoul d j oin I an d 2 in thought a s
,
. .

c l o s e ly a s h e can A S th e y stan d t h e t r ansition f r om

.
,

o n e to t h e oth e r i s v e r y ab r u pt I f a l l th i s mat e r ia l w e r e
.

r e ar r ang e d and ca r e f u l ly co rr e lat e d o r d e r wou l d com e ,

out of t h e p r e s e nt chao s .

I f a r e ad e r wil l l ook at t h e b ri e f on M atth e w A r no l d s

po e t r y giv e n on p 1 2 7 h e w i ll Se e that an e nt i r e ly n e w
.
,

co rr e lat ing of i t s p art s was n e c e ssa r y t o b r i ng it into t h e

fo r m it b e a r s on p 1 2 9 A I and I I of
. .
t h e old bri f
.
e a r e . ,

a s int r o d ucto r y m att e r m ark e d off on p 1 2 9 f r om t h e

,
.
1 42 A R G U M E N TA TI OJV .

b r i e f p r op e r Th e n t h e numb e r ing of t h e pa r t s of t h e
.

i nt r o d uction is chang e d b e ca u s e t h e ol d co rr e l ation of I ’

an d I I had no m e an ing A r e ad e r of t h e o ld b r i e f was

. .

l e ft t o d i scov e r that e ach of t h e fi r st s e t of quotat ion s in

t h e int r o d u ct ion s how e d why o n e of t h e po e t s nam e d in

t h e op e n ing l i n e s of t h e b r i e f was cho s e n T he n ew .

b r i e f by ca r e fu l co rr e l at ion an d p r op e r ph r as ing mak e s

, ,

this s e l f e vi d e nt -
I n I an d I I ( of t h e p r op e r ly int r 0
. . .
~

d u c t o ry m att e r) a r e a d e r i s agai n l e ft to inf e r e n c e thi s ,

tim e t hat t h e r e f e r e nc e s if e xam in e d wi ll p r ovi d e sup

, ,

po r t fo r t h e stat e m e nt s that i n g r e at po e t s th ought an d

a r t a r e in o n e that th e i r w o r ks p roducing an e ff e ct and ,

l
l
l e avi ng a d e fi n it e imp r e s sion a r e m od e ls in sty l e ; t hat ,

t r ut h an d s e r iou s n e s s a r e i n al l of th e m A t hi s th e n .
, ,

n e e d e d ca r e fu l r e m a s s i n g and co rr e l at ing T h e a rr ang e .

m e nt i n B a l so i s confu s i n g Evid e nt l y t h e wr it e r
, , .

’
w i s h e d to s ho w that M atth e w A r no l d s po e t r y has
thought a r t t r uth an d s e r iou sn e s s but h e simply asks
, , , ,

fou r q u e s t ion s an d l e av e s t h e r e a d e r to s u r m i s e t hat in

,

t h e po e m s t h e t it l e s of w hich a r e cit e d an affi r mativ e ,

an s w e r w ill b e foun d Ev e n if a ll t hi s b e g r ant e d h i m

.
,

how e v e r h e s t i ll ha s not s ho w n that if A r no ld s po e t ry

,
’

l
l
has art an d thought th e y a r e in o n e Th e r e fo r e an i m
, .
,

po r tant d ivi s ion i s m issin g A t h i s n e e d s r e vi s ion B . .

I I fo l lows vagu e ly f r om B I an d it s cont r ibution t o w a r d

. .

l
t h e con clu sion i s not v e r y e vi d e nt That i s aga i n w e .
,

n e e d to r e mas s t h e mat e r ial an d t o c o r r e a t e ca r e ful l y ‘

.

C ROWDED H EA D I N G S .

As m ay b e s e e n f r om o n e of t h e co rr e ction s sugg e s t e d
fo r t h e v e r y confu s e d b r i e f on M atth e w A r no l d giv e n on
p 1 4 0 o n e r e ason s om e tim e s why b r i e fs do not d e v e l o p
.
, , ,
1 44 A R G U M E N TA TI O/V .

I f stat e d i n thi s way i s n ot ,

the mat e r ia l easi e r to g r asp ?
()
“
T h e U to p i a of allantry as L a b c hara c

l
e g m —

t e r i z e s t h e Sp h e r e of t h e A r t ifici a Com edy is —

p arall e l e d i n t h e c o u rt of Charl e s I I for .

,

e h i stor i e s of t h e t i m e v e ri fy i t
( )
L T h .

Se e B u rn e t s H i s t ory of H i s O w n Ti m es
’
I . .

iv e e x ac t r e f e r e n c e s
( G ) .

T h e d i ar i e s v e r i fy i t .

1 .Se e P e pys and E v e lyn ( R e fe r e n c e s .

e x a c tly
) .

T h e m e m o i rs of t h e Co u nt d e G ra m m ont
c orroborat e i t ( R e f e r e n c e s e x a c tly
.
) .

The h e ad ing I I of B ri e f A. I l l e gal m e asu r e s som e

t i m e s j ustifiabl e R e vol uti on
. C ivi l War r e sistan c e to .
,

”
F ugit iv e Slav e A c t d e v e lops wh e n p r op e rly h andl e d , ,

int o thi s
I . M e as u re s not str i c tl y l e g al m a y b e warrantabl e d efe ns ,

i b l e for
,

.1 So c i al r e asons for ,

( )
a W h e n so c i al c orr u p t i on i n Sa n Fran c i s c o i n i ts

e arly days was not s u c c e ssf u lly c ontroll e d by

t h e r e g u larly a pp o i nt e d o f fic e rs t h e Vi g i lant e ,

Co m m i tt e e r e m o v e d t h e tro u bl e s b y m e thods
not str i c tly l e g al .

2
. Pol i t i c al r e asons for ,

( )
a W h e n G r e at B r i ta i n o pp r e ss e d t h e A m e r i c an

Colon i e s t h e y g a i n e d b y r e v olt and for c e what

,
'

th e y c o u ld not g a i n b y a pp e al and arb i trat i o n .

3
. Moral r e asons for ,

( )
a Post e r i t y has j u st ifi e d t h e r e f u sal b f m e n at a ,

t i m e of r e l i g i o u s p e rs e c u t i on to c onfor m to ,

laws c ontrary to th e i r b e l i e fs .

( )
o L at e r g e n e r a t i ons a pp ro v e t h e c ond u c t of thos e
 A R G U M E N TA TI O N .
1 45

who i n t h e U nd e rg ro u nd Ra i lway a c te d c ontrar y

to t h e F u gi t iv e Sla v e L a w .

l
C r ow d e d h e ad ings sho u ld th e n b e b rok e n up and t h e, ,

pa r t s car e fu l ly co r r e l at e d E a t /z i ea a i i zg ea e/z s a oi zea a

.
’
,
-
’
,
“
o
f t /ze br i /
e p p ro e r s k oa /a
p /
,zra s
’
e ou t o n e i d e a .

T H R EE C O M M O N ER R O R S IN C O R R EL A T I O N
l
.

Ba a y e o r r e /a
’
f t i on
’
I . tea re u ta fault s in co rr e
.
—
O th e r

lco rr lat d h ad ings

l at ion sugg st t h m s lv s h r
e e e e e e R e futat i on is O ft e n con
.

f u s in g y e e ; e a r e gi v e n sub h e ads w hich -

do n ot r e ally s upport th e m d ivision s a r e ma r k e d t wic e .

F o r in stanc e both O f t h e fo ll owing co rr e lation s O f r e futa

,

t i on a r e i nco rr e ct
1 . Tho u gh i t i s sa i d that t h e ar m y i n A m e r i c a i s a safe
g u ard y e t ,

( )
a I t i s p ow e rl e ss and c ont e m p t i bl e and ,

( )
o It i s i rr i tat i n g to t h e A m e r i c ans .

an d
1 . Tho u gh i t i s sa i d that t h e ar m y i n A m e r i c a i s a safe
gu ard y e t th i s i s u ntr u e for
, ,

r . It i s p owe rl e ss and c ont e m pt i bl e

I
.

Wh e n an O bj e ct ion i s an sw e r e d by a c l au s e int r o d uc e d
by y e t alon e t hi s c l au s e i s plac e d so to sp e ak ov e r
, , ,

again st t h e O bj e ct ion and shoul d b e g i v e n e q ua l rank .

That i s t h e fi rst il l u st ration shou l d r e ad

,

1 Tho u g h i t i s sa i d that t h e ar m y i n A m e r i c a i s a safe

.

u ard e t
g y ,

1 .It i s powe rl e ss and h e ld i n c ont e m pt and

I
, ,

It i s i rr i tat i ng to t h e A m e r i c ans .

Wh e n an O b j e cti on i s how e v e r d e c l a r e d unt r u e b e

, ,

cau s e so m e t h ing e l s e i s t r u e t hi s ph r as ing ca l l s for s u b

,

o rd inat io n t o t h e O bj e ct ion O f t h e clau s e s i nt roduc e d by

1 46 A R G U M E N TA TI OJV .

f or or be ca u s e . The s e con d i ll ust r at ion shou ld r e ad ,

th e n '

1 . Tho u g h i t i s sa i d that t h e ar m y i n A m e r i c a i s a safe

u ard th i s i s u ntr u e for
g , ,

( )
a It i s p ow e rl e ss and c ont e m p t i bl e and ,

( )
o It i s a n i rr i tat i on to t h e A m e r i c ans .

That is t h e w r it e r O f t h e fi r st two il l ust r ation s j u st r e

,

v e r s e d t h e co r r e ct co rr e l ation Th e fi rs t co rr el at ion i ll us .

l l
t r at e s a v e r y co m mon e rr o r .

t /ze zr i ng
'

Sa b o/i Th e
’
wh do
’
2 .
-
ze a a s n ot s u pp or t zea a .
_

fol l o w ing b r i e f shows s ub h e a ds which d o n o t r e al l y sup -

p o rt t h e h e ad i ng un d e r which th e y s tand though th e y ,

a r e con n e ct e d w it h it in thought

A . Mr P u ll m an was r ight i n r e f u s i n g to s u b m i t to arb i tra

.

t i on t h e d e m ands of h i s e m ploye e s b e c a u s e ,

1. A c ap i tal i st has a r i g ht to m anag e h i s b u s i n e ss as

h e w i ll so lo n g as h e do e s not i n j u r e any o n e or
,

vi olat e any law .

( )
a Mr P u ll m an s b u s i n e ss i s a
.
p r
’
iv at e m att e r ; no
d i s i nt e r e st e d p e rson has any r i g ht to d i c tat e to
him .

( )
o No m an i s obl i g e d to work for M r P u ll m an ; .

if he i s d i ssat i s fi e d h e m a y s e e k for work e ls e

wh e r e .

() e T h e p r iv at e b u s i n e ss of any on e i s not a m att e r

for arb i trat i on .

H e r e (a ) ( b) (e) a r e n ot at al l on t h e sam e footing

, , ,

an d (a ) and ( o) c e rtai nly d o not suppo r t I d ir e ct l y Th e . .

writ e r ha s two id e as in mind : th at t h e capita l i s t has

c e rtain ri ghts : and that M r P ullman a s a capita l i st .
, ,

S hou ld b e al low e d t o tak e a d vant ag e of th e s e r ight s H e .

s ta r t s to p r ov e i n I t h e righ ts O f t h e capita l is t and

.
,
1 48 A R G UM E N TA TI OI V .

the ei ght e e nth c e ntu ry hav e b e e n h e ld sugg e st s an ant e ,

’
c e d e nt p robabi l ity that C arlyl e s e st im at e m ay n ot b e
co rr e c t Th e r e fo r e it i s not SO s tron g as p r oof that hi s
.
,

O pinion i s incorr e ct an d it should fol low I ot I I I

,
n .

—
,

v . /
.

C A R L Y L E S EST I M AT E
’
OF TH E E I G H T EEN T H C EN T U R Y IS

I N C O R R EC T .

I In t rod u c t i on Carlyl e s e st i m at e
. .
’
.

II T h e e i g ht e e nth c e nt u ry was not a

. d e c r ep i t d e ath “
,

s i c k e r a b e c au s e b e n e ath t h e a pp ar e nt lass i t u d e of
,
”

the a ge for c e s we r e at wor k m e ntal m oral and

, , , ,

so c i al wh i c h c onta i n e d t h e s e e ds O f t h e b e st fr u i t that
,

t h e n i n e t e e nth c e n t u ry has p rod u c e d .

I I I T h e e i g ht e e nth c e nt u ry was not an e r a O f hypo c r i sy

.

and c ant :
e c au s e sol i d s e ar c h i n g l i k w i ft and
( )
a B ,
m en e S ,

J ohnson we r e t h e a c knowl e d g e d l e ad e rs O f t h e
,

l i t e rary world .

( )
b B ec a u s e i t was t h e a e
g of gr e at d e i st i c c o n

t r o ve r s y .

()
l
B e c au s e
i t was t h f e arn e st s e ar c h for tr u th
‘

c e a e
g O .

( )
c B e c a u s e i t was an a e O f r e for m
g O f t h e b road e n ,

i n g O f h u m an s y m p ath i e s d e s p i t e i ts “ wi ndy ,

s e nt i m e ntal i s m .

I V Contrasts b e twe e n t h e e st i m at e s O f Carlyl e and L e c ky

.
.

V Su m m ary and c on c l u s i on
. .

Th e p r op e r r e ar r ang e m e nt O f th is b r i e f fo r c l imax has

b e e n giv e n on p 94 . .

Thi s c l im act i c ar r an g e m e nt O f mat e ria l can i n p r a e

t ica ll y all cas e s b e carri e d out for t h e s ubdivi s ion s but ,

it i s not advisabl e in som e cas e s fo r t h e mai n h e a d ings .

 A R G U M E N TA TI O N 149

I f a m an i s w r it ing i n favo r O f som e e nt ir e ly n e w o r

unpopula r i d e a h e m a y not wi n a h e aring un l e s s h e can
,

at t h e b e ginn ing O f hi s pap e r sta r t l e a r e ad e r by t h e

cog e ncy O f h i s id e as I n such a cas e t h e w r it e r wil l put
.

o n e O f his st r ong e s t if not hi s st r ong e st id e a fi r st I n

, , .

d e e d h e w i ll p r obab l y b e gin by u s ing h is b e s t logic to

,

l
d e st r oy s om e o n e of t h e fu ndam e nta l i d e a s o n wh ich t h e
O d th e o r y r e s t s T hat i s h e w i l l b e gin by r e futing
.
, .

Wh e n e v e r a wr it e r r e fut e s hi s a i m i s to w e ak e n sym p athy,

wit h hi s O ppon e nt p r ompt l y t o d e st r oy t h e fo r c e of h i s ,

’
a d v e r sa r y s cas e as soon as pos s ibl e I f h e b e gin s by r e .

l
’
futi ng hi s O ppon e nt s w e ak e s t a r gum e nt an d wo r ks sl owly
t o t h e st r ong e st c e r tai n l y b e w i ll not p r oduc e h a f t h e
,

e f f e ct that h e wi ll if h e at t h e outs e t attack s t h e st r ong e st

a r gum e nt O f h i s O ppon e nt wh ich h e f e e l s su r e that h e

can ov e r com e I n t h e fi r st cas e h e prob ably con sid e rs
.
,

n e e d l e ssly a r gu m e nt s SO d e p e nd e nt on t h e st rong e r O b je c
t ion s that th e y m ust fall if t h e l att e r fal l : t h e r e fo r e h e
wast e s t im e I n t h e s e con d cas e h e can Sh ow th at so m e
.
,

O f t h e m ino r a r gu m e nt s hav e go n e d own with t h e st rong

a r gum e nt r e fut e d H e can t oo w ith gr e at e r p robabi l i ty

.
, ,
'

th at h i s vi e w s w i ll b e aft e r hi s s ucc e ss acc e pt e d ass e rt

, , ,

that t h e a rgum e nt s h e can not whol ly an sw e r a r e at l e ast

Se rio u s l y w e ak e n e d M o r e ov e r e v e r y a r gu m e nt h e d o e s
.
,

answ e r aft e r t h e st r ong a r gum e n t has b e e n ov e r com e

co u nt s . I n t h e fi r st cas e w h e n h e s e e m e d to b e k e e pi ng
,

away from t h e st rong arg u m e nt s t h e y w e nt fo r l e s s , .

C l i m ax t h e n i s as fa r as i s poss i bl e t o b e so u ght fo r i n
, ,

a rr anging t h e h e a d ings an d s ub h e ad ings O f a bri e f but -

i n g e n e r a l r e futat ion and u nd e r sp e c ial ci r c u m stan c e s it

i s not to b e u s e d u n l e s s ca r e ful con si d e rat ion Shows that
it i s wi s e .
 A R G U M E N TA TI ON
’

150 .

SU M M A R Y .

I n t h e bri e f p rop e r t h e n a stud e nt shoul d s tat e c l e ar l y

, ,

and v e ry s u cc inctly t h e id e as by which h e hop e s to p rov e

t h e corr e ct n e s s O f h is O p in ion Se parat ing d i r e ct p roof
.

from g e n e r al r e futat ion ca r e ful ly di st inguishin g g e n e r a l

,

an d sp e cial r e fut at ion h e S hould ph ras e h i s id e as as

,

r e ason s and con n e ct t h e m by f or and beca u s e V agu e .

n e s s in p h r asing an d i n t ran s it ion s f r om i d e a t o id e a h e

m ust ca r e f u l l y avoid H e m u st SO co r r e lat e hi s id e a s
.

that th e i r co r r e ct r e lation ships o n e t o anoth e r w i ll b e

c l e ar at a glanc e .H e Shoul d r e m e m b e r that o n e l e tt e r
o r n u m b e r i s e nough fo r o n e i d e a H e Shoul d b r e ak u p .

and co rr e l at e crowd e d h e adings A S fa r as po s sib l e h e

.

should aim at c l im ax i n a rr anging hi s mat e r ia l .

C O N C L U SI O N S .

The d ivi sio n O f a b r i e f cal l e d t h e Conc l us ion sum s up

in as f e w wo r d s as poss ibl e t h e a r gum e nt O f t h e b r i e f
p r o p e r showing cl e a rl y how it l e ad s to a d e ci sion fo r t h e
,

a f fi r mat iv e o r t h e n e gat iv e on t h e topi c und e r d i s cu ss ion .

WH EN A C O N C L U SI O N M AY BE O M I T T ED .

The fi nal d e ci sion i t i s O ft e n it s e l f ca ll e d t h e conc l u

—

s i on though i t i s but a part O f it t e c hnical l y

, S houl d —

always unl e s s i t is giv e n at t h e b e gin n ing O f t h e b r i e f

,

p r op e r as a p r o pos ition b e stat e d at t h e e n d of t h e di s

,

c u ssi on Fo r i n stanc e i n t h e foll owi ng bri e f t h e concl u

.
,

s ion i s e vid e ntly n e e d e d an d i s p r op e r ly giv e n

,
152 A R G U ZII E N TA TI ON

it i s e v i d e nt t hat I i s t h e fi nal d e c i s i on and that th e r e is

.

no n e e d to r e stat e it at t h e e n d O f t h e b ri e f
-
.

B r i ef T

B R I EF P R O P ER .

I . Th er e m o v al of t h e troo p s i s n e c e ssary for ,

A I t w i ll Sho w t h e w i ll i ngn e ss O f t h e Engl i sh to

.

tr e at a m i c ably .

B T h e r e s i stan c e O f t h e A m e r i c ans was j u st b e

.
,

c au s e

u b h e ads )
( S -

C T h e m e ans O f e nfor c i n g t h e O bnox i o u s m e as u r e s

.

hav e fa i l e d for ,

u b h e ads
( S -

) .

D If Parl i am e nt tr i e s st i ll to e nfor c e i ts m e as u re s
.
,

t h e r e s u lt w i ll b e b a d for ,

u b h e ads )
( S -

E T h e stat e m e n t that t h e U n i on i n A m e r i c a c a n
.

not last i s not tr u e for ,

u b h e ads
( S -

) .

l
F Tho u g h i t i s sa i d that t h e A m e r i c ans Sho u ld b e
.

p u n i sh e d for i ll e g al vi o e n c e th i s i s u ntr u e for , ,

u b h e ads
( S -

) .

G Th i s r e m o v al O f t h e troo p s m u st p r e c e d e any
.

oth e r st e p for ,

u b h e ads
( S -

) etc e tc .

A s tu d e nt S houl d n e v e r e xc e pt i n t h e cas e j ust e x

,

plain e d fail to stat e cl e a rl y t h e conc l usion i n a b r i e f

, .

l
H e should n e ith e r om it it n o r m e r e ly r e f e r t o it The .

l att e r i s what t h e wr it e r O f t h e b r i e f on t h e Cou n c i of

Con s t a n ce topi c giv e n on p 1 2 6 d id
, . H e w ri t e s
,

, .

V I Con c l u s i on : Short s u m m ary O f t h e arg u m e nt g iv e n

. .

T h e u s e l e s sn e ss of t his is S e lf e vid e nt -
.
 A R G U M E N TA TI ON 15 3

Q U A L I F Y I N G C O N C L U SI O N S .

A writ e r in stat in g his conc l u sion s hou l d n e v e r

, ,

q u alify r e aching a w e ak e r d e ci si on than that which h e

,

e v id e nt ly sta r t e d out t o p r ov e t ru e This fau l t i s shown i n .

l
t w o of t h e b r i e fs al r e ady cit e d That on t h e top ic about
.

t h e A r t ifi ci a Com e ay p I 3 8 ha s a s it s conc l u sion

’
, .
,

V I L a m b d i d n ot m e an what h e sa i d
. .

T h e s t ud e n t was ask e d t o sh ow that Lamb s e s timat e

’

was co r r e ct o r i nco rr e ct and h e ar r an g e d h e adings a s if

,

h e i nt e n d e d t o p r ov e Lamb wrong Th e n s u dd e nly h e .

,

Sh ift ed hi s groun d t o thi s conc l u s ion I n t h e b r i e f on .

’
M atth e w A rno l d s po e t ry on p 1 2 7 t h e wr it e r was ask e d
, .
,

”
“
Wil l M at th e w A rn o ld l iv e a s a po e t ? an d h e d e v e lop e d
a b ri e f that was appa r e nt l y t o Sh ow that A rnol d wi ll
, ,

t hu s l iv e Wh e n h e r e ach e d h i s conc l usio n h o w e v e r h e

.
, ,

said
C O N C L U SI O N .

Matth e w A rnold
w i ll l iv e as a po e t b e c a u s e h e has wr i tt e n ,

T h yrs i s and Se lf D e p e nd e n c e two p o e m s wh i c h c o m e ”

'

“ -

n e ar e st to t h e wor k O f th e g r e at p o e ts .

The l ast cla u s e qua l ifi e s t h e conc l usion an d r ais e s t h e

q u e stion v e ry d i f ficu l t t o d e ci d e D O t h e t wo po e m s com e
,

t h
n e a r e nough t o e g r e at wo r k to l a s t ? Wh e n a s t u d e nt
i s t e mpt e d t o q ua l ify a con c l u sion i n t hi s way h e m ay b e ,

su r e O f o n e O f t wo th in gs : e ith e r h e h a s n o t suppo r t e d
h i s cas e as st r ong l y as h e co u ld and r e vi sion wil l m ak e ,

q u al ification u nn e c e ssa r y o r h e has t ri e d t o p rov e

mo r e than h e can i e hi s ana l ysi s O f t h e w o r k t o b e d on e
, . .
,

i s fa u lty and h e m u st start an e w ca r e fu l ly point ing out ,

to a r e ad e r i n his i nt r o d uct io n why h e can t r e at only t h e

154 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV .

modifi e d fo r m O f t h e o r iginal q u e s t ion A wr it e r s hou ld .

n e v e r of cou rs e und e r any ci r cum stanc e s i f h e f e e l s that

, , ,

ll
t h e work don e cal l s for q u a l ificat ion s tat e a c onclu s io n ,

u n qu a i fie d y H e shou l d fac e t h e un s ati sfacto r i n e s s of

.

h i s wo r k an d Se a r ch along t h e t wo l in e s s ugg e st e d —

abov e fo r t h e p l ac e w h e r e his fau l t l i e s

—
.

SU M M A R Y

l ll ll
.

Men w ay s be
l
br i ef s /zon a
’
Tb e c on c u s i on , , f
o a a c ea r y
s ta te d , u n es s tb c m os t i m p o r t a n t p a r t of i t , t /i e d e c i s i o n t o

l l
re a c ne a is a t t /ze beg i n n i ng of t b e br i ef p rop e r ,
’ ’
be
’

, s t a tea

r o os i t i on N e ve r s ta te fi e d c on c u s i o n s
as a
p p .
q ua i .

GO O D B R I EF S

l
l
.

A th sr u l e s fo r t h e I nt r oduct ion t h e B r i e f Pr op e r
e e , ,

an d t h e C onclusion mu st b e ca r e fu l ly app l i e d and ,

mast e r e d if a stu d e nt wi sh e s t o dr a w goo d b r i e fs a nd

,

t o w r it e c l e a r and convincing a r gum e nt s O nc e mas .

t e r e d th e y s imp l ify g r e at l y two d ivi s ion s i n a r gum e nta

,

l
t ion ana l y s i s and s t r uctu r e an d th e y a r e a d e ci d e d aid t o
, ,

an e ff e ct iv e han d l in g O f e vi d e nc e What a Sti c c e s sf u .

appl icat ion O f th e s e r ul e s wi ll p r o d uc e i s Shown by B r i e f

H p I I I B rie f ]
, . p 1 2 1 an d t h e two which fo ll o w
, , .
,

D O ES TH E GO R G E OF TH E N I AG A R A R I V ER A FFO RD A SU F
FI C I E N T I N D EX OF TH E D U R A T I O N O F P O ST G LA C I A L -

TIM E ?
N T R O DU C T I O N I .

I . It i s ad m i tt e d by all g e olo g i sts that

( )
a T h e g orge O f t h e N i a ara R i v e r
g as w e k now i t , ,

has b e e n c u t s i n c e t h e c los e of t h e i c e a g e .
 A R G U M E N TA TI ON
'

15 6 .

I . A p art O f t h e p r e s e nt g orge ly i n g
ab o v e t h e wh i rl pool had alr e ady b e e n
cut a p g lac i al str e am and s u b
by r e—

s e q u e ntly fi ll e d wi th loos e i n c oh e r e nt , ,

l
gla c i al dr i ft
l
.

a T h e dr i ft fi e d gap s i n t h e c l i ff s
.
—

at t h e wh i rl p ool and at St Davi d s .

’

a r e e vi d e n c e s O f t h e e xi st e n c e

O f s u c h pr e g la c i al str e a m -

and
g org e .

2 W e i nfe r b y analo gy that t h e l i m e

.

ston e ro c k i s mor e c ra c k e d and th e re ,

for e soft e r and m or e e as i ly e rod e d

i n so m e p arts O f t h e g orge than i n
oth e rs .

3 T. h e th i c k n e ss O f t h e l i m e stone i s
shown by m e as u r e m e nts to v ary i n
d i ff e r e nt p arts O f t h e g orge .

T h e v ol u m e O f t h e r iv e r has not b e e n c o n
stant Si n c e
,

I For a lon g t i m e t h e wat e rs O f t h e

.

u p p e r la k e s follow e d a c hann e l wh i c h

c a u s e d th em not to e m pty i nto L ak e

Er i e and h e n c e i nto t h e N i ag ara

, .

E vi d e n c es O f th i s a re
A n c i e nt wat e r c o u rs e s
a . .

8 A n c i e nt shor e l i n e s asso c i at e d
,
.

wi th th e m .

y A n
. c i e nt b e a c h e s Sp i ts b,
ars and ,

oth e r r e l i c s of lak e wav e a c t i on -

2 For a t i m e t h e N i ag ara r e c e iv e d t h e
.

wat e rs fro m m e lt i n g g lac i e rs and ,

and th e n i ts v ol u m e m a y ha v e b e en
g r e at e r than now ,
 A R G U M E N TA TI OM 157

( ) c Th e
h e i g ht O f t h e c atara c t has not b e e n

c onstant for ,

I T h e l e v e l O f L a k e O ntar i o h a s not
.

b e e n c onstant for ,

(1 A n c i e nt shor e l i n e s Show that i t

.

was on c e n e arly as h ig h as t h e
t o p O f t h e p r e s e nt or th n
g g ;
e e

was lowe r e d so m e 3 0 0 fe e t ; and

th e n i t g rad u all y ros e to i ts p r e s
e n t l e ve l .

We ha v e not s u ffic i e nt data for as u r i ng t h e e ff e c t

me

O f t h e i n c onstan c y O f t h e hardn e ss and r e lat iv e

th i c kn e ss O f t h e m at e r i als e rod e d for ,

( )
a W e c annot e st i m at e

I . H O W far ab o v e t h e W h i rl p ool t h e
an c i e nt g org e was c u t .

2 . How d e e p i nto t h e p lat e au i t was c u t .

3 . How m u c h t h e hardn e ss O f t h e l i m e

ston e has v ar i e d .

4 . T h e e ff e c t O f a C han g e i n i ts th i c k
n e ss on t h e rap i d i ty O f e ros i on .

W e ha v e not s u ffic i e nt data for me as u r i n g t h e e ff e c t

Of th e i n c onstan c y Of t h e v ol u m e O f t h e r iv e r for
,

( )
a W e c annot e st i m at e ,

1 . T h e d i ff e r e n c e i n v ol u m e O f t h e r iv e r
d u e to t h e wat e rs r e c e iv e d fro m m e lt
i n g g la c i e rs
.

2 . T h e d i f fe r e n c e i n v ol u m e O f t h e r iv e r
d u e to t h e add i t i on or s u b tra c t i on O f
t h e dra i nag e O f t h e u pp e r la k e s .

a I t has b e e n c on c l u s iv e l y p ro v e d
.

that t h e h y dro g raph i c b as i ns O f

thos e l a k e s we r e n o t t h e sam e
th e n a s a t p r e s e n t .
1 58 A R G U M E N TA TI ON

3 . l
Th e
e ngth O f t h e c atara c t .

a W e hav e no m e ans O f t e ll i ng
.

how lon g L ake O ntar i o r e m a i n e d

at t h e d i ffe r e nt l e v e ls i nd i c at e d
b y t h e s e r i e s O f Shor e l i n e s .

E v e n if w e g rant that t h e N i ag ara af fords a s u f fi c i e nt

i nd e x O f t h e l e n gt h O f i ts own l i fe i t do e s not af ford a
,

s u ffi c i e nt i nd e x Of t h e d u rat i on O f t h e post g lac i al e p o c h;

-

f or
I . two e po c hs a r e not c o i n c i d e nt for
Th e ,

I T h e r iv e r d i d not b e g i n to c u t i ts g or g e i m m e d i
.

at e l y u pon t h e r e c e ss i on Of t h e i c e f ro m t h e
g r e at d ivi d e
“ ”
.

( )
a For a long t i m e aft e r t h e r e c e ss i on of t h e

i c e fro m t h e d ivi d e t h e s i t e O f t h e N i ag ara

,

R iv e r was b u r i e d u nd e r t h e i c e or u nd e r a
lak e for ,

1 A ft e r t h e i c e had m e lt e d N orth O f
.

t h e d ivi d e b u t b e for e i t had m e lt e d

,

e no u g h to o p e n t h e Ro m e p ass t h e ,

g la c i al wat e rs w e r e c on fi n e d b e tw e e n
t h e i c e front and t h e d ivi d e i n t h e
for m O f lak e s a n d,

2 A n c i e nt wat e r c o u rs e s and shor e l i n e s

.

Show that o n e of th e s e la k e s o c c u p i e d

t h e W e st e rn part of t h e b as i n O f L a k e
Er i e wh i l e t h e i c e st i ll c o v e r e d t h e
s i t e O f t h e N i ag ara R iv e r and that
,

th i s lak e ass u m e d at l e ast fo u r d i ff e r

e n t l e v e ls b e for e i t o v e rflow e d at a

l e v e l s u ffi c i e ntl y low to c a u s e t h e s e p
arat i on O f L a k e s Er i e and O ntar i o .

I I O u r data for d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t i m e wh i c h e lap s e d

.

b e twe e n t h e r e c e ss i on O f t h e i c e sh e e t a n d t h e b i rth
O f t h e r iv e r a r e i ns u ffi c i e nt
, .
1 60 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV .

III . Th e followi ng c ond i t i ons b e ar wi tn e ss that s u rfac e c ars

c a n i n no way g iv e r e l i e f .

A . T h e p r e s e nt l i n e s a r e ru n as we ll as p oss i bl e u nd e r

p r e s e nt c ond i t i ons 1
i n th at,

I T h e str e e ts a r e too c rowd e d to p e r m i t a gr e at e r

.

n u m b e r O f c ars or h i g h e r s pe e d .

B . Mor e rap i d p rog r e ss c annot b e atta i n e d by w i d e n

i n g str e e ts i n that ,

I T h e e x pe ns e wo u ld b e p roh i b i tory
. .

C T h e tra ffic on W ash i ngton and Tr e m ont str e e ts t h e

.
,

m ost c rowd e d m a y not b e d iv e rt e d to n e i ghbor i ng

,

p arall e l on e s as t h,
e follow i n g fa c ts Show :

I .Th e y a re sh u t i n b e twe e n t h e th i c kly c rowd e d

d i str i c t and B e a c on H i ll .
2

2 .T h e p e o p l e w i ll not p e r m i t u se O f t h e Co m m on .

IV Si n c e rap i d trans i t c annot b e p ro c u r e d on t h e s u rfac e ,

t h e q u e st i on i s wh e th e r to go abo v e or b e low t h e s u r

fac e wh e th e r to b u i ld an e l e v at e d ra i lroad or so m e
,

for m O f u nd e rg ro u nd road s u c h as ,

I . A s u bway a t u nn e l n e ar e no u g h to t h e s u rfac e t o
,

b e d u g b y t he c u t and c o v e r m e thod Th i s
“ ”
.

c ons i sts i n d i gg i n g a tr e n c h and th e n roo fi ng i t .

3
2 . A d e e p t u nn e l ab o u t fi fty fe e t b e low t h e s u rfac e
, ,

and b u i lt by t h e G r e ath e ad syst e m B y th i s a .

sh i e ld a c yl i nd e r w ith a c u tt i ng e dg e i s for c e d
,

alon g b y hydra u l i c p r e ss e s and t h e e arth i ns i d e ,

the sh i e ld b e i n g e x c av at e d t h e t u nn e l th u s
“
,

for m e d i s p r e s e r v e d b y lay i n g a c ont i n u o u s t u b e Of

i ron as larg e as t h e Sh i e ld .

1 M a yo r M a t t h e ws , B os t on H er a l
d , Fe b . 2 8, 1 8
94 .

2 R epo r t Of i
R a p i d T ra n s t C o m m is sio n,
p . 2 62 .

3 6
p . I
5 .
 A R G U M E N TA TI ON 161

B R I EF P R O P E R .

G r e ath e ad syst e m of t u nn e ls Sho u ld b e ado pt e d for ,

T u nn e ls wo u ld not i n j u r e t h e c i t y as wo u ld an e l evate d ,

road or s u bway for ,

A . Th e y wo u ld not h u rt t h e str e e ts for ,

I Th ey wo u ld not o b str u c t th e m b y posts

.
.

2 Th e y wo u ld not dar k e n th e m
. .

3 Th e y wo
. u ld not m ak e th e m u ns ightly .

B . Th e y wo u ld not m ake t h e c i t y no i s y .

C Th e y wo u ld not i n j u r e b u s i n e ss d u r i ng c onstr u e
‘

t i on for ,

I Th e y wo u ld not dr iv e awa y trad e for

.
,

Th e y wo u ld n o t ob str u c t str e e ts
l
l
1
a . .

O nly d e e p t u nn e ls wo u ld e q u ally a c c o m m odat e a d i s

tr i c t s for ,

A . East Bo ston and oth e r s u b u rbs a re s e p ar a t e d fro m

t h e c i ty b y wat e r .

B . Trans i t b y e l e v at e d roads wo u ld b e h i nd e r e d b y
fe rr i e s or drawb r i dg e s .

C W at e r i s no g r e at h i ndran c e to a Gr e ath e ad t u nn e l
.
,

for '

I I n L ondon wh e r e wat e r was e n c o u nt e r e d

.
, ,
2

t h e work was don e w i tho u t any gr e at d iffi

“

c u lty
”
.

A syst e m O f t u nn e ls wo u ld p ro c u r e t h e m ost rap i d tran

s i t for
,

A . T h e s p e e d wo u ld b e as g r e at as on an e l e v at e d for ,

I A n e l e c tr i c m otor wo u ld b e u s e d on an
.

e l e v at e d
3
.

2 A n e l e c tr i c m otor that c o u ld b e u s e d on an
.

e l e v at e d c o u ld b e u s e d i n a t u nn e l .

1 li
R e so u t on s A n t Su b wai -
y Leag u e , B os t on H er a l il
d , Ap r I I .

id i i si 6
ll
2 R ep o rt o ft— Rap T ra n s t C o m m s on ,
p. I
5 .

3 bi c 8
.
, p 7 . .
1 62 A R G U M E N TA TI ON .

B . A t u nn e l wo u ld tak e a p ass e nge r m ost d i r e ctly to

h i s d e st i nat i on for ,

I A n e l e vat e d road wo u ld hav e to take a ro u nd

.

abo u t c o u rs e f o r1
,

e e x p e ns e O f c u tt i ng a n e w str e e t
( )
a T h
thro u gh t h e c onge st e d d i str i c t wo u ld b e
too g re at .

( )
b L and da m ag e s on p r e s e nt str e e ts wo u ld

b e too gr e at for ,

T h e str e e ts a r e so narrow that an

a .

e l e v at e d str u c t u r e wo u ld sh u t o u t

a gr e at d e al of l i g ht and oth e rwi s e

i n j u r e p rop e rty .

2 O nly a t u nn e l c o u ld go stra i ght thro u gh t h e

.

c on g e st e d d i str i c t
“ ”
.

( )
a It wo u ld not have to p a
y da m ag e s .

I t wo u ld go d e e p e no u gh not to d i s
(1 .

t u rb fo u ndat i ons .

( )
b It c o u ld saf e ly b e b u i lt u nd e r b u i ld i n g s ,

for
T u nn e ls ha v e b e e n SO b u i lt i n L ondon
a .
2
.

R EFU T A T I O N .

A t u nn e l h e r e wo u ld not have t h e d efe c ts O f t h e L ondon

3
on e ,
for
A . That was b u i lt too s m all Si n c e ,

I It was an e xp e r i m e nt
.
,

2 Ex p e ns e had to b e save d
. .

B . That was b u i lt c roo k e d u nd e r t h e str e e ts for , ,

I It was not th e n tho u ght safe to b u i ld u nd e r

.

ho u s e s .

1 R ep o r t Of i
R a p d T ra n s t C o m m i is si o n , 6
p 9.
.

2
p . 1
55 .

3 1 88,
p .
1 64 A R G U M E N TA TI OM

( )
b Th e dam ag e s wo u ld b e noth i ng .

h e c onstr u c t i on and e q u i p m e nt O f
( )
c T
m i l e s O f e l e v at e d wo u ld c ost 1

( )
c l Cost O f str e e t w i d e n i n g and land and

dam ag e s wo u ld b e
2 . T h e e x p e ns e w i ll not b e l ik e ly to e xc e e d t he
c al c u lat e d am o u nt for
2
,

e u n c e rta i n e x p e ns e s of c ost O f land

( )
a T h
and dam age s do not have to b e c o ir .

s i d e re d .

3 . ost
Th e Ocf r e p a i rs p e r m i l e p e r y e ar for a n

e l e vat e d road i s wh i l e a t u nn e l on c e
b u i lt i s c o m pl e t e for all t i m e 3
.
”

A t u nn e l syst e m h e re i n B oston co u ld p a y 6
d i v i d e nds fro m t h e start for 4
,

1 T h e ye arly r e v e n u e wo u l d b e
. for
( )
a T h e n u m ber Of p ass e ng e rs ,

ass u me d by Mayor Matth ews for t h e

e l e vat e d road m a y b e ass u m e d for t h e ,

t u nn e ls .

2 T h e e x p e ns e s wo u ld b e
. for
( )
a Th i s i s t h e e x p e ns e ass u m e d b y Mayor

Matth ews for t h e e l e v at e d road ,

( )
b W e m a y ass u m e t h e sam e e x p e ns e .

3 T h e p ro fi t
.
,
wo u ld p a y 5 i nt e r e st
pn half t h e total a m o u nt O f bonds ,

and 6 d ivi d e nds on O f sto c k .

C O N C L U SI O N .

Si n c e t h e Gr e ath e ad syst e m O f t u nn e ls wo u ld not i n j u r e t h e

c i ty wo u ld b e st a c c o m m odat e all d i str i c ts and wo u ld iv e m ost
, g ,

1 R a id T
p it Rep t p 8 6
ra n s or , . .

2
Se e n ote
5 p
, . 1 63 .

3
i i
l rl
Se e R a p d T ra n s t R e p o r t , p I 1 2 . .

4 O s b o rn e H o w e s , B os t on H e r a d , A p i 1 0, 1 8 4
9 .
 A R G U fl/[E N TA TI ON 16 5

rap i d trans i t and s i n c e t h e O b j e c ti ons that t h e t u nn e l i n

B oston m u st ha v e t h e fa u lts O f t h e L ondon G r e ath e ad wo u ld
”
,

d e p r iv e t h e p e o p l e O f p l e asant r i d e s wo u ld b e d i sag r e e ably c old

,

l
i n w i nt e r wo u ld b e b adl y v e nt i lat e d and fi nan c i ally i m pra c
, ,

t i c a b e do not hold good a G r e ath e ad d e e p t u nn e l i s p r e fe r

, ,

abl e for B oston to an e l e v at e d road or a s u bway .

 C H A P T ER IV .

T H E P R E P A R A T O R Y R EA D I N G F O R A R GU M E N T A T I O N .

E hav e s e e n t hat a stud e nt in an aly z ing a qu e s t ion

,

that i s to b e d e bat e d m ust r e ad t o l e a r n what i s

,

t h e o r igin O f t h e qu e sti on ; what t h e t e r m s m e an ; w hat

fact s a r e admitt e d by both Si d e s ; an d w hat m att e rs appa r
e ntly conn e ct e d with his s ubj e ct a r e r e a ll y e xt r an e ou s .

M o r e ov e r wh e n by th is r e a d in g an d ana l y s i s h e ha s foun d
,

t h e sp e cia l i s su e in hi s cas e h e w i ll p r obab l y not on l y con

,

sid e r fo r hi m s e lf t h e r e l at ions t hat t h e s p e cial i ss u e b e a rs

to t h e oth e r i d e as con n e ct e d wit h hi s subj e ct but w il l ,

s e e k i nfo rmat ion from oth e rs That i s h e w i ll cont inu e

.
,

h is r e ad ing A ft e r thi s w o r k ha s b e e n d o n e h e i s r e a d y
.
, ,

as w e hav e s e e n to d raw up h i s b r i e f Wh e n ho w e v e r
, .
, ,

h e s e e k s fo r t h e d e tai l e d p roof that t h e i d e as O f hi s b r i e f

p r op e r a r e co rr e ct h e m u s t r e a d an e w I t i s e vi d e nt
, .
,

t h e n that t h e m e tho d Of r e a d ing in p r e pa r ing fo r a r gu

,

m e n t a t i v e wo r k m ay b e i mpo r tant .

A COM MON M ET H O D OF R EA D I N G .

A mong co l l e g e stu d e nt s a m e t ho d f r e qu e nt l y u s e d in
p r e p a r ing fo r an a r gum e nt i s t o tak e s om e subj e ct on
,

which t h e w r it e r has thou ght on l y a l itt l e o r non e at a ll ,

and to r e a d ca r e f u l l y all that can b e foun d wh ich b e a r s

'

favo rably on t h e vi e w t h e Stud e nt without con s i d e r ation

, ,

form s Wh e n al l t h e m at e r ial e asi l y acc e ss ib l e has b e e n

.

e xam i n e d h e put s h i s O in ion s on pap e r r apid l y P e r hap s

, p .
1 68 A R G U M E N TA T l V .

hi s wo r k as r igi d ly as h e can e v e ryth in g i n t h e cont e nt

O f his m ind b e ar i ng o n t h e cas e e xc e pt cl e a r cut O pinion s -

that r e st on e vid e nc e O f his o w n mi n d or s e n s e s o r t h e ,

m ind s and s e n s e s O f oth e r p e opl e L e t h i m e x c l ud e .

f r om hi s argu m e nt vagu e opin ion s and i mp r e ssion s u ntil ,

by stu d y O f hi s subj e ct h e can cl e a r t h e op i nion s of ,

l
vagu e n e s s an d chang e t h e i mp r e s sion s to w e ll ground e d -

O p inion s L e t him Shut out his O d p r e j ud ic e s as far as

.

l
h e possibly can in p r e par i ng for and in t r e at i ng t h e qu e s
tion I n ot h e r wo r d s e t h i m c l e ar hi s m in d fo r act i on
.
, ,

and l e av e only what i s not vagu e an d r e sts on p r oof .

Thi s p r oc e s s cut s d own d e ci d e dly t h e m at e rial with

which h e wil l st art b u t it Se parat e s t h e wh e at fro m t h e
,

chaff T h e r e main d e r is much m o r e val uab l e than t h e

.

o r i g i nal g r e at e r m as s O f mat e r ial I t i s b e cau s e c l e v e r .

m e n som e t im e s do not s ubj e ct t h e m s e lv e s to any such

p r oc e ss O f p r e l im ina r y s e l f sc rut iny but r u s h in to t h e -

fo r e nsic cont e st o r th e i r p r e pa r ato ry r e ad ing that th e i r ,

wi d e r e a d in g and i ts b r ill iant u s e O ft e n go fo r naught

b e fo r e t h e wo r k O f a Sl ow e r m i n d t hat has b e e n rigid l y
1
s e l f sc r ut in i z ing at t h e out s e t an d t h e n r e ad ca r e ful ly
-

T H E SE C O N D R U L E .

I n any a r gum e nt that amount s to anythin g t h e r e i s no ,

c l e ar roa d t o vict o ry Si r G e o rg e C o r n wal l L e wis Sp e ak

.
,

ing O f hi s d ial ogu e on Tne B es t Fo r m of Gov e r n m e n t

s aid : I t i s a cont rov e rsy con s ist in g O f a d e bto r and
“

c r e d itor account t h e d i f fi culty l i e s in st ri king t h e ba l an c e

fai rl y T h e w e ight s i n o n e s cal e m a y b e l e s s h e avy than
.

is l iy i i l
i i l
1 Th f
l
se -
s cru t n b ef o re b eg n n n g deb a t e i s f u n da m e n t a i n m os t O f
t h e So c r a t i
So c r a t e s f o r c e d h i s q u e s t o n e r t o s u b j e c t
l
c d a og u es of P a to .

i
h m se f to it . Se e t h e E u t by p /zr o and t h e Go rg i a s .
 A R G U fl/[E N TA TI OJV .
1 69

t he w e ight s i n t h e oth e r s c al e b u t th e y a r e n e v e r th e l e ss , , ,

w e ight s Su c h i s t h e nat u r e O f n e arly al l mo r al and

.

p ol i t i cal p r obl e ms Wh e n t h e d i.scu ss i on i s con d uct e d

on bot h Sid e s by comp e t e nt d i s p utant s th e r e a r e almost ,

always val id argum e nt s i n favo r O f e a c h O f t h e t w o

op p osit e O pi n ion s T h e d i f fi c u lty i s to d e t e rmin e which
.

1 ”
O f two s e t s of va l id argum e nt s p r e pond e r at e s Each .

S id e i n argu m e nt ation th e n w il l hav e it s st rong and i t s

, ,

w e ak pl ac e s ; an d t h e b r i ll iant fo r e n s ic wo r k e r w ill l i k e ,

t h e gr e at g e n e r al know n ot only wh e r e al l t h e w e ak
,

pla c e s as w e l l as t h e st rong i n h is own l in e s a r e but as , ,

fa r as pos s ibl e t h e w e ak and t h e st rong i n his e n e my s

,
’
.

H e m u st know wh e r e t o e x p e ct attack i f h e i s not to b e ,

d i sast r ou sl y su rp ris e d : h e m u st know wh e r e h e may b e st

c onc e nt r at e h is assault if h e i s t o ov e rcom e hi s O ppon e nt .

A gr e at p a r t O f t h e ra p id succ e s s O f t h e G e r m an army
i n t h e F ranc o P ru ss i a n War has b e e n att r ibut e d to t h e
-

car e u s e d t o k e e p t h e O ffic e rs and t h e i r aid e s inform e d as

to t h e nat u r e O f t h e co u nt ry i n wh ich th e y w e r e m a n oe u
ve ri n t h e i r t roop s I t i s sai d t hat wh e n e v e r a body O f
g .
,

G e rman s ol d i e r y m ov e d t o a n e w posit ion whi c h it w as to

hol d fo r a t im e t h e o f fi c e r i n com m an d on taking up t h e
, ,

position at on c e su m m on e d hi s u n d e r O ffic e r s and with a

,
-

m a p O f t h e cou nt ry sp r e a d out on t h e fl oo r b e fo r e him

gav e th e m a q u i z o n t h e l ay O f t h e l and T h e y w e r e
“
”
.

obl ig e d to know t h e na m e s O f t h e su r r o u nd i n g v i llag e s

an d h am l e t s what road s ran o u t O f t h e t own oc c u pi e d
, ,

t h e c ro ss road s t h e po i n t s O f vantag e and O f dang e r ; in

-

a word t h e m i l itary topography O f t h e r e gio n Wh e n t h e .

l e s so n was comp l e t e d t h e y w e r e s e nt forward to t h e i r ,

1 P re f a c e t o l
T/ £ B es t F or m
’

f
o Gov er n m en t . G C Le w
. . i s, 1 8 13 . Lo n

don : P ar k e r, So n , B r o wn .
1 70 A R G UM E N TA TI O/V .

p ost.s T O su rp r is e m e n p r e par e d in t h is way w a s w e ll

n i gh impossibl e . A rg u m e ntat ion too i s a wa r far e i n , ,

which word s a r e t h e w e ap on s s e nt e n c e s and paragraph s

,

a r e t h e t roop s , and t h e sp e ak e r o r writ e r i s t h e g e n e r al .

O rdinary arg u m e nt O f c ours e do e s not fai l compl e t e ly

, ,

’
t o con s i d e r t h e op p on e nt s wo rk ; i t simply not e s t h e
’
a r gu m e nt s st u m b l e d upon i n t h e w rit e r s r e ading d o e s ,

’
not t ry to m ast e r t h e op p on e nt s cas e What is o m itt e d .
,

how e v e r m a y b e j ust t h e knowl e dg e t hat w i l l los e or win

,

t h e arg u m e ntat ion Fo r I nstanc e

. it i s v e ry e asy i n ,

studying som e sub j e cts t o r e ad wit h car e on t h e matt e r

and y e t to g e t but o n e Vi e w O f t h e q u e s t ion I f a stud e nt .

i s ask e d : C an th e r e b e a Sc i e n c e O f C rit icism ? and

r e ad s only what B r u n e t i er e o r L e m ai t r e o r H e n n e qu i n
, , ,

says on t h e matt e r h e wi ll b e dom i nat e d by t h e i d e as O f

,

t h e o n e c rit i c r e ad an d though h e m a y hav e s e e n a l ittl e

,

Of so m e O bj e c tion s t o t h e part i c ular t h e o r i e s a d vanc e d ,

th e y wi ll s e e m w e ak and u n i m po rtant I t i s on l y by .

r e ad i ng t h e O p in ion s O f a l l t h e s e th r e e m e n whos e ,

l
m e thod s d i ff e r wid e ly that t h e d i ff e r e nt vi e ws O f t h e
,

q u e s tion can b e c l e ar y s e e n I f too a st ud e n t i s ask e d :

.
, ,

We r e t h e Col onist s o r t h e I nd i an s to blam e fo r K ing

’
P h ili p s Wa r h e w i l l fi nd th at books hav e b e e n wr itt e n
?

e nti r e ly i n favo r of e ach Sid e I f h e r e a d s books O f

.

e ith e r so r t ,h e can w r it e only an i n e ff e ct iv e a r gum e nt ,

fo r h e do e s not kn o w what can b e said agai n st h im I f .

h e r e ad s a b O O k e vid e n t l y wr itt e n to suppo r t t h e Coloni st s

again st t h e I ndian s h e Should s e a r ch fo r a book suppo r t
,

i ng t h e I nd ian s again st t h e C o l oni st s an d by w e igh ing ,

t h e argum e nt s on both Sid e s shou ld d e ci d e wh ich s e t of

i d e as p r e pond e rat e s o r at l e ast what a r gu m e nt s h e

, , ,

m u st an sw e r i f h e i s t o support e ith e r si d e A s t u d e n t .
1 72 A R G U M E N TA Tf ozv .

’
w e e k l ik e t h e c am p s i n oth e r m e n s fo r e st s wh e r e a wan
, ,

1 ”
d e r i ng h u nt e r has sl e p t f or a s ingl e n i ght This fault .

c a n b e a v o i d e d only by O bs e r v anc e O f t h e r u l e al r e ady

giv e n fo r w i d e an d abo v e all c rit i c al r e ad ing T h e man

, , .

who u nd e rstand s t h e va l u e O f e v e r y id e a h e us e s can not

c o m mit t his e r ror .

T w o R U L ES F OR TH E U SE OF M A TER I A L N OT

ONE
’
S OWN

l
.

l lp l
S t u d e n ts s b ou d r em e m be r , t b a t ( ) I w b e n e v e r t b ey g i v e

l
bim t b ey s b ou d tb c
’
a n otb er s w or d s ex a c t y , q u ot e , a ce

w o r d s w i t b i n qu o t a t i o n m a rb s , a n d in a f oo t n o t e a eb n o w

l
e dg e t b e i r i n d e bt e d n es s , na m i ng t b e s ou r c e o
f t b e qu o t a t i on ,

l
t b e eb ap t e r o r p g a e, a n d , if t b e r e i s m or e tb a n on e vo u m e

e d i t i on , tb e a nd tb e ed i t i on u sed ; t b ey

l
or vo u m e
( )
2

l
l
by m b ra s i n , s eeb to w i n c red i t
s bou d n ot , p
o re a ra
p g f or

’
i d ea s tb a t a re r e a y a n ot b e r s .

So m t i m e s a c l e v e r stu d e nt w il l r e s tat e a writ e r s ’

e -

l
t hought s i n f e w e r wo r d s o r m o r e C l e arly but if h e i s p e r ,

f e c t y hon e st h e w i l l acknowl e dg e i n a footnot e th at t h e

,

gist of h i s word s i s bo r row e d an d t e ll wh e n c e it i s tak e n , .

Th e s e two l aws t oo O ft e n t r an sg r e ss e d a re r e a l ly but

, ,

common hon e sty i n l it e r a r y w ork .

I N D I V I D U A L IT Y , O R I G I N A L IT Y , IN A RG U M EN T AT I O N .

The b j e c t ion m ay b e r ai s e d h e r e that t h e work O f

O

wh i c h w e hav e b e e n sp e aki ng s e e m s t o l e ad only t o

s e r vi l e c opying of oth e r s o r to compil ing fro m th e i r work ,

and to p r e v e nt any original ity on t h e pa r t O f a s tu d e nt .

T h e q u e st ions ho w e v e r i n wh ich a stu d e nt can d e p e n d

, ,

1 L ec t u r es P r ea c b i n
on
g , p . I 57 .
 l
A R G U / i E /VTA TI O N .
1 73

e nti r e l y o n hi s own e xp e ri e n c e an d his own thi nking for

a r gum e nt s fo r hi s s id e a r e v e ry r a r e Ev e n i n th e s e
.

r a r e ca s e s h e m u s t l ook b e yond him s e lf fo r m ost Of t h e

O b j e ct ion s l ik e ly t o b e r ais e d again st him I n n e a rl y al l.

ea s es h e m u s t i n con s i d e r i ng both s i d e s O f hi s ca s e r e ad
, ,

t h e wo r k O f oth e rs . What ha s b e e n said i s t h e r e fo r e , ,

l
but a s tat e m e nt of t h e p r e pa r at ion t hat u n d e rl i e s a ll car e
f u i nt e ll ig e nt an d u l t im at e l y convincing a r gum e ntation
, ,

_ wi d e r e a d in g an d ca r e fu l c ritica l con s id e r at ion Of t h e

.
, ,

m at e r ia l p r o an d c on M o r e ov e r it m e an s much mo r e
.
,

t han C opyi ng o r m e r e compi l ation fo r a ll e xc e pt t h e

w o r k e r w ho i s co nt e nt s i mply to r e a d not to t hink as h e
,

r e ad s an d aft e r h e ha s fi ni s h e d r e ad ing I t i s t h e thought.

l
that a w o r k e r Sp e n ds o n t h e m at e r ia l h e gath e rs that
giv e s O d id e a s n e w fo r m s n e w m e an ings t hat fi n ds
, ,

p r e vious l y un r e cogn i z e d r e l at ion s an d sugg e st ion s i n

th e m whi c h m ak e s t h e wo rk e r ha ve a r ight to c all
,

th e m his own as h e p r e s e nt s th e m to h i s a u d i e nc e Two .

st at e m e nt s O f thi s fact o n e from a col l e g e stud e nt t h e

, ,

oth e r f r om J am e s R uss e ll Low e l l will p e r haps mak e it

,
'

convincin g fo r any t o w ho m i t is not s e lf e vi d e nt Th e -

.

stu d e n t wr ot e

E v e ry o n e who has r e ad m u c h wh e n work i ng u p so m e to pi c

has Oft e n had t h e e x pe r i e n c e O f fi nd i n g wh e n h e h a s r e ad a
larg e n u m b e r O f boo k s that h e has i n t h e e n d so m e i d e a or
th e ory p arts of wh i c h h e c a n tra c e to al m ost e v e ry b oo k O f
,

t h e n u m b e r t h e w hol e O f wh i c h h e c a n hardly r e c o g n i z e as
,

b e lon g i n g to any o n e H e hardly u nd e rstands t h e fi nal c o m

.

o nd H e annot sa y that i t b e lon g s to t h e a u thor O f any

p u . c

o n e O f t h e b oo k s h e has r e ad . H e c a nnot e v e n say i t i s a

c o m p os i t e O f t h e i d e as O f all t h e b oo k s . In work i n g u p both
my for e ns i c s th i s y e a r
,
I r e ad a g r e at d e al My m. i nd k e p t i n
 A R G UM E ZVTA TI O/V
'

1 74 .

a p e rfe c t bo i l all t h e t i m e and aft e r e a c h book or art i c l e I

,

s e e m e d to ha v e a d i ff e r e nt c onfor m at i on O f i d e as I d e as O f .

m y own that I start e d o u t w i th we r e totally or al m ost e nt i r e ly

c han ge d i n t h e e n d N o r had I a ppar e ntly c han g e d th e m for

.

thos e Of any o n e e ls e Th e y w e r e not on t h e oth e r hand or i g i

.

nal I a m s u r e e v e ry o n e so m e o n e had tho u g ht O f b e for e

. .

In fa c t th ey had flash e d thro u gh m y own m i nd i n a v ag u e way

,

at d i ff e re nt t i m e s i n m y l if e My for e ns i c s we r e i n Short l i ttl e

.
, ,

l i ke m y own or i g i nal i d e as and th e y we r e not t h e i d e as i n any

e x a c t s e ns e O f any o n e e ls e I had ta k e n t h e i d e as O f oth e r
.

m e n and m o u ld e d m i n e by th e m My a pp l i c at i on of th e m was
.

O ft e n v e ry d i ff e r e nt fro m t h e app l i c at i on O f t h e a u thors th e m

s e l v e s y e t I had u s e d th e m and owe d th e m so m e th i n g

,
.
”

t he Of t he
’
Thi s i s po e t s Vi e w cas e

FR A N C I SC U S DE V ER U L A M I O SI C CO G I TA V I T .

T h a t s a r a t h e r b ol d s p e ec h m y Lo rd B a c o n
’
, ,

Fo r i n d e e d i s t s o e a s y t o k n o w
’
, ,

J u s t h o w m u c h we f ro m oth e r s h a v e t a ke n ,

A n d h o w m u c h o u r o w n n a t u r a l flo w ?

Sin c e you r m i n d b u b b l ed u p a t i ts f ou n ta i n
H ow m a n y s tr e a m s m a d e i t e l a t e
l
,

W h i e i t c a l m e d t o t h e p l a i n f ro m t h e m o u n t a i n ,

A s e v e ry m i n d m u s t t h a t g rows g re a t ?

W h il e y o u th ou g h t
’
t w a s yo u th i n ki n g a s ne wl y
As A d a m s ti ll w e t wi th G o d s d e w ’
,

Y o u f o rg o t i n y o u r s el f p ri d e t h a t t ru l y
-

T h e wh ol e P a s t w a s t h i n ki n g t h ro u g h y o u .

G r e ec e , R o m e , na
y , yo u r n a m es a ke , O l
d R og e r,
W ith Tr u t h s n a m e l e s s d e l v e rs w h o
’
w ro u g h t
I n t h e d a rk m i n e s O f T r u t h h e lp e d t o p ro d y o u r
,

Fi n e b r a i n wi t h t h e g o a d O f t h e i r t h o u g h t .
 C H A P T ER V .

EV I DEN C E .

I . T H E N A T U R E O F EV I D EN C E .

W H AT A SSER T I O N Is .

l
H E mo st c om m on fau l t i n a r gu m e ntat ion i s a ss e r
t i v e n e s s t hat is t h e u
, u a i fie d affi r mation t hat
,

som e th ing i s t r u e o r fa l s e w i o r fool i sh e t c w ithout

, , .
,

l
any stat e m e nt O f t h e r e ason s t h e w r it e r o r s p e ak e r

ho l ds h I S O p i n i on Wh en fo r . tanc e a m i n i s t e rf t a k
, ,

ing r e c e n tly t o hi s c o n on t h e l e ss on s t o b e
d r a w n f r om t h e wa r b e tw e e n a and J apan to l d th e m ,

that t h e r e aso n fo r t h e s u e s s Of t h e J apan e s e w a s

-

that t h e y k e e p Su nday t h e C hi n e s e d o not he ,

ass e rt e d . A n y caut io u s r of t h e cong r e gati on

m ight w e ll h av e w ish e d t o b e giv e n p r oof t hat t h e J apan

e s e as a n at ion k e e p Sunday i n t h e e xact s e n s e i n wh ich

A m e rican s do .Ev e n if h e g r ant e d th i s as h e might b e ,

will ing t o do h e wou ld c e r tain l y hav e w i s h e d t o h e a r

,

p roof that thi s cu s tom am on g t h e Japan e s e i s n

-
ot on l y a
su ffici e n t cau s e t o l e a d to s o g r e at a r e s u l t as t h e ov e r
wh e l m in g s ucc e s s of t h e J apan e s e army but t h e on l y ,

cau s e . H ad t h e m i nist e r b e e n ask e d aft e r h i s s e r mon , ,

to giv e such p r oof t h e ab su r d ity O f h i s s w e e ping stat e

,

m e nt would soon hav e b e e n l aid ba r e Such t r e atm e nt .

O f a subj e ct as t h e m in i s t e r gav e hi s r e q u i r e s a r e a d e r o r

h e a r e r to t ak e S imp l y on t h e wo rd O f t h e writ e r o r
s p e ak e r what e v e r h e as s e r t s Such imp l icit c onfi d e nc e
.

o n e has O ,
f c ou rs e a p e rf e ct r ight t o r e fu s e to al l com e rs
, .
 A A G U /V E N TA TI ON
’
.
1 77

TH E A R G U M EN T FR O M AUTH ORITY .

I n d e e d und e r o nly o n e s e t O f condit ion s is u n s u p

,

po rt e d a ss e rt ion s af e T h e r e a r e m e n and books which

.

a r e r e ga rd e d as autho r iti e s on t h e sub j e c ts th e y t r e at and ,

t h e i r t e s timony a s t o fact s and i nf e r e n c e s from fact s i s

acc e pt e d u nqu e s t ioni ngly Fo r t h e P u ritan Of 1 6 2 0 t h e
.

B ib l e w as aut ho r it at iv e an u n qu e st ionabl e stat e m e n t O f

,

t h e wil l O f G o d . Fo r t h e good A m e r ican to d ay what

t h e C on sti tutio n s anct io n s i s r igh t ; what it do e s not
san ct ion e v e n im p l i e d l y i s wr ong T h e P uritan of 1 6 2 0
, , .

s e t tl e d an a r gu me nt by quot i ng as final and i n d i sputabl e

a t e xt O f t h e B i b l e To d ay an A m e r ican at tim e s quot e s
.

i n t h e s am e way an art ic l e O f t h e C on stitution Th e s e .

m e n giv e not a ca r e ful s t at e m e nt O f t h e r e as on s fo r a

,

b e l i e f h e l d by t h e m bu t m e r e l y an un s uppo r t e d stat e
,

m e nt O f an ot h e r ; t hat i s t h e y u s e t h e SO cal l e d A r gu
,
-

m e nt f r om A utho r ity Wh e n i t i s prop e r to u s e th i s th e n

.
, ,

an d th e n only i s an u n qual ifi e d af fir m at ion O f som e thing

,

as t r u e p e r mi s s ib l e .

TH E DA N C ER S OF TH E A R G U M EN T FR O M AU T H OR IT Y .

I f a s tu d e nt con si d e r s wh e n it is p r op e r to u s e thi s
A rgu m e nt fro m A u tho rity i n what it s st r e ngt h cons ist s , ,

h e wil l s e e th at it m u s t b e u s e d wit h g r e at c a r e that i t is

of variabl e val u e t hat t h e fi nal j udg e as to t h e propri e ty
O f u s in g i t at any ti m e i s n ot t h e wr it e r o r Sp e ak e r him
,

s e l f but t h e au d i e n c e ad dr e s s e d and that at any mom e nt

,

it s auth o r itat iv e n e s s i s l iabl e t o b e q u e st ion e d wh e n t h e ,

as s e r tion m ust b e suppo r t e d l ik e any o r dina r y stat e m e nt .

T h e st r e ngt h O f t h e A r g u m e nt fro m A uthority co m e s

1 78 A R G U M E N TA TI OJ
V .

u l tim a t e l y f ro m t he f act that peo p l e i n gen e ra l m a y be

a s s u m ed t o a d m it t ha t o n t h e s u bj ec t u n d e r d i s cu ss i o n
t h e b oo k o r t h e pe rso n c it ed ca n n o t s ta t e i d ea s o r m a k e
j u dg m e nt s i n c o rrec t l y Wit h b oo ks a n d m e n t h i s po w e r
.

co m e s e ith e r f ro m in s pi ra t i o na l kn o wl ed g e Of t h e t r u t h ,

as i n t he t ea c h i n g s o f C h ri s t a n d M o h a m m e d i n t h e B i b le

an d t h e Ko ra n o r f ro m a r e pu t a t i o n f o r t ru thf u l n ess a n d

l
,

p ro f oun d kn o w ed g e o f t he s u b je c t s t rea t ed w h ic h t he

l
w r it e r o r s pea k e r ha s a t so m e t i m e g a i n ed A f o rm o f t he
.

so c a l ed A rg u m e n t f ro m A u t ho r it y m u c h us ed i n re c e n t
-

yea rs i s t he t es t i m o n y o f e x pe rt s Me n a re as k ed t o g i v e
.

O pin io n s as t o m a t t e rs wh i c h req u i re y ea rs o f p re vi o us

l
s pe c ia l s t u d y o f t h e m if ac c u ra t e a n s we rs are t o be m a d e .

Th e m e n s e l ec t ed f o r s u c h t e s t i m o n y a re a wa y s c h os en
beca u se t he i r pro b i t y a nd t he i r s pec ia l s t u d y o f t h e s u bje c t
u n d e r d i scu s s io n a r e kn o wn t o be wi de l y rec og n ized .

Co u rt s i n t ri a ls f o r m u rd er an d f o rg e ry ha v e t ri ed t o
, .

reg a rd t he a s se rt i o ns o f s u c h m e n as t o t he c o m mo n

l
a u t h o rs h i p o f t wo s i g n a t u r e s a s t o t he n ec es sa r i l y f a t a l
,

e ff ec t o f t h e d ose of m ed i c i n e f o u n d i n t h e bod y as fi na . .

T ha t t h e sam e asse rt i o n m a y i n d i ff e re n t pl a c es u n d gr
, ,

l ll
d i ff e re n t c i rcu m s t a n c e s va ry i n i t s d e g ree o f c on vi n ci n g
,

n es s wi ll a l so be c ea r a f t er a i t t e t h ou h t F o r i n s t a n c
g . e,

l
s u ppo s e t ha t i n d is c u ss i n
g w it h a M o h am m e d a n so m e

l
q u es t i o n o f m o ra i t y a C hr i s t ia n q u ot es so m e pr e c e pt o f
t h e B i b l e a s fina a u t ho r ity i n t he ma t t e r U n l ess t hi s
.

p r ec e pt wh i c h f or t h e C h r i s ti a n i s a pe rf e c t a rg u m e nt
,

l
f ro m a u t h o ri ty i s i n t h e Ko ra n a l so t h e M oh am m eda n
, ,

wi ll n o t f e e t he f o rce o f it m a y e v e n d e nyi n g i t s a ut h o r
, ,

l
i t a t i ve n ess as k t h e C h ri s t i a n t o s h o w h i m why t h i s pre
,

ee pt s h o u ld be u n hes it a t i n l y f o l o w ed C t a i l y t h
g .e r n e

C h ri s t i a n wo u ld b e ha ve i n t h e sa m e wa y as t he M o ha m -

j
1 80 AR G U M E /VTA TI ON .

and r e a s on s fo r b e l i e ving it t r u e mu st be p r o d u c e d fo r th
with .

P ROO F : I TS O RI G I N AN D W H AT IT IS .

Evi d e ntly , th e n t h e on l y p e r mi ssib l e u s e of u n s u p

,

ort e d ass e rt ion d e p e nd s o n a r e cogn ition by t h e pub l ic

p
add r e s s e d of t h e pl au s ib i l ity of t h e s t at e m e n t m ad e and
t h e ho n e sty an d t h e schola r l in e s s of t h e p e rson cit e d It .

m ust b e cl e ar th at but co m par at iv e ly f e w m e n can stand

al l th e s e t e sts Eith e r th e i r stat e m e nt s l ik e that of t h e

.
,

m in ist e r cit e d on pag e I 76 s e e m start l in g o r t h e audi , ,

e nc e i s igno r ant of th e i r q ua l ification s o r suspiciou s of

th e m Som e th ing i n t h e a s s e r t ion m a d e th en o r i n t h e

.
, ,

p e rson making it w i l l cau s e a

, h e ar e r o r r e ad e r to ask
for t h e r e ason s fo r t h e b e l i e f s tat e d I t i s t hi s r e q u e st .

l l
fo r an e xplanat ion of t h e g r ou nd s on wh ich a b e l i e f r e st s

l l
that c r e at e s p r oof T ei s w or a s e e m s p rop e r y t o m e a n
.
’

l
t /t i ngr w /t i cn s e r v es , e i t /t e r i m m ed i a t e y i a te y , to
’
a ny or m ea

c on v i n ce t/t e m i n d t ne t r n t /t t /t e s e /t oo a
f f
’
o
f f or a o a a c t or
”
1
r o os i t i o n What e v e r th e n a writ e r o r sp e ak e r o f f e r s
p p .
, ,

i n suppo rt of hi s stat e m e nt s quotation s l ogica l d e d u c ,

t ions skill ful an a l ysis i ll ust r at ion s figu r e s e t c e t c

, , , , .
, .

is tak e n as a who l e hi s p r oof of t h e i r t r uth

, , Each .

po r t io n of hi s p r oof i s e v i d e n c e fo r t h e l at t e r i s t/za t
“
,

soni c /t A ny
g e n era t es p r oo f . m a t te r o
f f a c t, t /t e efi ect ,

t e n d e ncy d es i g f w nzc /t i s t o r od u ce t k o m zn a
’
, or n o
p zn a

p e r s u a s i on a
fi rm a
ft i ve or d i s afir m a t i v e o tb e e x i s t en ce

f s om e o t /ze r m a t t e r o 2 ”
o
f f a c t I f A n alys is and St ructu r e .

a r e t h e fi r st t wo i m ortan t d ivision s of a r gum e ntat ion

p ,

Evid e nc e i s an e qually impo r t ant th i rd .

1 B e s t , O n E v i d en c e , p 5 . .
 A R G U / [E N TA T OzV l
/
l .
18 1

A SSER T IO N O R D I N A R I L Y D O ES N OT P RO VE A N YT H I NG To BE

TRU E OR FA L SE .

The a l mos t con st ant n e e d i n argum e ntation of p r oof ,

of e vid e n c e st u d e n ts fo rg e t Ev e n thos e who ana l y z e

, .

w e l l and con st r uct a good b r i e f oft e n fa il in suppo r tin g

, ,

t h e p l an th e y hav e dr awn up A ft e r r e ading wi d e l y .

a m ong w ri t e r s o n t h e ir sub j e ct th e y f e e l SO su r e of t h e
co rr e ctn e s s of t h e i r r e sult ing O pinion s th at th e y S imp l y
stat e cl e arly what t h e s e opin ion s a r e and e xp e ct th e i r

l
au d i e nc e s to acc e pt t h e i r wo rd s without qu e stion .

l
s /t o u a be r t /t a t i n
’ ’

l
l
s tu a en t rem em a r
g u m en ta t i on b e ba s

lj
ri
g/at , ex c e
p t w /t en ie is b e sp e a ks a s
s u re a
g e n era
y r eco
g

l l lfi
n i z e d a n t /t o r i ty ei s s u b ec t t o a s k a ny a u d i e n ce t o t
on , a cc e p
as

s /zou c l
l
c on c u s i ve

re m e m
tis sim

be r t /t a t
p e a rm a t i o n
n o t /t i ng ca n
a bou t
be p r o v e a t r u e by
a ny
’
t /t i ng . H
a sse r
e

x
’

t zor

I t i s j u st thi s i d e a t hat ,
rt i o n p rov e s n othing wh i c h ,

Si r Thomas Wyatt i n sist e in t h e O p e nin g O f h i s pl e a

fo r hi s l if e wh e n accu s e d t r e ason :
“
Fi rst y o u m u st that m y m a st e rs h e r e s e rg e ant
u n d e rs t a ,

and oth e r of t h e K i n g s Co u ns e l that all e g e h e r e ’

a g a i nst m e we r e n e v e r b e yond t h e se a wi th m e that I r e m e m

, ,

b er . Th e y n e v e r h e ard m e say any s u c h words th e r e n e v e r ,

saw m e ha v e any i nt e ll i ge n c e w i th Pol e nor m y i nd i c t e r s ,

n e i th e r W h e r e i n y o u m u st m ar k that n e i th e r th e s e m e n
.
,

wh i c h tal k h e r e u nsworn nor t h e i nd i c t m e nt at larg e i s to b e

, ,

r e g ard e d as e vi d e n c e T h e i nd i c t e rs ha v e fo u nd that I h a v e
.

don e If that b e tr u e what n e e d yo u r tr i al b u t i f q u e s ts

.
,
?

fe t c h th e i r l i ght at i nd i c tm e nts at larg e th e n i s a m a n c o n ,

d e m n e d u nh e ard ; th e n had m y L ord Da c r e s b e e n fo u nd

u i lty ; for h e was i nd i c t e d at lar e b fo u r or five q u e sts ; l ik e
g g y
was hi s m att e r avowe d affir m e d and ag g ra v at e d by an h e l p of
, ,
182 A A G UA/[E N TA TI O JV
’
.

l e arn e d m e n ; b u t on all th i s t h e hono u rab l e and w i s e nob i l i ty

d i d not on c e loo k th e y loo k e d at t h e e vi d e n c e i n wh i c h th e y ,

we i g h e d I s u p p os e t h e m al i c e of h i s ac c u s e rs t h e u nl ik e l i hood
, , ,

O f t h e th i n g s han g i n g to g e th e r and c h i e fly of all t h e s u bstan c e

, ,

1
of t h e m att e r and t h e p roofs .
”

WH AT PU R E A SSER T I O N P R O D U C ES A s A R G U M E N TAT I O N .

The kin d of work p ro d uc e d wh e n a w r it e r e nt i r e l y

fo rg e t s o r n e v e r kn e w that s im pl e as s e rt i on p r ov e s not h
, ,

i ng t h e fol low i ng fo r e n si c al r e ady quot e d i n pa r t fo r

, ,

anoth e r pu rpos e ( pp 1 7 wi l l Sho w

.

WAS TH E C O U R SE O F T H E B EA C O N SF I EL D M I N I ST R Y I N T H E
EA ST ER N Q U EST I O N A D TA G EO U S T O ENG L A N D ?
v
[]L I n 1 8 76 B u l g ar i a d e c lar e d war aga i nst T u r k e y ; a n d i t

was i n th i s war that T u r k e y c o m m i tt e d t h e horr i bl e m absa c re s

k nown as t h e B u l g ar i an A tro c i t i e s
‘
.
’

T h e war wo u ld n e v e r ha v e bb e n b e g u n b e tw e e n T u r k e y
and B u l g ar i a had i t not b e e n for T u r ki sh m i sr u l e wh i c h was
, ,

we ll k no w n b y oth e r c o u ntr i e s as we ll as by B u l g ar i a Se r vi a .

and Monte n e g ro we r e l e ft alon e to fi g ht w i th T u r k ey aft e r t h e ,

oth e r stat e s wh i c h b e lon g e d to t h e c onf e d e ra c y we r e obl i g e d

‘ ’

to b a c k o u t for want of s u ppl i e s O f c o u rs e th e s e two stat e s

.
,

c o u ld not c arry on war w i th T u rk e y on e q u al foot i ng and soon ,

a tr e aty for p e ac e was m ad e .

N o w R u ss i a p u t h e rs e lf forward and t h e C z ar d e m and e d,

l
a tr e aty wh i c h m u c h fa vor e d B u l g ar i a A t th i s po i nt B e ac ons
.

fie d r e c o g n i z e d t h e fa c t that R u ss i a want e d to g e t T u r k e y i nto

h e r own p owe r and th e r e by e nt e r Constant i no p l e wh i c h wo u ld ,

l
g iv e R u ss i a t h e c ontrol of t h e B la c k Se a Th e r e for e B e a c ons
.

fie d u s e d all t h e i nfl u e n c e h e c o u ld to p r e s e r v e p e ac e b e twe e n
R u ss i a and T u rk e y .

1 Tb e P oe t i ca l
W f
or k s o S i r Tk om a s Wy a tt p , . l
xxn . Be l l l Da d y .
184 A R G U M E N TA TI ON

E n land own e d Ind i a and d e p e nd e d on i t for m any

[ ] g
l
I L ,

p rod u c ts and B,
e a c o n s fie d saw that i f R u ss i a on c e obta i n e d

c o m m and of Constant i no p l e En g land s c han c e s t o k e e p Ind i a

’

wo u ld b e v e r y s m all
l
.

B e a c o n s fie d obta i n e d t h e i sland of Cyp r u s as a m i l i tary

stat i on and th i s was a g a i n for w h i c h En g land c annot t oo
l
,

h i g hly p ra i s e B e a c o n s fie d Fro m i ts g e o g rap h i c al s i t u at i on

.

i t i s c l e ar that i t c o m m a nds t h e t e rr i tory wh i c h was m ost

i m p ortant to En g land Fro m i t En g land h a s c ontrol of t h e
.

Su e z Canal t h e p assag e to Ind i a w h i c h i s c e rta i nl y of g r e at e st

, ,

i m portan c e to En g land .

[ ]
I 3 Had
. R u ss i a b e e n allowe d to e nt e r Constant i no p l e s h e

wo u ld vi r t u ally hav e had c o m m and of all E u ro p e and th i s ,

wo u ld hav e b e e n a m ost u nd e s i rab l e stat e of af fa i rs Ev e ry .

body k nows what R u ss i an g o v e rn m e nt i s and to th i n k that i t ,

sho u ld b e t h e p r i n c i p al powe r i n E u ro p e c a n b u t m ak e on e s ,
’

b lood r u n c old .

T h e tr e aty at B e rl i n ro u s e d all E u ro p e ag a i nst R u ss i a .

T h e Pow e rs of E u ro p e now saw what a da n g e r R u ss i a w a s ,

and what m i s c h i e f s h e c o u ld do i f T u r k ey was i n h e r p owe r ,

and th e y th e r e for e we r e r e ady to u n i t e ag a i nst R u ss i a at any

ti m e .

l
I ad m i t that t h e tr e aty d i d n o t s e ttl e t h e q u e st i on p e r
m a n e n t y b u t i t was t h e b e st th i n g wh i c h c o u ld ha v e b e e n
,

don e for b y i t R u ss i a was u h n e ar e r to Constant i no pl e a n d

, ,

Eng land had O bta i n e d t h e i sland of Cyp r u s as a m i l i tary

stat i on
l
.

It i s arg u e d that i t was a d i s g rac e for B e a c o n s fie d to

tak e t h e p art of s u c h a d e p rav e d b arbar i c c o u ntry as T u r k e y
,

b u t i t s e e m s to m e that s u c h arg u m e nts Sho u ld b e l e ft o u t of a

q u e st i on of th i s ki nd B e a c o n s fie d d i d ta k e t h e p art of a
. l
b ar b ar i c c o u ntr y b u t i t was t h e sal v at i on of not only En g
‘ ’
,

land b u t of all E u ro p e P e rhap s h e f e lt that b y tak i ng T u r

.

’
ke y s p art England c o u ld g a i n i nfl u e n c e i n T u r k e y and p r e v e nt
 A R G U M E N TA TI O ZV . 1 85

the m i sr u l e wh i c h e xi st e d i n T u r k e y B u t w e m u st l e av e s en
l
.

t i m e n t o u t of th i s q u e st i on B e a c o n s fie d tho u g ht that a tr e aty

.

was t h e b e st th i n g and th e r e for e h e aske d for o n e ; and i t w a s

l
,

t h e b e st p ol i c y If any o n e wants to d e ny that B e a c o n sfie d s

l
’
.

ol i y was not for st i nt r e sts of En g land e t h i m o ff e r a

l
p c t h e b e e ,

p lan wh i c h B e a c o n s fie d o u ht to ha v e
g follow e d P e rha p s .

s u c h a p e rson wi ll say that En g land o u g ht to hav e bo u g ht

Constant i no p l e fro m R u ss i a b u t th i s i s abs u rd for R u ss i a
, ,

l
wo u ld n e v e r ha v e tho u ght of allow i n g England to e nt e r C o n
sta n ti n op e ,
for a ny s u m .A n d to s e ll Constant i no p l e to
R u ss i a wo u l d hav e b e e n anyth i n g b u t ad v antag e o u s to En g
land as shown ab o v e T h e only r e m a i n i n g c o u rs e wo u ld hav e
, .

b e e n a war b e twe e n En g land and R u ss i a Th i s no do u b t .

, ,

wo u ld hav e s e ttl e d t h e m att e r B u t What an awf u l th i n g wo u ld

.

war ha v e b e e n Do w e not always h e ar L e t ar m s alon e wh e n ,

th e y a r e not n e e d e d
[ I A war b e twe e n th e s e two c o u ntr i e s w ou ld ha v e r e s u lt e d

i n t e rr i b l e loss of l i fe and tr e m e ndo u s e x p e ns e and i t m i ght

,

ha v e laste d for ye ars and ye ars A ft e r c ons i d e r i ng th e s e arg u

.

m e nts c ar e f u lly I q u e st i on wh e th e r any o n e c a n d e ny that

l
,

B e a c o n s fie d s c o u rs e was ad v anta g e o u s to En g land

’

l
.

W h e n B e a c o n s fie d r e t u rn e d to En g land h e was r e c e iv e d
wi th a ppla u s e and we l c o m e d as a b e n e fac tor to h i s c o u ntry .

”
T h e Q u e e n h e rs e lf a pp ro v e d m ost h e art i ly h i s p ol i c y .

H ow TH E A SSE RT I V EN ESS O F T H IS F O R EN SI C MI GH T BE

R EM O V ED .

A n y ca r e ful r e a d e r of th i s s o cal l e d fo r e n sic w i l l s e e

-

at on c e that t h e w rit e r has not ana l y z e d hi s topic ca r e .

f u l ly an d th e r e fo r e confu s e dly m ingl e s int r odu cto ry and

,

a rgu m e ntat iv e matt e r t r e at ing about e q ual ly al l t h e id e as

,

he a d vanc e s E pm
.
has i z ing t h e impo r tant i d e as s u b o r d i ,

n at ion o f w hat i s of s e con d a r y r an k h e do e s not u n de r ,

 A R G U M E N T/ I T I ON

stand . What how e v e r i s most in t e r e stin g i n thi s

, ,

for e n s i c at t h e m om e nt is that i t i s a su cc e ss ion of

u n q ual i fi e d a f fi rm at ions of ass e rt ion s which t h e writ e r
, ,

a p par e ntly e x p e ct s a r e ad e r to acc e pt on hi s aut ho r ity .

B u t S i nc e hi s lack of analys i s shows t hat h e do e s not

,

u nd e tand a fundam e ntal d ivisio n O f A rg u m e n t at i op L

rs

can a r e ad e r assum e t hat h e i s e nt i r e ly t r ustwo r thy i n

h i s m anag e m e nt of anoth e r g r e at d ivision Ev id e nc e ?
; '

H a r dly .

I n a topi c l ik e t hat wh ich t h e w rit e r of t h e fo r e n s i c

t r e ats t h e o rigin of t h e q u e st ion t h e cau s e s fo r t h e war
, , ,

wil l v e ry probably d e t e r m in e t h e t r e atm e n t t b b e giv e n

t h e cas e T h e r e fo r e a caut iou s r e ad e r w il l i n t h e fi r st
.
, ,

two paragra p hs of t h e for e n sic ask t o b e ma d e su r e that

,

l
t h e stat e m e nt s as t o t h e origi n of t h e wa r and t h e cou r s e

of affai rs up t o t h e t i m e wh e n B e a c o n s fie d took p art in

th e m a r e not i n any pa r t i cula r op e n to d isput e Thi s t h e .

wr i t e r coul d r e ad ily do by stat i ng i n foot not e s t h e -

sou rc e s of hi s info r m at ion and by pointing out t hat a r t i

l
c l e s which d r a w e nti r e l y d iff e r e nt conc l us ion s as to t h e

advantag e ou s n e s s of Lo r d B e a c o n s fie d s cond uct ag r e e ’

as to th e s e d e tail s of t h e o r igi n of t h e qu e stion C l e ar l y .

,

th e n at t h e v e ry out s e t of thi s fo r e n s ic a ca r e fu l r e ad e r
, ,

w i l l call fo r e vid e nc e of t h e co rr e ct n e s s of t h e stat e m e nt s

mad e I f th e n a r e vi sion of t h is fo r e n s ic w e r e att e mpt e d
.
, , ,

t h e i nt ro d ucto r y m att e r wh e n gath e r e d tog e th e r f r om

t h e d iff e r e nt p a r agraph s shoul d r e st on a basi s of ca r e fu l

footnot e s s tat ing t h e sou r c e s of t h e info r mat ion .

l
I n pa r agraph 3 t h e w r it e r mak e s a co m pli cat e d ass e r
tion , that B e a c o n s fie d r e cogn i z e d that R u s sia w ant e d t o
g e t Tu r k e y into h e r p ow e r and th e r e by C on stant inopl e
, ,

in o r d e r to cont r ol t h e B l ack Se a A k e e n r e ad e r will

.
1 88 l
A R G U /k E /VTA TI OJV .

R ussia , figu r e s as to it s e xt e n t ; q uotat ion s and b r i e f

s u mma r i e s of t h e e vid e n c e of comp e t e nt m e n as to t h e
da n g e r to B r iti sh I ndi a if R u s sia cont r ol l e d t h e B l ack
Se a and co u l d t r anspo r t h e r t roops un m o l e s t e d to t h e
A s ian sho r e . T h e stat e m e nt that R u ssia was sch e m ing
to g e t cont r o l of C onstant inopl e shoul d b e p r ov e d t r u e by
an e xaminat ion of any pa r ts of h e r p ast hi sto ry any of h e r ,

act s in t h e matt e r u nd e r d i scu ss i on any t e st im ony f r om ,

u n p r e j ud ic e d p e r son s any admi ssion s o r Slip s on t h e pa r t

,

of h e r o f ficial s which s e e m t o point to thi s con c l u s ion

, .

That s h e s ch e m e d fo r C on stant inopl e i n o rd e r to cont r o l

t h e B lack Se a shoul d b e Sho w n by a m a p to p r ov e that

who e v e r hold s C on stanti nop l e an d is a fir s t class po w e r -

c a n clos e at will t h e D a r dan e l l e s ; and by t e s t imony f r om

R u ss ian Engl ish and any good sou r c e s as to t h e d e si r

, , ,

ability fo r R u ss ia of e xcl u d ing t h e Engl i sh f r om t h e

l
grai n t r ad e in t h e B lack Se a and gaini ng an e asi e r acc e s s
to B ritish I nd i a That B e a c o n s fie d saw all t hi s
. the —

d e si r e s of R u ss ia and t h e i r cau s e s Shoul d b e shown by

q uot in g his o w n wo r d s and citing acts of h is which mak e

h i s wo rd s good Evid e ntly th e n , o n e s e nt e nc e of t h e
.
,
’
writ e r s wh e n p r op e rly t r e at e d wi l l g r ow in to a for e n s ic .

T h e r e s t of t h e w o r k il l ust r at e s t h e sam e fault r e ck l e s s ,

as s e r t iv e n e s s that do e s not p r ov e anything t o b e t r u e .

P a r ag r aph 4 shou l d b e giv e n a footn ot e r e f e r r i ng to t h e

’
sou rc e of t h e w r it e r s i nfo r mat ion i n o rd e r that a r e ad e r ,

i f h e wish e s may look u p fu rt h e r d e tai l s of t h e mov e

,

m e nt s of t h e R us s ian s P aragraph 5 n e e d s r e f e r e n c e s
.
,

fo r t h e stat e m e nt i n it i s as has b e e n s e e n abov e v e ry

, ,

im p o rtant . I t would b e e v e n b e tt e r to cit e s om e a u t h o r i

t a t i v e R u s s ian stat e m e nt that t hi s w a t h e cau s e of
s
’ "
R u s s i a s cond u c t I n pa r ag r aph 6 t h e writ e r s i m ply
.
 A R G U M E N TA TZ OIV . 1 89

r e as s e r t s w hat h e said i n pa r agraph 3 and a r e a d e r s e e s ,

t hat h e w as r ight i n t hinkin g t h e stat e m e nt fundam e ntal

l
i n t h e a r gu m e nt P a r ag r aph s 7 8 and 9 with t h e e x c e p
.
, , ,

t ion of t h e word s “
owi ng no doubt to B e a c o n s fie d s
, , ,
’

good wo rk ad d d e ta i l s which r e al ly b e long in t h e int r o

,

d u ct ion T h e c l au s e m e ntion e d should of cours e hav e

.
, ,

b e e n r e s e rv e d fo r t h e d is c us sion it s e lf T h e p aragraphs .

n e e d l ik e p a r agraph s 1 and 2 r e f e r e n c e s t o a r ticl e s on

, ,

both Si d e s i n o r d e r t hat a r e ad e r m ay S e e th e y a r e un d is
,

p u t e d P
. a r a graph s I O 1 1 and 1 2 tak,e a r e ad e r
, into
argum e ntat iv e m att e r an d t h e r e fo r e n e e d e vi d e ntial sup
,

po r t . I n 1 1 t h e w r it e r r e tu r n s to t h e id e a of t h e B lack
’
Se a m e e t i ng t h e r e a s on fo r R u s sia s d e s i r e to cont r ol
,

Con stant inopl e an d th e r e by t h e B lack Se a wh i c h cam e

, ,

out i n t h e d iscu s sio n abov e of t h e impo r tant ass e r tion of

’
pa r ag r aph 3 nam e ly R u s si a s d e si r e to g e t into I n d ia
, , .

l
A ca r e fu l r e ad e r wil l p r e f e r not to b e t o l d that Lo rd

l
B e a c o n s fie d wh os e condu ct i s i n q u e s tion said :
,
Con ,
“

s t a n t i n O p e i s t h e Ke of t h e East b u t to b e shown why

y ,

t hi s sayi ng i s t r u e T h e n e xt as s e r tion that i f R uss i a

.
,

h e l d C on stanti nopl e Sh e woul d c ont rol t h e B lack Se a has ,

al r e ady b e e n con si d e r e d and if a r e ad e r fol lows t h e loos e

, ,

arrang e m e nt of thi s writ e r has b e e n p rov e d t ru e Th e ,

. .

n e xt ass e rtion t hat R ussia i n c ont rol of t h e B la c k Se a

, , ,

would com man d t h e way to I nd i a has b e e n pa r t l y con ,

s i d e r e d in what h as b e e n said of t h e e as e with which s h e

cou l d p l ac e t roops i n A s ian t e rr ito ry A m or e c ar e f u l .

wo r kman t han t h i s w rit e r wo u ld al so Show t h e e ff e ct on

Engl ish acc e s s t o t h e Su e z C anal i f C on stantino p l e w e r e
i n t h e han d s of R u s sia T h e t wo stat e m e nt s i n p a r a .

g r aph 1 I shoul d b e part of t h e p roof O f t h e th i rd ass e r t ion

of parag r aph I O To b e conv i n cing t h e fi rst n e e d s ill u s
. ,
1 90

t ra t i o n s to S how what ki nd of prod u ct s ind isp e n s abl e t o

Engl an d I nd i a alon e o f f e rs h e r t h e s e cond n e e d s e x p lana
,

t i on O f R u s s i a s a m bition s i n r e ga r d t o I nd i a of a f fai r s
’

in I ndia of t h e boun da ri e s of I nd ia n e ar e st R us sia and

, ,

t h e c ond i t ion s Of t h e p e opl e l i v i n g n e ar th e m .

P a r agr a p h 1 2 add s a n e w i nt roducto ry id e a t hat

l
—
,

B e a c o n s fie d gain e d Cyprus fo r Englan d T h e ass e rtion s

.

i n r e ga r d to t h e val u e of t h e isl and mad e i n t h e s e c ond

"
and t h e th ird s e nt e n c e s coul d b e st b e p rov e d t ru e by a
map and a l ittl e e xplanat ion T hi s p aragra p h r e ally con
.

n e c t s its e lf i n th o u ght with t h e thi r d ass e rt ion of para

gra p h I O that by control of C on stanti nopl e R u s si a

,

wo u l d comman d t h e way t o I ndia for both c on sid e r t h e

,

l
Su e z Canal P a r ag r aph 1 3 add s a n e w ass e rt i on that mu st
.

b e p rov e d t r u e by t h e map al r e ady u s e d an d by an e x p a L

'

nat i on of t h e r e l at i on t o C on st ant inopl e and t h e do minant

pow e r i n it of t h e ot h e r s e ct i on s of T u rk e y an d of ad j ac e n t ,

cou nt ri e s T h e writ e r s i m ply sh udd e rs at what h e thi nks

. .

would happ e n if R u ssia w e r e i n cont rol of Eu ro p e d o e s ,

not Show that Sh e wo ul d b e i n cont r ol o r that h e has a ,

caus e to Sh u dd e r P aragraph 1 4 if it i s to hav e any fo r c e

.
, ,
.

m u st b ri ng out that al l Eu r op e was rou s e d m u st S how ,

what t h e d iff e r e nt c o u nt r i e s d id o r said th r o u gh th e i r

r e p r e s e n tat iv e s T r e at e d in th is way it wo u ld hav e
.
,

l
c l i m act i c forc e as showing that t h e r e p r e s e nt at iv e s of t h e

Eu r o p e an nat ion s agr e e d with B e a c o n s fie d T r e at e d as

.

t h e wr i t e r t r e at s it t h e pa r ag r aph giv e s S imp l y a vagu e

,

r e f e r e nc e to im p ortant e v i d e nc e whi c h shou l d b e p r oduc e d .

P aragraph 1 5 add s a qual ifi cat ion i n it s fi rst l in e and ,

would com e i n b e tt e r th e r e fo r e at t h e e n d of t h e int ro

, ,

duct ion wh e n t h e w rit e r i s narro w ing t h e q u e st ion B y

, .

t hat arrang e m e nt t h e last two l i n e s wou l d b e com e part

of t h e stat e m e nt to b e prov e d t ru e i n t h e fo r e n s i c .
1 92 A R G U M E N TA TI OJV .

of l if e j udg e d by t h e C r i m e a n w a r fo r i nstan c e
,
the , ,

p robabl e e xp e n s e t h e p r obabl e d u rat i on of s u c h a cont e st

,

w e r e b r i e fly shown t his pa r agraph wo u l d hav e p robat i v e

,

val u e P arag r a p h 1 8 e nds t h e wo rk n o t wit h a cl e ar

.
,

l
stat e m e nt of what has b e e n p rov e d b u t with t h e id e a ,

that B e a c o n s fie d s cou nt ry m e n ha i l e d h i m as a b e n e facto r

’
.

I t i s not t ru e that al l d i d H e r e i s a q u e st i onabl e ass e r

.

tion at t h e v e r y e n d of t h e work .

I n th i s fo r e n sic t h e n th e r e i s as s e rt ion on as s e rtion

, , ,

not o n e b i t of w e ll han dl e d proof T h e d e tail e d e xami n a

-
.

t i on of thi s s o call e d argum e nt Shou l d m ak e cl e ar how

-

in e ff e ctiv e how w e ak an d u nconvincing as s e r t ion is

, ,
.
.

P R O P ER SU P P O R T OF A SSER T I O N .

The way i n whi ch ass e r tion s Sh ould b e suppo r t e d t h e

l
f ol low i ng il lu st rat i on s S how A dam Sm ith w r it ing in h i s .
,

'

I Vea t /z of N a t i on s on t h e advantag e s of d ivi s i on of labo r ,

m ak e s this as s e rtion
“
T h e g r e at e st i m p ro v e m ent i n t h e p rod u c t iv e p owe rs of
lab or and t h e g r e ate r s ki ll d e x t e r i ty and j u d g m e nt w i th wh i c h
, , ,

i t i s anywh e r e d i r e c t e d and appl i e d s e e m to hav e b e e n t h e ,

e ff e c ts of d ivi s i on O f labor
”

l
.

H e w as h o w e v e r too wis e t o e t thi s stan d un s uppo r t e d

, , ,

and h e add e d i n o rd e r to m ak e cl e a r t h e t r uth of h i s

,

stat e m e nt
“
To tak e an e x am pl e th e r e for e fro m a v e ry tr i f i n g m an u
, ,
l
fa c t u r e b u t o n e i n wh i c h t h e d ivi s i on of lab or has b e e n v e ry
,

oft e n tak e n not i c e of t h e trad e of t h e p i n m ak e r ; a wor k m an

,
-

not e d u c at e d to th i s b u s i n e ss ( wh i c h t h e d ivi s i on of lab o r has

'

r e nd e r e d a d i st i n c t trad e ) nor a c q u ai nt e d wi th t h e u s e of t h e
,

m a c h i n e ry e m ploye d i n i t to t h e i n v e nt i on of wh i c h t h e sa m e
(
d ivi s i on of l ab o r h a s pro b ab ly g iv e n o c c as i on ) c o u ld s c ar c e , ,
 A A G U r / E N TA TI ON
’
l 193

p e rhap s w i th t h e u t m ost i nd u stry m ak e o n e p i n a day and

, , ,

c e rta i nly c o u ld not m a k e twe nt y B u t i n t h e way i n wh i c h .

th i s b u s i n e ss i s now c arr i e d on not only t h e whol e work i s a ,

e c u l i ar trad e b u t i t i s d ivi d e d i nto a n u m b e r of b ran c h e s of

p , ,

wh i c h t h e g r e at e r p art a r e l i k e w i s e p e c u l i ar trad e s O n e m a n .

draws o u t t h e wi r e anoth e r stra i ghte ns i t a th i rd c u ts i t a fo u rth

, , ,

p o i nts i t a fi fth
, g r i nds i t at t h e t o p for r e c e ivi n
g t h e h e ad to
m a k e t h e h e ad r e q u i r e s two or three d i st i n c t o p e rat i ons ; to

u t i t on i s a p e c u l i ar b u s i n e ss ; to wh i t e n t h e i ns i s anoth r
p p e ;
i t i s e v e n a trad e b y i ts e lf to p u t th e m i nto t h e p a p e r ; and t h e
i m p ortant b u s i n e ss of m aki ng a p i n i s i n th i s m ann e r d ivi d e d , ,

i nto abo u t e i g ht e e n d i st i n c t O p e rat i ons wh i c h i n so m e m an u ,

fa c tor i e s a re all p e rfor m e d b y d i st i n c t hands tho u g h i n oth e rs ,

t h e sa m e m a n w i ll p e rfor m two or thr e e of th e m I hav e s e e n .

a s m a ll m an uf a c tory of th i s ki nd wh e r e t e n m e n only we r e e m
p loy e d and
,
wh e r e so m e O f th e m c ons e q u e ntly
p e rfor m e d two
or thr e e d i st i n c t o p e rat i ons B u t tho u g h th e y we r e v e ry p oor .
,

and th e r e for e b u t i nd i ff e r e ntly ac c o m m odat e d wi th t h e n e c e s

sar y m a c h i n e ry th e y c o u ld wh e n th e y e x e rt e d th e m s e l v e s m ak e
, , ,

a m on g th e m ab o u t twe l v e p o u nds of p i ns i n a day Th e r e .

a re i n a p o u nd u pwards of fo u r tho u sand p i ns of a m i ddl i n g

s i z e Thos e t e n p e rsons th e r e for e c ou ld m ak e am ong t h e m
.
, ,

u wards O f forty e i ht t h o u sand p i ns i n a da y Ea c h p e rson

p g
-

.
,

th e r e for e m aki n g a t e nth p art of fort y e i g ht tho u sand p i n s

,
-

m i g ht b e c o n s i d e r e d as m a ki n g fo u r tho u sand e i g ht h u ndr e d

p i ns i n a day B u t i f th e y had all wro u g ht s e p arat e ly and i nd e

.

e n d e ntl y and w i tho u t any O f th em ha vi n g b e e n e d u c at e d to

p ,

th i s p art i c u lar b u s i n e ss th e y c e rta i nly c o u ld not e a c h of th e m

,

ha v e m a d e twe nty p e rhap s not o n e p i n i n a day ; that i s , ,

c e rta i nly not t h e two h u ndr e d and fort i e th p e rha p s not t h e ,

fo u r tho u sand e i g ht h u ndr e dth p art of what th e y a r e at

p r e s e nt c a p a b l e of p e rfor m i n g i n c ons e q u e n c e of a p ro p e r ,

1 ”
d ivi s i on and c o m b i nat i on of th e i r d i ffe r e nt op e rat i ons .

W l i i i Sp i m f Exp
l
1
T h D f L b
t/
ea
f N t t i o a on s . e v s on o a or . ec en s o o

s iti ou .H L m . t a
pp on
5 7 .
H H t .
C 10 8 94 —
10 . . o o .
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1 94 A R G U M E N TA TI O tV .

M acaulay in his famou s r e vi e w of C r o k e r s B os w e s

,
’
l
l ’

f o/zn s o n sai d , .

N oth i n g i n t h e wor k has asto n i sh e d u s so m u c h as t h e

i g noran c e or t h e c ar e l e ssn e ss of M r Croke r w i th re s p e c t to .

f a c ts and date s Many of h i s b l u nd e rs a r e s u c h as w e Sho u ld

.

b e s u r p r i s e d to h e ar any we ll e d u c at e d g e ntl e m an c o m m i t e v e n -

i n c on v e rsat i on .

M acaulay n e xt tak e s up many stat e m e n t s of C r ok e r ,

and by con s id e ri ng e ach j u s t i fi e s t h e as s e r tion s ma d e

abov e H e r e i s an e xam pl e of h i s m e thod :
.

“
In p la c e Mr
one Cro k e r says that at t h e do m
,
m e n c e m en t
.

of t h e i nt i m a c y b e twe e n Dr J ohnson and Mrs Thral e i n 1 765 . .

, ,

t h e lady was twe nty fiv e ye ars old I n oth e r p la c e s h e says

1 -

that Mrs Thral e s th i rty fif t h ye ar c o i n c i d e d w i th J ohnson s

.
’
-
’

s e v e nt i e th J ohnson was b orn i n 1 70 9 If th e r e for e M i s

. .
, ,
'
.

Thral e s th i rty fif t h ye a r c o i n c i d e d w i th J ohnson s s e v e nt i e th

’
-
’
,

s h e c o u ld ha v e b e e n only twe nty o n e ye ars old i n 1 76 5 Th i s -

.

i s not all M r Crok e r i n anoth e r p la c e ass i g ns t h e ye ar 1 777

. .
, ,

as t h e dat e of t h e c o m pl i m e ntary l i n e s wh i c h J ohnson m ad e on

M rs Thral e s th i rty fif t h b i rthday If th i s dat e b e c orr e c t Mrs
.
’
-

.
, .

Thral e m u st ha v e b e e n b orn i n 1 74 2 and c o u ld ha v e b e e n ,

onl y t we nty thr e e wh e n h e r a c q u a i ntan c e w i th J ohnson c o m

-

m en c e d M r Cro k e r th e r e for e g iv e s u s thr e e d i f fe r e n t state

. .
, ,

m e nts as to h e r a g e Two of t h e thr e e m u st b e i n c orr e c t ” 2

l
. .

l
Ed m u n d B u rk e , i n h i s sp e e ch on Con c i i a t i on w i t/t t /ze
Am e r i ca n Co on i e s , m ad e th i s as s e r tion

I c onfe ss
But m y O p i n i on i s m u c h m or e i n favor of

p r u d e nt m anag e m e nt than of for c e ; c ons i d e r i ng for c e not as

1 M aca u l
y a c a r ef u l
l
y i g ve s re f e r e n c e s t o th e p l a ces i n C ro k e r
’
s ed it i on

wh e re t h e m isst it e d o cc u r

lf
l
a tem e n ts c .

l
2
E s s ay s
’
C r ok e r E d i t i on f
’
on s o B os we s Li e
f
o
j ok u s on , p .
334 .

H . H o t Co .
, 18
93 .
1 96 A R G UM E N TA T1 01 V .

Est i m at e d r e ntals
D e d u c t t e n p e r c e nt for v a c an c i e s

N et r e ntals
Est i m at e d e x p e ns e s i n c l u d i ng ta x e s
,

Int e r e st on m ort g age at

fo u r p e r c e nt p e r ann u m
D ivi d e nd $ 5 p e r Shar e on
shar e s

II . KIN DS O F EV I D EN C E .

A ca r e fu l r e ad e r will hav e notic e d that t h e e vi d e nc e

us e d i n th e s e i llust rat ion s i s of d i f f e r e nt kinds T h e .

ass e r t ion of A dam Sm ith is p rov e d t r u e by ca r e fu l stat e

m e nt of an ill u st r at i on T h e s e cond i s p r ov e d cor r e ct by
.

an e xami nation of t h e w o r d s of C r ok e r whi c h shows ,

th e i r c ont rad i c torin e s s an d absu rd ity T h e t h i rd r e st s

.

fo r it s p r oof on a s e ri e s O f p ropo s it ion s which a r e s o s e l f

e vid e nt o r r e st on fact s so g e n e r a ll y ad m itt e d that any

l
, ,

r e ad e r mu st g r an t th e i r t r uth T h e fou r th s tat e m e nt i s

.

p rov e d co rr e ct by m e an s of fi gu r e s P lain y th e n t h e r e
.
, ,

a r e d i f f e r e n t kind s of e vid e n c e v e r y m any p r obably

—
, ,

fo r but a f e w of an infi n ity of as s e r t ion s hav e b e e n

q uot e d . Evid e nt ly t h e n h e who wou ld a r gu e w e ll m u st
, ,

not only r e cogni z e t hat e vid e nc e i s n e e d e d in al l a r gu

m e ntat ion but mu s t l e a r n w hat kin ds of e vi d e n c e th e r e
,

a re .
 A R G U /VE N TA TI ON 197

EV I D EN C E H ER E N OT L I M I T ED As IT Is IN C O U R TS .

Pag e s 8 1 3 o f C hapt e r I point e d out that cou r t s of

—
, ,

law li m it st r ict l y t h e e vid e n c e to b e u s e d i n th e m A .

stud e nt of A rgu m e ntat ion e xc e pt w h e n h e is ask e d to ,

tak e t h e l e gal po int of Vi e w i n t r e at ing h is cas e should ,

c l e a r ly u nd e r stand t hat h e i s bou nd by non e Of t hese

l aws of e vid e n c e of t h e cou r t s T h e r e ason s fo r t his t h e .

p ag e s j us t r e f e rr e d t o e xpl ain e d at l e ngth and t h e fol ,

lowi ng q uotation s e t s fo r th with g r e at cl e a r n e s s °

NO r e asonabl e m a n who for h i s own sat i sfac t i o n wi sh e d

, ,

to as c e rta i n what was t h e c ond u c t of t h e do c k lab or e rs d u r i n g

t h e r e c e nt str ik e what w e r e th e i r m ot iv e s i n l e a vi n g th e i r wor k
, ,

an d how far b y for c e or oth e rwi s e th e y i nt i m i dat e d t h e s o

, ,

c all e d bla c k l e g s wo u ld e v e r t i e h i s hands by an y r u l e s o f

‘ ’
-

e vi d e n c e [that i s r u l e s of t h e c o u rts
] O u r i n q u i r e r wo u ld
”
.
,

l i st e n to e v e ryth i ng sa i d b y p e rsons wh o had or we r e l ik e l y to ,

hav e d i r e c t or i nd i r e c t knowl e d g e of what took p lac e b e for e or

,

d u r i ng t h e str i k e ; h e wo u ld g iv e e a r to ge n e ral r e port ; and ,

tho u g h i f h e u nd e rstood h i s work h e wo u ld i n h i s own m i nd

, ,

d i st i n g u i sh c ar e fu lly b e twe e n t h e p robat iv e v al u e of d i f fe re nt

k i nds O f stat e m e nts h e wo u ld c e rta i nly not r e j e c t i nfor m a t i o n
,

wh i c h w e i g h e d u p on h i s j u dgm e nt b e c a u s e i t was only s e c ,

on da r
y or h e arsay e vi d e n c e A j u dg e
. on t h e oth er h
,
a nd ,

o c c u p i e d i n tryi ng lab or e rs on a c harg e of c ons p i ra c y to p r e v e n t

b la c k l e g s fro m e nt e r i n g i nto t h e e m p lo y m e n t of t h e Do c k
‘ ’
-

Co m p any wo u ld r e j e c t m u c h e vi d e n c e wh i c h o u r i n v e st i g ator
,

wo u ld r e c e iv e H e wo u ld on p r i n c i p l e sh u t h i s e ars to t h e
.

e ff e c t of c e rta i n all e g e d fa c ts ; h e wo u ld r e j e c t all h e arsay ; h e

wo u ld not p a y att e nt i on to c o m m on r e p ort ; h e wo u ld i n m any

c as e s d e c l i n e to c ons i d e r any b u t t h e b e st e vi d e n c e .

To p o i nt o u t t h e d i st i n c t i on b e twe e n ord i nary i n q u i ry and

j u d i c i al p roc e d u r e do e s not i nvolv e t h e n e c e ss i ty for c e ns u r i ng
1 98 A R G U M E N TA TJO ZV .

e i th e r t h e c o m m o n s e ns e c u sto m s of e v e r y d a y l i f e or t h e r u l e s
- -

of e vi d e n c e ado pt e d b y t h e Courts T h e o b j e c ts of ord i nary .

i n v e st i g a t i on and of a j u d i c i a l i n q u i ry a r e d i ff e r e nt It i s nat u ral .

,

th e r e for e that e a c h sho u ld b e c ond u c t e d on so m e what d i ff e r e nt

,

p r i n c i p l e s . In t h e c as e f o r e x a m p l e O f r e s e ar c h i nto a m att e r of
, ,

h i stor y t h e i n v e st i g ator s sol e ob j e c t i s to g e t as n e ar t h e tr u th

,
’

as h e c a n H i s e n d i s k nowl e d g e It i s th e r e for e b e tte r that

. .
, ,

h e sho u ld ru n so m e r i s k of e rror than that h e sho u ld c los e h i s

e y e s to e vi d e n c e wh i c h tho u g h i t m a y o c c as i onally m i sl e ad
,

h i m holds o u t t h e p ro m i s e of g u i d i n g h i m i f not to c e rta i n

, , ,

y e t to h i g hl y p ro b a b l e c on c l u s
,
i ons A j u d g e s O b j e c t.i n t h e
’

c ond u c t of a c r i m i nal tr i al ( as i nd e e d to a c e rta i n e x t e nt i n, , ,

t h e c ond u c t of an y tr i al ) i s d i ff e r e nt H i s a i m i s to c o m e to a .

c on c l u s i on th e n and th e n only when t h e c on c l u s i on i s

— —

c e rta i n e no u g h to j u st i f y t h e p rono u n c i n of a d e c i s i on A s
g .

ag a i nst t h e p r i son e r at any rat e h e wi sh e s i n e f fe c t to c o m e to

, ,

no c on c l u s i on at all o r rath e r i n En g land to p r e v e nt t h e j u ry

—
, ,

fro m c o m i n g to any c on c l u s i on at all u nl e ss i t b e o n e e stab

l
’

i s h e d w i th what for p ra c t i c al p u r pos e s w e m a y c all c e rta i nty

, ,
.

H e n c e h e d e l i b e rat e ly e x c l u d e s fro m h i s V i e w c ons i d e rat i ons

,

l
wh i c h tho u g h v al u ab l e as a g u i d e to p ro b ab i l i ty i n v ol v e a pp re
, ,

c i a b e r i s k of e rror H e i s m or e ov e r c o m p e ll e d to r e j e c t
.
, ,

e vi d e n c e of c e rta i n d e s c r i p t i ons not so m u c h b e c a u s e i t wo u ld

,

l e ad to e rror as r e g ards t h e p art i c u lar c as e wh i c h i s b e fore t h e

Co u rt as b e c au s e t h e ad m i ss i on of i t wo u ld as a g e n e ral r u l e
, , ,

p r e v e nt t h e p rod u c t i on of a b e tt e r k i nd of e vi d e n c e Th i s i s .

t h e m a i n r e ason why a w i tn e ss i s not g e n e rally allowe d to g iv e

1
v e rb al e vi d e n c e as to t h e c ont e nts of a wr i tt e n do c u m e nt .
”

C O M M O N D I V I SI O N S OF EV I D EN C E .

Th eb r oad fi e ld of e vid e n c e has b e e n d ivi d e d acco rd

i ng to diff e r e nt plan s and t h e d ivis ion s n am e d I t i s , .

1 l e Ve r d i ct , A . V . D i y Q
ce ,
. C .
, pp . 1 2, I 3 . C a s se l
l Co .
, 1 8 90 .
200 A R G U AI E A’ TA TI OXV .

bu t i n o n e cas e it i s d ir e ct t e stimony as to t h e d e e d in ,

t h e oth e r ind i r e ct I t m u st b e e vid e n t th at in t h e s e cond

.

c as e t h e j udgm e nt r e st s on ci rc u m stanc e s f r om which t h e

wi tn e ss d raws his con c l u sion i s r e ally c i r cu m st antial ,

—

e vid e nc e P e rhaps t h e n a b e tt e r d ivis i on of e vi d e nc e is

.
, ,

t h e m or e common o n e in to di r e ct and i nd i r e ct ( o r
ci rc u mstant ial ) .

l
l
T h e two a r e so i nt e rd e p e nd e nt that i t i s only by e xtr e m e ,

e x a m p l e s that w e c a n d i sso c i at e th e m A d i r e c t e vi d e n c e .

m u st b e s u sta i n e d b y c i r c u m stan c e s wh i lst all c i r c u m stant i al ,

e vi d e n c e i s d e p e nd e nt u p on d i r e c t fa c ts as stat e d b y w i tn e ss e s

p ast or p r e s e nt .

L e t m e g iv e y o u an e xa m p l e of e a c h that th i s m a y b e m or e ,

c l e ar to y o u r m i nds L e t u s s u pp os e that s e v e ral boys g o to a

.

p ool of wat e r to sw i m O n e of th e s e i s s e e n b.
y h i s c o m p an i ons
to d iv e i nto t h e wat e r and h e do e s not ar i s e H i s d e ath i s ,
.

r e porte d Th i s i s c all e d d i r e c t e vi d e n c e T h e boy was s e e n

. .

to drown y o u a re told and yo u r j u dg m e nt c on c e d e s t h e f ac t

, ,

r e ad i ly B u t i s t h e p ro p os i t i on p ro v e d e v e n tho u g h y o u ha v e
.
,

th e s e s e v e ral wi tn e ss e s to t h e a c t u al drown i ng ? L e t u s s e e .

T h e a u thor i t i e s lat e r dra g t h e p ool and fi nd a b ody

, ,
Th e .

body i s tak e n to t h e m org u e a n d t h e k e e pe r th e r e an e x p e rt , ,

i n s u c h m att e rs m ak e s t h e startl i n g ass e rt i on that i nst e ad of a

l
,

f e w h o u rs or e t u s say a day t h e b ody m u st have b e e n

, ,

i m m e rs e d for s e v e ral days Th i s i s c i r c u m st a nt i al e vi d e n c e . .

T h e k e e p e r has no p os i t iv e k nowl e d g e that th i s p art i c u lar body

has b e e n u nd e r wat e r so long St i ll h e has s e e n tho u sands of .

b od i e s and non e has p r e s e nt e d s u c h an a p pe aran c e aft e r so

,

short an i nt e r v al How shall w e j u d g e b e twe e n s u c h c onfl i c t

.

i n g e vi d e n c e ? O n t h e o n e s i d e w e ha v e d i r e c t e vi d e n c e wh i c h

. l
i s m ost p os i t iv e O n t h e oth e r w e hav e c i r c u m stant i al e vi d e n c e
.

wh i c h i s e q u al y so I s t h e or ig i nal hypoth e s i s p ro v e n
.
? 1
Do e s
t ti d g i s t th i w d
1 St d
ts f A g m
i t h p t p t i i pl E
u en o rw u en a P
o n a re d a rn e a a n s or .
“
ro v e

p t i t h v di t t p ve h s “ ” “
s e as ar c e xce n e e er c no n, ro v n a
.
p ro

no p r o pe r u se .
 TI ON 201

not i r c u m st a nt i a l e vi d e n c e ra i s e a do u bt ? C e rtai nl y
l
the c .

N o w e t u s t a k e anoth e r st e p T h e w i tn e ss e s to t h e drown i n g
.

a r e c all e d a g a I n ,and V i e w t h e b ody and now a m on g t e n of

,

th e m we fin d o n e who h e s i tat e s i n h i s i d e nt ifi c at i on A t on c e
, .

w e fi nd anoth e r c i r c u m stan c e want i n g i n s u b stant i at i on of t h e

or i g i nal c la i m N o w we se e that all that was r e ally p ro v e d
.
,

was that a b o y was drown e d ; and not at all that i t was th i s

,

p art i c u lar b o
y who was fo u nd B u.t i s i t p ro v e d that a b o y was
drown e d wh e n t h e boys we r e i n s wi m m i ng ? How c a n i t b e i n
t h e a b s e n c e of a drown e d b ody wh i c h all c a n i d e nt i fy as th e i r

c o m p an i on s N ow s u pp os e that at t h e last ho u r t h e or i g i nal

’

boy t u rns u p al iv e and r e p orts that h e had b e e n wash e d ashor e

,

down t h e str e am and s u b s e q u e ntly r e c o v e r e d W e fi nd that

, .

o u r d i r e c t e v i d e n c e w i th n u m e ro u s w i tn e ss e s to t h e a c t u al fa c t
, ,

was e nt i r e l y m i sl e ad i ng aft e r all b e c ,

j u m p e d to a
c on c l u s i on w i tho u t d u ly c o
,
cum

stan c e s o f t h e c as e So i t i s . i s no s u c h th i ng
as p os i t iv e p roof wh i c h do e s not d e p end u pon c i r c u m stan c e s .

T h e old e x a m p l e m a y b e c i t e d b r i e fly ag a i n .If y o u s e e o n e

m a n shoot at anoth e r and s e e t h e oth e r fall and d i e c a n y o u ,

say w i tho u t fu rth e r knowl e dge that o n e ki ll e d t h e oth e r wi th

,

h i s p i stol ? If y o u do y o u m a y fi nd lat e r t hat t h e p i stol e ar n e d

,

only a blan k c artr i d g e and that t h e m a n d i e d of fr i g ht

,
.

“
It i s e q u ally tr u e of c i r c u m stant i al e vi d e n c e that wi tho u t ,

so m e d i r e c t fa c t u pon wh i c h i t d e p e nds i t i s worthl e ss A S an .

e x a m pl e of th i s I m a y as w e ll sa v e yo u r t i m e b y i ntrod u c i n g

t h e c a s e at i ss u e If we c o u ld Show y o u that t h e p r i son e r

.

d e s i r e d t h e d e ath of th i s g i rl ; that h e p ro fi t e d b y h e r d e ath ;

that Sh e d i e d u nd e r c i r c u m stan c e s wh i c h m ad e t h e att e nd
i n g ph y s i c i an s u s p e c t m or p h i n e p o i son i n g ; that as soon as t h e
s u s p i c i on was anno u n c e d t h e p r i son e r m y st e r i o u sly d i s a p
,

e a r e d a n d re m ai n e d i n h i d i n for s e v e ral d a y s ; that h e h a d

p , g
t h e o p port u n i ty to ad m i n i st e r t h e p o i son ; that h e u nd e rstood

l
l
t h e work i n g of t h e dr u g ; and oth e r c i r c u m stan c e s of a Si m i lar
nat u r e t h e arg u m e nt wo u ld b e e nt i r e ly c i r c u m stant i al A
,
.
2 02 A R G U M E N TA TI O /V .

t h i s m i g ht b e tr u e and t h e m a n m ig ht b e i nno c e nt B u t .
,

s e l e c t i n g fro m t h i s ar ray of s u s p i c i o u s fa c ts t h e o n e wh i c h ,

i nd i c at e s m orp h i n e as t h e dr u g e m plo y e d add to i t t h e fa c t ,

that e x pe rt c h e m i sts a c t u ally fi nd m or p h i n e i n t h e t i ss u e s of

t h e b ody and y o u s e e g e ntl e m e n that at on c e th i s Si n g l e b i t
, , ,

of d i r e c t e vi d e n c e g iv e s s u b stant i al for m to t h e whol e T h e .

c i r c u m stant i al i s str e ng th e n e d b y t h e d i r e c t j u st as t h e
‘

d i r e c t i s m ad e i m portant b y t h e c i r c u m stant i al T h e m e r e .

fi nd i ng o f po i son i n a b od y tho u g h d i r e c t e vi d e n c e as to t h e
,

c a u s e of d e ath n e i th e r c on vi c ts t h e assass i n nor e v e n p os i

l
, ,

t i v e y i nd i c at e s that a m u rd e r has b e e n c o m m i tt e d T h e po i son .

m i g ht ha v e r e a c h e d t h e vi c t i m b y a c c i d e nt B u t c ons i d e r t h e .

att e ndant c i r c u m stan c e s and th e n we s e e that a d e fi n i t e c o n

,

e l u s i on i s i n e vi tabl e It i s fro m t h e c i r c u m stant i al e vi d e n c e

.

onl y that w e c a n r e a c h t h e tr u e m e an i ng of what d i re c t t e st i

1
m ony t e a c h e s
”
.

Evid e n c e , t h e n wh e n con s i d e r e d w ith r e ga rd to it s

,

so u rc e is cal l e d d i r e ct and i n d i re ct ( r c i r cu mstant ia l )

,
p .

c ) A n o t /t er D i v i s i o n o E i d A noth d ivi io
( f v en ce e r s n .

of e v i d e n c e i n t h e past a go od d e a l u s e d by writ e r s on
,

R h e to r i c an d A r gu m e ntat ion I S int o p r oof f r o m A nt e ,

c e d e nt P robabil ity Sign and Examp l e

l
, , .

I . A rg u m e n t
f r om A n t ece d e n t P ro ba bi i ty . T h e A r gu
m e nt f r om A nt e c e d e nt Pr obabi l ity t r i e s to account fo r
som e thing t /t a t i s a s s u m e d t o be t r u e t o fi n d a mot iv e ,
—

fo r it Wh e n t h e w r it e r of t h e l ong quotat ion j ust cit e d

.

p o i nts ou t t hat in t h e m u rd e r cas e h e i s d i s cu ssing i t

woul d b e h e l pf u l to Show that t h e p r i s on e r d e s i r e d t h e
d e ath of t h e g ir l that h e p r ofit e d by h e r d e ath h e sugg e st s
, ,

using t h e A rg u m e nt from A nt e c e d e nt Pr obability That .

1 A M od e r n Wi za r d l l ig h t
l
.
O tto en g u i, cha p . X I , p p 1 7 1 1 76
.
—
. So m e s

ch a n g e s , f o r g re a t e r c e a rn e s s , ha v e b ee n m a de i n t h e u o ta t q io n .
204 l
l
A E G U /[E N TA TI OJV .

t h at r e s ul t has occu rr e d an e s s e nt ial att e nding ci rcum

,
~

stanc e has b e e n a cond i tion of t h e i m m e rs e d body l ik e t h e

condit i on of t h e body i n q u e st ion Wh e n fo r i n stan c e .
, ,

to u s e an o l d il lust rat ion a m a n s e e s t h e ba r om e t e r fal l ing

, ,

W e Shal l hav e bad w e ath e r

”
h e says ,
“
H e do e s not .

m e an that t h e fal l i ng of t h e barom e t e r i s a cau s e of t h e

bad w e ath e r b u t only that it is o n e of t h e cond itions
,

att e ndant upon bad w e ath e r i s an e s s e ntial part of t h e ,

p r oc e ss c al l e d bad w e ath e r .

H e r e again a kind of e vid e nc e al r e ady known to t h e

r e ad e r 1 8 si m ply giv e n anoth e r nam e I n t h e fi r st c as e .

cit e d t h e witn e ss d b e s not t e stify that h e kn ows t hi s i s

,

not t h e d r o w n e d boy bu t stat e s c i r cum stanc e s which

,

mak e h im b e l i e v e that thi s is not t h e boy s bo d y I n ’

.

t h e s e cond cas e t h e w it n e ss d o e s not t est ify t hat h e saw

,

t h e m u r d e r b u t stat e s con d it ion s wh i ch mak e h im th ink

,

that m u r d e r m a y hav e tak e n p l ac e That is h is t e sti m ony .

,

i s i nd i r e ct o r c ircu mstantia l e vi d e nc e t hough of anoth e r

, ,

kin d fro m that con si d e r e d un d e r A nt e c e d e nt P robabi l ity .

3 Tb. c A r u m en t
g f r o m E x a m p l
e .
—
f r om T h e A r gum e nt
Exampl e r e st s on t h e i d e a that obj e ct s which r e s e mb l e
e ach ot h e r i n two o r mo r e r e sp e ct s c on n ec t e d w i tk t b c
,

l
p o i n t i n d i s c u s s i on wil l r e s e m b l e e ach oth e r i n th is p a r
,

t i c u a r p oint

l
That is if i n t h e mu rd e r ca s e wh ich
.
, .

has b e e n u s e d fo r an il l ust ration t h e awy e r fo r t h e

’

p ros e c ution show e d that t wo o r m o r e c i r c umstanc e s i n

t h e c as e a r e t h e sam e as two o r m o r e c i r c um stan c e s i n a

p ast mu rd e r cas e t h e d e t ai l s of which a r e known and

, ,

that i n t h e pa s t cas e th e s e w e r e in s e pa r ably conn e ct e d

w i th t h e fact of murd e r h e may argu e that t h e r e has b e e n
,

m u rd e r h e r e . R e ally this i s but an int e n sifi e d fo r m of

 A R G U AI E N TA TI O M 205

t h e A rg u m n t from Si gn Lik e that t h e A r gum e n t f r o m

e .
,

Exa m pl e s e e ks to S how n ot a caus e fo r t h e r e sul t if that

, ,

e xist but t hat t h e r e s u l t do e s e xi st

, I t s e e ks to e stab l i sh a
.

l ik e n e s s of r e sult s by point ing out a l i k e n e s s i n t h e g i v e n

l
cas e not S i m ply to o n e part of a past kno w n p r oc e ss
,

which e d to t h e r e su l t i n q u e st ion but to s e v e r al parts , .

F o r in stan c e i n t h e cas e j ust cit e d s u ppos e that t h e

,

l awy e r can Show t hat i n bot h cas e s an ov e r dos e of m or -

phin e w as fo und in t h e bo d y of t h e V i c ti m that i n e ach ,

cas e t h e a c cus e d Sh o w e d sp e cia l knowl e dg e of t h e u s e

of mo r ph in e that t h e r e lation s of acc u s e d and v i c tim
,

w e r e t h e sam e and t hat th e s e th r e e con d i t ion s w e r e

,

i n s e pa r ably con n e ct e d wit h t h e p r ov e d m u rd e r i n t h e

fi r st cas e . T h e n by t h e A r gum e nt from Exampl e h e
woul d say t hat t h e accu s e d i n thi s cas e i s t h e murd e r e r .

Y e t e a ch of th e s e r e s e m bl anc e s tak e n by its e lf i s an

A rgum e n t fro m Sign A s has b e e n said t h e A rg u m e nt
.
,

fro m Exa m pl e c ov e rs any n u mb e r of r e s e m blan c e s fro m

t wo to compl e t e r e s e mblan c e I n al l t h e d e gr e e s of
.

r e s e mb l anc e e xc e pt t h e l ast witn e s s e s a re n o t s u m

, ,

m ou e d t o sw e a r that th e y saw t h e m u r d e r but to stat e

ci r c um s tanc e s which l e ad to a b e l i e f th at mu r d e r was
comm itt e d ,
to giv e i nd i r e c t e v i d e n c e B u t a m an .

can not sw e a r to t h e last d e gr e e to t h e co m pl e t e r e s e m ,

b l anc e b e tw e e n t wo c as e s u nl e s s h e was a d i r e c t witn e ss to

,

t h e cas e i n po i nt Th e r e fo r e this e v i d e nc e t h e argu m e nt

. ,

l
f r om co m pl e t e r e s e m blanc e i s di r e c t e v i d e pc e Thu s t h e
,
.

t h r e e d i vi sion s A nt e c e d e nt Pro ba b i i ty Si gn a n d Ex
, , ,

amp l e cov e r t h e whol e fi e l d of e vid e nc e

,
.

T h e d istin c t ion s of e vi d e nc e j ust giv e n hav e n o t b e e n

v e r y h e lpf u l t o st ud e nt s of A rg u m e ntat ion b e c aus e t h e ,

d i ff e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e m and e s p e c i al l y that b e tw e e n
206 A R G UM E N TA TI ON

Sign and Examp l e di ff i cult t o stat e and to u nd e r

a re

stan d T h e nom e nclatu r e is l a r g e ly r e spon s i bl e fo r th is

.

confusion I f a st ud e nt looks at t h e th r e e kind s of a r g u

.

m e nt f rom o n e point of Vi e w th e y m a y all b e r e ga r d e d as

s ign s of t h e t r uth of t h e con clus ion d r awn ; from anoth e r
p oint of V i e w h e s e e m s t o consid e r i n th e m al l e xa m pl e s ,

though of va r yi ng d e g r e e s of convi ncingn e s s C ouse .

q u e nt l y it w ou l d s e e m that h e m ight ca ll al l of th e m
A rgum e nt s f r om Si gn o r al l of th e m A rgu m e nt s fro m
,

Examp l e T h e assign m e nt of e a c h nam e to o n e on l y of

.

t h e t w o fo r m s app e a r s a r bit r a r y and confus ing .

A F O U R T H P O SSI B L E D I V I SI O N OF EV I D EN C E .

Th e r e a l signifi canc e of t h e s e t e r m s and what i s fa r , ,

mo r e i m p o r tan t t h e r e a l r e l ation s of t h e d i ff e r e nt kind s

,

of e vid e nc e will p e rhaps b e com e cl e ar e r to a stud e n t if

, ,

h e consid e r s ca r e fu ll y a fou r th poss ibl e d ivis ion of t h e fi e l d

of e vi d e nc e that i s i nto a r gu m e nt f r o m a r e s e mbl a n c e
,
—
,

which if it b e found that t h e r e s ult r e a ll y occu rr e d may

, , .

hav e p r o d uc e d thi s r e su l t ; a r gum e nt f r o m a r e s e mblan ce

known in a p ast ca s e t o b e an e ss e nt ia l pa r t of a p r oc e s s
l e ad ing to t h e r e s ult i n qu e s tion a r gum e nt from a s e r i e s
of s u ch r e s e m bl an c e s and a r gum e nt f r om compl e t e
r e s e m b l anc e T h e followin g w i ll i l l u s t r at e th is m e thod
.

of d i v i sion .

Two H arvard g r a d uat e s a re chatting of H a r va r d at h l e t

ics . T he fi rst say s : W e l l e v e r S inc e t hat cas e of u nfai r
,

tack l ing by a H arva r d man two y e a r s ago at a c r itical

mom e nt fo r H a r va r d I hav e n e v e r ca r e d much fo r t h e
,

” ”
gam e . A h but says t h e s e cond
, , d o you know that
,

th r was unfai r ta c kl i ng
e e ? Was n ot t hat d e ni e d ? D i d
208 A R G U M E N TA TI ON

Su p pos e , how e v e r th at t h e s e cond man had h e ard

,

e no u g h of th is p articula r gam e t o b e wil l ing to a d mit that

t h e Sit u at ion was ind e e d as c rit ical as t h is fo r t h e H a r va r d

, ,

t e am . I m m e d iat e ly th i s r e s e mblan c e off e r s a pos s ibl e

m ot iv e fo r t h e u nfai r tack l ing That is t h e r e i s now
.
,

gran t e d a slight ant e c e d e nt p r obab il i ty that t h e unfai r

tack l in g took p lac e T h e A r gu m e nt from A nalogy th e ri
.
, ,

as has j u st b e e n s e e n i s not s e parabl e h e r e as a n a i g u

, ,

m e n t fro m t h e A rgu m e nt f r o m A nt e c e d e nt P robabi l ity

, If .

t h e r e s e mbl an c e c annot b e sh own to b e conn e ct e d wit h

t h e p oint i n q u e st ion it can not b e u s e d as an a r gu m e nt

,

if it can it b e com e s t h e A r gum e nt f r om A nt e c e d e nt

,

P robabil i ty o r o n e of t h e two kind s of argum e nt st il l to

,

b e e x p lain e d Sign an d Exam p l e

, .

I f now t h e fi rst m an t ri e s t o find ot h e r A r gum e nt s f r om

, ,

A nt e c e d e nt P robabil ity h e m a y s a y that t h e m an accus e d

,

of unfa i r ta c kl ing i s known to hav e an ug l y t e mp e r to b e ,

t ricky that h e i s known to hav e a gr u dg e agai n s t t h e man

,

tackl e d H e r e h e r e a ll y says : C ompa r ing th i s c as e

.
“

with oth e r s al l t h e c i r cum stan c e s of which I kn ow I

, ,

s e e h e re a
p oss ib l e m ot iv e fo r t h e act that i n a past
”
cas e was t h e motiv e fo r a l ik e r e su l t unfai r play , .

Thus far t h e fi rst m a n has not bro u ght forward any \ '

p roof that th e r e was u nfai r ta c kl ing but assum in g that , ,

t h e r e was has b e e n t r yi ng to fi nd a cau s e fo r t h e assu m e d

,

r e sul t Con s e qu e ntly an A rgum e nt fro m A nt e c e d e n t

.
,

P robabil i ty cannot by it s e l f c onvinc e It n e e d s st r ong e r .

l
e v i d e nc e t o suppo r t it I t s i m p l y Shows a va rying d e g r e e
.

of p r obabi i ty that t h e r e su l t in q u e st ion took p l ac e N ot e .

that al l t h e r e s e mbl an c e s i n t h e i ll u st r ation s giv e n hav e

b e e n s e e n by t h e fi rst sp e ak e r t h e inv e stigat or so t o _ , ,

Sp e ak of t h e cas e
, H e might how e v e r d r aw h i s a r g u
.
, ,
 A R G U M E N T/ 1 T O /V l . 209

m e nt not f r om a r e s e m bl an c e to a past cas e known to

,

h im but l ik e t h e s e co nd sp e ak e r if h e acc e pt s t h e a r gu
, ,

m e nt of t h e fi r st f r om a r e s e m blanc e to som e th ing i n t h e

,

e xp e r i e n c e of an oth e r p e r son a r e s e mblanc e fi rst s e e n by

,

anot h e r and d e p e n d e nt fo r it s fo r c e on t h e co rr e ct n e ss of
,

t hat ot h e r p e r son s e xp e r i e n c e Evid e nt l y such a r e s e m

’
.

b l anc e m ay fi r st hav e b e e n poi nt e d out by a l iving witn e ss ,

o r i n a l e tt e r o r som e p u b l ication by o n e now d e ad .

T h e e vi d e n c e t hu s fa r p r od uc e d t o s uppo r t t h e i d e a of
1
u nfai r tack l in g m ay b e t abul at e d as fo ll o w s :

( ) a A rg u m e nt
fro m a r e s e m b lan c e ,

t h e p oss i bl e c onn e c t i on of wh i c h w i th

t h e p o i nt i n q u e st i on n e e ds d e m on

s t ra t i o n .

If r e s e m b lan c e i s shown ( 1 ) not :

the

to b e c onn e c te d wi th t h e p o i nt i n
q u e st i on i t has no v al u e as p roof i n
t h e c as e u nd e r d i s c u ss i on ; i f ( 2 ) i t
i s Shown to ha v e c on ne c t i on w i th i t ,

th e n i t b e c o m e s t h e A rg u m e nt fro m
A nt e c e d e nt Probab i l i ty fro m Si g n or , ,

fro m Ex am p l e .

( )
b A r g u m e nt fro m a r e s e m b lan c
e
to so m e th i n g s e e n i n a p ast c as e to
hav e b e e n a or t h e c au s e of a r e s u lt
l ik e that i n q u e st i on and i f t h e o c c u r , ,

r e n c e of t h e r e s u lt i n th i s c as e i s
p ro v e d p ro
,
b a b ly a or t h e c a u s e of t h e

r e s u lt i n q u e st i on .

l ich l
l l ve ope d f ro m t h a t 1 2 7, 1 2 8 o f a n

l
1 Th e t a b es wh fo o w a re de on pp .

I n t r od u c t i on t o Tk c m e Wr i ti ng , F e t ch e r a n d C a rp e n t e r .
210 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV .

The two m e n hav e no w e xhau st e d t h e ki nds of p r oof

t hat m ay b e addu c e d by t hos e who d id not s e e t h e gam e .

Suppos e th e n that a t hi r d m an e nt e r s who saw t h e gam e

, , ,

an d who though h e cannot say th at h e saw t h e u nfai r

,

tackl ing fi rmly b e l i e v e s that it t ook plac e O n what w ill

, .

h e r e st hi s b e l i e f wh e n t h e s e con d man asks h i m fo r hi s

,

r e ason s ? Thi s thi rd man wil l say that h e b e l i e v e s as h e

do e s not only b e cau s e h e kno w s t hat t h e con d ition of t h e
,

gam e gav e t h e H a r va rd m e n a mot iv e fo r t h e al l e g e d act

A nt e c e d e nt P robabi l ity ) but al s o b e cau s e t h e po s it ion i n
( ,

wh ich t h e accu s e d m an and hi s O ppon e nt l ay wh e n t h e

m e n who had pi l e d on top of th e m d r e w o ff p r ov e s that

th e r e was unfai r tackl in g H e r e again p r oof r e s t s on a.

, ,

r e s e mblanc e Thi s tim e t h e thi r d man r e al ly s ays : I

.
“

r e cogn i z e i n this cas e an e s s e ntial pa r t of t h e p r oce s s of

unfai r tack l ing wh e r e v e r it occu rs ; wh e r e v e r on e s e e s
this Sign I know f r om past e xp e r i e n c e that t h e r e s t of
,

t h e p roc e ss mu s t b e p r e s e nt wh e n this pa r t i s t h e r e fo r e
I kno w that in t h i s cas e though I cou l d not s e e it th e r e
, ,

l
”
was unfai r t ack l i ng This i s Si m p l y what ha s b e e n pr e
.

viou s con si d e r e d a s t h e A r gu m e nt f r om Sign

y .

I t m ay b e h ow e v e r t hat th i s m an s a w not o n e
, ,

r e s e mbl an c e t o cas e s of tack l ing known to him but f r om ,

t w o t o a do z e n r e s e mblanc e s R e ca ll in g pa s t ca s e s of
.

u nfai r tackl ing to t h e m ind s of hi s h e a r e r s h e point s out ,

that in t ho s e as w e l l as i n th is in stanc e t h e man r un ning

, ,

with t h e bal l wa s hol d ing i t in t h e sam e w ay t hat t h e ,

r e lat iv e si z e s of t h e man ta c kl e d an d t h e m an tack l in g

w e r e t h e sam e that t h e l ook of t h e fi e l d as t h e two m e n
,

i n q u e st ion app e a r e d f r om und e r t h e ot h e r p l ay e r s w as

t h e sam e e t c , H e ca r e ful ly poi nt s out too that i h t h e
.
, ,

pa s t cas e s al l t h e s e p oi nt s a r e known to hav e b e e n e ss e n

21 2 A R G U M E N TA TI ON

( )
a A rgu m e nt fro m a re

s e m b lan c e to so m e th i ng that
i n a p ast c as e was an e ss e nt i al
p art of a p ro c e ss l e ad i n g to
t h e r e s u lt i n q u e st i on that t h e

sa m e r e s u lt m u st o c c u r i n th i s
c as e .

( )
b A r g u m e nt fro m two or
m or e r e s e m blan c e s k n own i n a

p ast c as e to b e e ss e nt i ally c o n

n e c t e d w i th t h e r e s u lt i n q u e s

t i on that t h e sa m e r e s u lt w i ll
o c c u r i n th i s c as e .

P lain l y t h e mo re r e s e mb l an c e s t h e fi rs t man can Sho w

,

b e t w e e n condition s att e nd ing t h e a ll e g e d u nfai r tackl ing

and condit ion s conn e ct e d wit h unfai r tackl in g i n a p ast
gam e o r gam e s t h e mo r e convincing h e w il l b e com e
, .

A S h e inc r e as e s th e s e r e s e mblanc e s h e m ay fi na l ly r e ach

c ompl e t e r e s e mbl anc e but t h i s r e cogniti on of comp l e t e
,

n e ss of r e s e mb l anc e m e an s that t h e wit n e s s m ust h av e

had f u l l e xp e ri e nc e both of t h e past Cas e s an d of t h e
pr e s e nt cas e
,
must giv e d i r e c t e vi d e nc e
—
Pl ainly it .
,

can b e giv e n as was t h e t e st imony i n I I by oth e r m e n

, , ,

l ivin g o r now d e a d who w e r e at t h e gam e an d t e st ify t hat

,

th e y saw t h e unfai r t a ckl in g o r by t h e fi r st sp e ak e r w ho

, ,

t e s tifi e s that h e him s e l f s aw it .

 { LP G L MZ EAH R4 Y Y OAK 2 13

Thi s n ew e vid e n c e may be tab u lat e d as follows

( )
a Co m p l e t e r e s e m blan c e .

Se e n b y oth e rs
nt
.

me
D i re c t I L ivi n g w i t n e ss e s
. .

4
Evi d e n c e 2 D e ad wi tn e ss e s
nc e
.

Ex p e
.
.

e .

( )
b Co m p l e t e r e s e m b lan c e .

Se e n b y me ( t h e s p e a k e r or wr i t e r) .

The whol e fi e ld of e vi d e n c e m ay th e n , , be t abulat e d in

th i s way

( )
a A rg u m
nt fro me a r e s e m bl a nce ,

t h e p oss i b l e c onn e c t i on of wh i c h w i th

t h e p o i nt i n q u e st i on n e e ds d e m on

s t ra t i o n .

If the r e s e m b lan c e i s shown ( 1 ) not

to b e c onn e c te d wi th t h e po i n t i n .

q u e st i on i t has no v al u e as p roof i n
,

t h e c as e u nd e r d i s c u ss i o n ; i f ( 2 ) i t

i s shown to ha v e c on n e c t i on w i th i t ,

th e n i t b e c o m e s t h e A rg u m e nt fro m
A nt e c e d e nt Pro b ab i l i ty fro m Si g n or , ,

fro m Ex am pl e .

( )
b A r g u m e nt fro m a r e s e m blan c e

to so m e th i ng s e e n i n a p a st c as e to
ha v e b e e n a or t h e c a u s e of a r e s u lt
l ik e that i n q u e st i on and i f t h e o c c u r
, ,

r e n c e of t h e r e s u lt i n th i s c as e i s
p ro v e d p ro
,
b ably a or t h e c a u s e of t h e

r e s u lt i n q u e st i on .
214 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV .

( )a A rg u m
t en re s e m
b lan c e to so m e th i n g a t in a

c as e

ad i
th e r e s u lt th t t h e
sam e t e s u K0 ur i th iis
c as e .

fro two
Tor
( )
b A r m

l
m or e r e s e m b lan c e s own i n a
ast c as e ly
l
p a c

n e c t e d w i th t u t i n qu e s

t i on that t h e r e s u lt m u st
o c c u r i n th i s

mb l a n ce .

Thi s chart shows th e n that it i s poss ib l e t o d ivi d e t h e

, ,

fi e l d of e vid e n c e on t h e bas is of c omp l e t e n e s s of r e s e m

blanc e b e tw e e n two ph e no m e na an d that in so doing a
,

stud e nt m ov e s by g r aduat e d st e ps f r om a r e s e m blan c e

that has no probat iv e valu e to comp l e t e r e s e m b l an c e I t .

m ust m a k e c l e a r too
, , that thi s m e t hod of d ivis io n but
r e nam e s what has a lr e ady b e e n con sid e r e d as D i r e ct and
I n d i r e ct ( o r C i rcum stantial ) Evid e nc e ; o r as t h e A rg u
'

m e nt f r om A nt e c e d e nt Pr obabil ity t h e A r gum e nt f r om

,

Sign and t h e A rgum e n t f r om Exampl e T h e chart

'

, .

’
Shows als o t hat al l Evid e nc e m ust b e f r om a m an s o w n
, ,

e xp e ri e nc e o r from th at of oth e r m e n .
216 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV .

Or he may kno w that h e do e s not und e r stand footbal l

w e ll e nough to b e ab l e i n a d i f fi cult c as e t o t e l l fai r from
unfai r tackling H e may th e n attack t h e fi rst man s
.
, ,
’

e vid e nc e o n any of th e s e ground s T h i s o pp on e nt how .

,
’
e v e r who q u e st ion s ot h e r m e n s e vid e nc e so c l o s e ly m ust
,

al way s r e m e mb e r t hat his own j u dgm e nt s aft e r full aft e r ,

p a r t i al,
and b e fo r e e xp e ri e nc e a r e op e n to ob j e ct ion s on
,

j ust t h e g r ound s h e has u s e d from al l who d o not agr e e

ll
with h im o r do not und e rstand h im E ve ry k i n d of .

e v i d enc e M e n

l
l lf
, i n t h e chart o n pag e s 2 1 3 2 1 4 i s i k e y t o
, ,

be ob e c te d
j to o n s om e o r a f o t b c t /zr e e g r ou n d s a ck o

sa n i t
y , g ood f a i tk, a nd g ood j ud
g m en t .

SO M E G EN ER A L R EA SO N S W H Y EV I D EN C E SH O U L D B E
C A R EFU L L Y SI FT ED .

Th e r e a r e t w o g e n e r a l r e a s on s why any caut ious w o r k e r

i n A r gum e ntat ion Shou l d ca r e fu ll y w e igh an d s ift e v e r y
’
bit of e vid e nc e not m e r e l y hi s oppon e nt s but hi s own
—
,

j u st a s thoroughly that com e s b e fo r e hi m as h e i s

—

pr e pa r ing hi s cas e .

T h e fi r st r e a s on fo r such ca r e fu l e xam ination i s t hat h e

shal l tho r ough l y un d e r stand t h e s t r e ngt h of both S i d e s of
t h e ca s e and Shal l n ot fai l at som e i mpo rtant p l ac e by
,

ov e r e stimat ing t h e val u e of h i s o w n p r oof o r un d e r ,

e stimat in g t h e st r e ngt h of that of h i s O ppon e nt The .

s e cond r e a s on i s that wh e n a writ e r d o e s giv e undu e val u e

t o a bit of e vid e nc e h e l os e s mo r e than t h e point at t h e
mom e nt u n d e r con si d e r at ion ; h e caus e s t h e r e ad e r to
w ond e r w h e th e r this fai l u r e com e s from a t r ickin e s s that
’

wou l d pal m o ff e vid e nc e as co nvin cing wh ich i s not and ,

e vid e nc e a s un convin c ing that i s st ron g o r f r om a fai l u r e to ,

und e r stand t h e ca s e Und e r e ith e r su p po s ition t h e r e ad e r

.
 l
A R G U / I E /V TA TI OZV .
21 7

b e com e s su spiciou s and m ay do u bt t h e convinci ngn e ss of

what has p r e c e d e d o r t h e val u e of all th at fol l ows That
, .

i s such a failu r e r ai s e s a f e e ling of dist r ust of e ith e r t h e

,

l
fai rn e s s o r t h e abi l ity of t h e work e r and i s v e ry p re ju d i ,

c ia t o h is int e r e st s A st u d e nt of A rgum e ntat ion cannot

.

a f fo r d e v e r t o t r y to u s e a b i t of e v id e nc e fo r a p u r pos e
fo r which it i s u nfi t Th e r e i s not on l y convinc ingn e ss
.

but p e rsuasiv e po w e r i n a handl i n g of e vid e nc e w h ich

S h ows that t h e w o rk e r has c o rr e ctly v alu e d h i s mat e r ial .

T h i s n e c e s s ity fo r caution i n u sing e v e n t h e e vid e nc e

’
wh ich favo rs a w r it e r s V i e ws wil l b e com e appa r e nt to
o n e wh o t r i e s t o upho l d t h e a f fi r m at iv e o r t h e n e gat iv e
an
y
on som e topic of t h e day H e will gath e r h is mat e r ial .

from c hat s with fri e n d s f r om t h e n e w spap e rs an d t h e

,

p e riod i c al s e d ito rial

, s l e tt e rs to t h,e p r e s s and sp e e ch e s of ,

congr e s sm e n I t i s s e lf e vi d e n t t hat a l l t h e mat e rial

.
-

gath e r e d c ann ot hav e an e q ua l val u e ; it i s not appa r e ntly , ,

s e lf e vid e nt t o b e gin n e rs in A rgum e ntat ion ho w w e ak much

-

of t h e e vid e n c e o n such topics n e c e s s arily is To b e g I n .

with most of t h e l e tt e rs an d a r t ic l e s a r e e xpo s it io n s o f

'

op in ion s not a r gu m e nt s an d what t he y giv e i s not p r oo f;

, ,

t hro u gh w e l l s e l e ct e d e vi d e nc e of t h e t r uth of t h e O pin ion s

-

T h e st u d e nt who u s e s t h e s e wo r d s th e r e fo r e quot e s m e r e , ,

as s e rt ion s That i s but o n e st e p away from hi s o w n ba r e

.

as s e rt ion s wh ich h e has l e arn e d not to e xp e ct any o n e to

,

acc e p t an d why Shoul d a car e f u l r e a d e r acc e pt th e s e ?

,

O ft e n th e y c om e fro m so m e l e tt e r s ign e d on l y w ith

in itial s oft e n th e y a r e f r om an un sign e d a r tic l e I f a
, .

stu d e nt quot e s any part of o n e of th e s e art icl e s h e u s e s

not only u n suppo r t e d as s e r t ion but an u n suppo r t e d ass e r ,

t ion fo r wh ich n o o n e can b e h e l d r e spon s i bl e What .

po ss ib l e va l u e th e n can it hav e ? Ev e n w h e n t h e quo

, ,
21 8 A R G UM E N TA TI OZV .

t a t i on i s an e dito r ial o r a s ign e d artic l e i n a mag a z in e

, ,

u nl e s s r e ason s fo r t h e O pi n ion s a r e giv e n it i s aft e r all , , ,

m e r e ass e r t ion U n l e s s t h e r e fo r e it can b e tak e n as t h e

.
, ,

A rg u m e nt f r om A utho rity it i s va l u e l e s s , Ev e n wh e n .

th e s e a r tic l e s giv e e vid e nc e it n e e ds c l o s e e xam inat ion fo r

,

pol itical o r p e r sonal bias M o r e ov e r i n th e s e d ays m e n

.
, ,

f r e qu e ntly writ e maga z i n e a r t ic l e s not b e caus e th e y know

,

mo re th an oth e r m e n on t h e subj e ct s but b e cau s e t h e ,

fam e that has com e t o t h e m in anoth e r fi e l d wi ll su r e l y

s e l l C opi e s of t h e m aga z in e cont ain ing anythin g th e y
writ e A stud e nt who d o e s not w e i gh car e fully t h e
.

e vid e n c e fo r as w e ll a s agai n s t him i s l ik e a l awy e r w ho

, , ,

l
without any p r e viou s kno wl e d g e of h is witn e s s e s h e a r s ,

th e i r sto r y fi r st on t h e w it n e ss s tan d an d i s fo r c e d to e t
-

th e i r t e sti mony cou nt fo r w hat i t w i ll I f th e y d o not .

p r ov e what h e wi sh e s t o p r ov e if t h e y invo l v e him i n

,

un e xp e ct e d di f ficul t i e s h e must not comp l ain fo r it i s h is

, ,

own fau l t N o r m u st t h e writ e r who wo r ks in t h e s am e

.

way comp l ain T h e ca r e ful wo r k e r wi ll s c r utin i z e con

.
,

sid e r an d val u e e v e r y bi t of e vi d e nc e that com e s to him

, ,

and by th r o w i ng out fi r st w hat i s p l ain l y e nt i r e ly va l u e l e s s

, , ,

and th e n what b e caus e of oth e r st r ong e r e vi d e nc e i n his

,

pos s e s s ion i s fo r h im w o r th l e ss g r a d ua ll y r e d uc e h is
, ,

m at e r ial to e vid e n c e a ll of w h ich has b e e n t e s t e d by him

l
and found t o h av e va l u e i n hi s w o r k Ev e n thi s ho w e v e r .
, ,

mu st b e a m as s mad e u p of pa r t s of va r ying va u e s an d ,

t h e stu d e nt m ust c l e a rl y s e tt l e t h e i r r e l at iv e st r e ngth if

h e i s to comp l e t e succ e s sfu l ly f r om th e s e bits t h e mosai c

of h i s a r gum e ntat ion .

P lainly th e n to l e a r n ho w to t e s t t h e s an ity t h e good

, , ,

faith and t h e j udgm e nt of t hos e l ivi ng an d d e a d who

, , ,

o f f e r a s tu d e nt e vi d e n c e fo r an d a g a m s t t h e th e o r y h e
220 A R G Ul
ME N TA T/ O M

not lto
ed r e s u lt it woul d s e e m at fi r st S ight that
the , , ,

h e d e a l s w it h som e t hing d iff e r e n t with a qu e stion of fact ,

rath e r than with a q u e st ion of j u d gm e nt Thi s ho w e v e r .

, ,

is not t ru e I n e it h e r cas e what i s r e a ll y qu e st ion e d i s a

.

j udgm e nt by t h e op p on e nt I n t h e fi r st cas e t h e oppo

.

n e nt r e al ly said : “
F r om a r e s e mbl anc e b e tw e e n th i s
gam e and oth e r gam e s kno w n to m e I f o r m t h e j udgm e nt ,

that f o u1 p l ay at t h e poi nt in q u e st ion woul d hav e S av e d

t h e day . Thi s i s cl e arly a j udgm e nt
, I n t h e s e cond
, .

c as e t h e O ppon e nt r e al l y said :
“
F r om r e s e mb l an c e s s e e n
b e tw e e n gam e s i n t h e pa s t I fo r m t h e j udgm e nt t hat t h e
motiv e fo r foul p l ay i n th e m was t h e d i r e n e e d of t h e
si d e which mad e it C l e a rl y t h e n al l r e ason ing i s but
.
, ,

a s e r i e s of j udgm e nt s an d w h e n e v e r an O ppon e nt qu e s
,

t ions a bi t of e vid e nc e w hat h e r e a ll y d oubt s is a j u d gm e nt

'

b y t h e w 1t n e s s
III . T EST S O F EV I D EN C E .

I . T E ST I N G T H E ST A T EM E NT .

Wh e n th e n a m an mak e s an a s s e rtion which a s t u d e nt

, ,

d o e s not un d e r stand o r do e s n ot wi sh to b e l i e v e what

, ,

shoul d b e his fi r st s t e p s in attacking t h e e vi d e nc e ? Tak e ,

agai n t h e i ll u s t r ation al r e ady u s e d T h e fi r st man said

, .

“
Pr obably th e r e was u nfai r tackl ing in t h e f ootbal l gam e .

”
I do not b e l i e v e that Why do you thi nk so ? t h e s e cond
.

answ e r e d T h e fi r st t h e n sai d : B e cau s e an unfai r tack l e

.

at j u st that poi nt i n t h e gam e was e n ough to s av e t h e day ,

”
an d that mot iv e has i n past ca s e s caus e d u nfai r tack l ing .

T h e s e cond m an u nwil l ing t o giv e in wil l fi r s t l ook at t h e s e

, ,

two r e ason s to s e e if th e r e i s anyth ing i n th e m to attack .

Suppo s e that h e g r ants t h e s e con d stat e m e nt but says ,

t ha t h e c annot b e l i e v e t hat e v e n an unfai r t a ck l e cou ld

 A R G U M E N TA TI OJV
’

.
221

hav e sav e d t h e H a r va rd gam e in t h e c r is i s nam e d Th e n .

“
h e say s : T hat do e s n ot S e e m to m e i n acco rd anc e w ith
o r d ina r y e xp e r i e n c e you m u st giv e m e p r oof that it is .

O r h e may say : I can not b e l i e v e t his b e caus e w e

“
,

al r e ady kno w oth e r ci r cum stan c e s which Show that thi s

was not t h e on l y hop e what you s ay d o e s not ag r e e
—

wit h t h e oth e r fact s a l r e ady known i n r e ga r d t o this ca s e .

”

O r h e may obj e c t : Y ou r stat e m e nt i s i n it s e l f cont r a

“
.

d i c t o ry t h e r e fo r e I can not b e li e v e it That is a ,

stat e m e nt a bit of e vid e nc e m ay in it s e l f b e q u e st ion e d

, ,

l
on any o n e of th e s e t h r e e g r ound s : I s i t c on s i s t e n t w i t /z
“

l
o r d i n a ry ex p e r i e n ce ; w i t/z t /ze f a c ts a r ea dy k n ow n co n ce r n
1
i ng t k e i ‘i t c on s i s t e n t w i t /t i t s e f 2
ca s e ; g
( ) a E v i d e n ce s k ou l d be Con s i s t e n t w i t /t Or d i n a ry Expe
r i e n ce . Wh e n John M and e vill e w r it e s of b e ing s w ho
—

hav e no h e ads but hav e e y e s an d mouth s b e t w e e n th e i r

,

sho u l d e r s w h e n h e ta l ks of d og fac e d m e n a r e a d e r
,
-

r e fu s e s to t ak e hi s wo rd s fo r m o r e t han fai r y ta l e s ,

b e cau s e t h e y a r e n ot con s ist e nt wit h human e xp e r i e nc e .

T h e fo ll o w ing quotatio n f r o m A R om a n L a wy e r i n

j e r us a e m l
a po e t
,
i c p l e a i n b e half of J u d a s 2
i s simp l y a ,

stat e m e nt of t h e d e t ai l s i n hi s ca r e e r which s e e m if h e , ,

w e r e a c r im in al cont r a r y to o rd ina ry e xp e r i e nc e
,
.

Wa s he a V i ll a i n l os t to s en se of s h a m e ?

Ay, so say J oh nr a n d t h e re s t ;
and P ete
A n d yet and
y e t t h i s t a l e t h a t Ly s i a s t e ll s

W e i g h s w i th m e m o re t h e m or e I p o n d e r i t ;
Fo r t h u s I p u t i t Ei t h e r J u d a s w a s ,

A S J o h n a ffirm s a V i ll a i n a n d a t h i ef
, ,

l Co i 8 93
l
1
P R /zet or i c , G e n u n g , p 4 1 0
r a c t i ca G nn .
, 1 .

"
. .

2 A R om a n L a wy er i n j er u s a em W W St o r . . . y .
pp . 1 2— 1 4 . l
C o by

Ri c h , B o s t o n .
222 A R G UM E N TA T Ot V l .

A r r l o s t t o s h a m e a n d b a s e a t h e a rt
c e a tu e

O r el s e w h i c h i s t h e V i e w w h i c h L y s i a s t a k e s
,

H e w a s a r a s h a n d vi s i o n a ry m a n
W h o s e f a i t h wa s firm wh o h a d n o t h o u g h t o f c r i m e
, ,

B u t w h o m a t e rr i b l e m i s t a k e d r o v e m a d
l
l l
.

T a k e b u t J oh n s vi e w a n d a t o m e i s b i n d
'
’
, .

l l i ll a i n w h o w i t h g re e d o f g a i n
l
Ca him a V , ,

Fo r t h i r t y s i v e r p i e c e s s o l d h i s L o r d
l
l
.

D o e s n o t t h e b ri b e s e e m a t o o s m a ll a n d m e a n ?
H e h e l d t h e c o m m o n p u rs e a n d w e r e h e t h i e f
l
, , ,

H a d d a ily p o w e r t o s t e a l a n d a y a s i d e ,

A s e c re t a n d a c c u m u l a t i n g f u n d .

So d o i n g h e h a d n o t h i n g r i s k e d o f f a m e
l
l
, ,

W hi l e h e re h e b r a v e d t h e s c o r n o f a t h e w orl d .

B e s i d e s w h y c h o s e t h e y f o r t h e i r a l m on e r
,

A m a n s o l os t t o S h a m e s o f o u l w i t h g re e d ?
,

r
O r w h y , f o m so m e fiv e c o e o f t u s t e d m e n ,
-
s r r
C h o o s e h i m a s o n e a p os t e a m o n g t w e v e ? l l
O r wh y , i f h e w e re kn ow n t o b e il e
l
l
so V ,

A n d w h o c a n h i d e h i s b a s en es s i t m e s ?)
( at a

K e ep him in l
c os e c l a st ?
Om m u n i o n to th e
N a u g h t i n h i s p r e vi o u s l i f e o r a c t s o r wo rd s , , ,

Sh o w s t h i s c o n s u m m a t e vi ll a i n t h a t f u ll g ro w n
l
l
-

, ,

L e a p s a a t o n c e t o s u c h a h e ig h t o f c r i m e .

Ag a in , ho w s i t t h a t t h i s w r e t c h , wh os e h e a rt
l
com e

Is ca se d s h a m e f i n g s b a c k t h e p a l t ry b r i b e ?
to ,

A n d w h e n h e k n o ws h i s m a s t e r i s c o n d e m n e d
, ,

R u sh es i n h o rr o r o u t t o s e e k h i s d e a t h ?
W ho s e fin g e rs p o i n t e d a t h i m i n t h e c ro w d ?
l
l
D i d a m e n fle e h i s p r e s e n c e t i ll h e f o u n d
Li f e t oo i n t ol e r a b l e ? N a y ; n ot s o
D e a th c a m e t o o c l o s e u p o n t h e h e el s o f c r i m e
l
l
.

H e h a d b u t d o n e w h a t a h i s t ri b e d e e m e d ju s t
l
l
A t h e g re a t m a s s I m e a n t h e u pp e r c l a s s
l
l
T h e R a b b i s a t h e P h a r i s e e s a n d P ri e s t s
,

A y a d t h e l o w e r m o b a s w e ll w h o c r i e d
,
n
,
224 A R G U M E N TA TI ON .

TH E W EA K N ESS O F TH IS T EST .

Wh e n t h e ob j e ct ion l s r ais e d to e vid e n c e that it i s

l
c ont rary to o rd ina ry e xp e ri e n c e cl e arly t h e e vi d e nc e ,
i
cannot b e co nclu siv e un l e s s t h e w r it e r i s s u r e that e
knows all that o r di nary e xp e r i e nc e h a s to o f f e r in r e ga r d
to i t Such co m pl e t e knowl e dg e i s Of co u rs e e xt r e m e ly
.
, ,

rar e F u r th e r study by t h e w r it e r n e w discov e r i e s may

.
, ,

s u dd e nly tu r n what was e xt r ao r d ina r y i nto m e r e o r d i n a f y

l
l
‘

e xp e ri e nc e Wh e n tw e nty y e a r s ago P aul d u C h a i u

.
, ,

wrot e of t h e pigm i e s in A f r ica and t o ld of oth e r m a r v e l s ,

s e e n in t h e w i l ds many m e n s m i l e d call e d hi s books

, ,

e nt e rtaining sto r i e s and r e fu s e d t o giv e th e m m o r e t han a

,
.

a r tial c r e d e n c e T hat was b e cau s e w hat h e s ai d s e e m e d

p .

to b e i ncon si st e nt wit h or d ina r y e xp e r i e nc e To d ay .

,

l
l
how e v e r t h e d i scov e r i e s of Stanl e y an d of l at e r e xp l o r e r s
,

hav e vin d icat e d M d u C h a i u . Evid e ntly th e n all that .

, ,

a st u d e nt can s ay t o such e vi d e nc e i s A ft e r c a r e f u l ,
“

s e a r ch I can fi nd n oth ing that s uppo r t s t h e ass e r t ion tha t ‘

th i s id e a i s com m on e xp e r i e n c e an d fo r t h e p r e s e nt I mu st ,
\

\
”
d e c l a r e i t unt ru stwo r thy Such a fl aw i n t h e e vi d e nc e
.
,

th e n s hows a p robabil ity r ath e r t han a c e r t ainty that i t

,

i s i nco rr e ct as a who l e t h e st r e ngt h of t h e p r obabi l ity

,

d e p e nd ing on t h e am ount of know l e d g e w hi ch t h e stu d e nt

l
has of t h e q u e st ion i n d isput e .

b
( ) E v i d en c e s k ou d be Co n s i s t e n t w i t k t /ze Ot k e r Kn ow n
Fa c t s f o tb e
Wh e Ca s e
n ho w e v e—
r e vid e nc e ,giv e n i s ,

n o t con si st e nt with t h e fact s a lr e a d y known conc e r n ing

t h e c as e it at onc e b e com e s v e ry SU Sp i c i o u S
, Fo r i nst anc e .
,

i n t h e follo w ing cas e t h e t h e o r y of P a s t e u r could ha rdl y

,

stan d i n t h e fac e of what s e e m e d e stab l ish e d t r uths t s

W h e n Past e u r was i nv e st i g at i ng the c a u s e s of s p l e n i c fe v e r

he ado pt e d v e ry e a rly i n t h e i n q u i ry
, ,
t he th e ory of Dr Da v a i n e .
,
 A R G U M E N T/ 1 T O V ll .
225

that t h e d i s e as e was d u e to t h e p r e s e n c e of a c e rta i n p aras i t e

i n t h e blood and that c ons e q u e ntl y t h e sa m e d i s e as e showi ng
, ,

t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e sa m e p aras i t e c o u ld b e c o m m u n i c at e d to ,
'

oth e r an i m als b y i no c u lat i on O n t h e oth e r Si d e two p rofe ssors

.
,

to who m t h e th e ory d i d not c o m m e nd i ts e lf bro u g ht forward ,

as a tr i u m phant r e fu tat i on of i t what s e e m e d at fi rst a p la i nly ,

c ontrad i c tory fa c t Th ey had i no c u lat e d so m e rab b i ts wi th t h e

.

blood of an an i m al wh i c h had d i e d of s p l e n i c fe v e r and tho u g h ,

t h e rabb i ts had d i e d v e ry ra p i dly no tra c e of t h e e x p e c t e d

p aras i t e had b e e n fo u nd i n th e m e i th e r b e for e or aft e r th e i r

d e ath . Mor e o v e r th e i r blood had b e e n u s e d to i no c u lat e

,

oth e r rabb i ts and th e s e too had d i e d i n t h e sam e rap i d

,

m ann e r b u t w i th t h e sa m e d i sr e gard of what t h e th e ory f u rth e r

,

r e q u i r e d Da va i n e at on c e d i s p u t e d t h e f a ct That i s to say
. .
,

h e i ns i st e d that t h e two p rofe ssors m u st ha v e u s e d blood wh i c h

'

was not p ro p e rly i nfe c t e d w i th s pl e n i c fe v e r b u t w i th so m e ,

oth e r d i s e as e T h e p rofe ssors howe v e r we r e e q u ally c e rt a i n

.
, ,

of th e i r fac ts ; th e y had g o t th e i r m at e r i a ls fro m t h e b e st

a v a i labl e so u r c e na m e ly fro m t h e d i r e c tor of an e stab l i sh m e nt
, ,

wh e r e n u m e ro u s an i m als w h i c h had d i e d of s pl e n i c fe v e r we re
c onstantly bro u g ht B u t i n ord e r to c on vi n c e t h e st u bborn
.

th e or i st th e y tr i e d t h e e x p e r i m e nt ag a i n th i s t i m e obta i n i ng ,

l
th e i r m at e r i als fro m t h e m ost e x p e r i e n c e d v e t e r i nary s u rg e on in
t h e n e i g hborhood E x ac tly t h e sam e i e s u t followe d and t h e
.
,

fa c ts c e rta i nly h er e ap pe ar e d to b e too strong for t h e

That i s t hb t h e o r y h e r e w as not cons ist e nt w ith
,
the

kno w n fact s i n t h e cas e .

A D A NG ER O F TH IS T EST .

Of cou rs e t h e s o ca ll e d fa c t s which a r e cont r a d ict e d

-
“

m ust b e v e r y ca r e fully e xamin e d an d sho w n not t o b e

op e n th e m s e l v e s t o any poss ib l e d oubt b e fo r e a wr it e r ,

1 Tb e P r oce s s o
f A rg u m e n t . i
S dgw ik
c .
p p 9 5 96
.
—
. A . C B . l
a ck , 1 8
93 .
226 A R G U M E N T/ 1 TI OJV .

d e c i d e s again st t h e n e w opposin g e vi d e nc e a s inadmi ss ib l e .

A s t u d e n t s hould al w ays r e m e m b e r th at s imp l y b e caus e a

'

stat e m e nt cont radict s g e n e r al ly acc e pt e d i d e as it I S not a s ,

has b e e n sho w n n e c e ssa r i l y fal s e

, I n t h e ca s e of Da va i ne .

j u s t cit e d l at e r i nv e stigat ion p r ov e d that t h e s o ca ll e d -

“
fact s of t h e p r of e ss o rs w e r e not fact s at al l .

It was so m e ye ars lat e r wh e n t h e r e al we a k n e ss of t h e fa c ts

th e m s e l v e s c a m e to l i g ht D a v a i n e s th e ory had m e anwh i l e ’

l
.

b e e n e nlar g e d and i m p ro v e d by t h e d i s c o v e ry that i f t h e b lood

u s e d for i no c u lat i on has a r e ady b e g u n to p u tr e fy t h e an i m als ,

i no c ulate d wi ll d i e b y a for m of blood p o i son i ng q u i c k e r i n i t s

'
-

O p e rat i on than Sp l e n i c f e v er and too q u i c k to allow t h e tr u e

,

S p l e n i c f e v e r p aras i t e s t i m e to m u lt i p ly Th i s s u gg e st e d a n e w .

i n q u i ry i nto th e p rofe ssors e x p e r i m e nts and i t was fo u nd that

’
,

t h e b lood u s e d b y th e m altho u gh c e rta i nly tak e n fro m c as e s of

,

s pl e n i c fe v e r had not b ee n s u ffic i e ntly fr e sh So that t h e fac t

, .

l
on wh i c h th e y r e l i e d as c ontrad i c t i n g t h e th e ory t u rn e d o u t to

l
b e wron g l y —
ie i n c o m pl e t e ly d e s c r i b e d Thro u g h m e r e ly
,
—
.

o v e rlook i ng t h e d e ta i l that t h e an i m als whos e b o Od t h e y u s e d '

had b e e n d e ad so m e twe nty fo u r ho u rs th e i r d e s c r i pt i on of i t as

-

l
s p l e n i c fe v e r b lood b e c a m e e ss e nt i ally fals e 1 ”

l
.

( )
c E v i d e nc e s b ou d be Con s i s t e n t w i t /i i t s e n e xt f Th e
t e st of e vi d e nc e w h e th e r i t i s s e lf con s i s t e nt i s mo r e -

fi nal . C e r tai n l y t h e fol l owing cont r a d icto r y s e nt e nc e s

tak e n f r om a schoo l book w oul d ha rdl y b e acc e pt e d as
-

concl u s iv e e vid e n c e in a q u e st ion o n t h e d at e of t h e i n ve n

t ion of t h e magn e t ic t e l e g r aph
Q u es t i o n 1 59 W hat of Profe ssor Mors e s i nve nt i on ? ’

l
A n s w er : H e i n v e nt e d t h e m ag n e t i c t e l e g ra ph wh i c h was ,

t h e g rand e st e v e nt d u r i n g P o k S ad m i n i strat i on
’
.

Q u es t i on 1 60 W hat was t h e fi rst n e ws s e nt on t h e w i r e ? .

A n s w er : T h e anno u n c e m e nt of Polk s no m i nat i on ’

.
”

1
Tb c P r oc e s s o
f A rg u m en t . i
S dg w i ck .

p 97. . A . C B . lk
ac , 18
93 .
2 28 A R G U M E N TA TI OJV .

2 .
T EST I NG TH E C O N D IT I O N S U N D ER W H I C H TH E ST A T EM EN T
W A S M A DE .

A n ob j e c t ion to th r owing out s e lf cont rad icto ry e vi d e nc e -

m ight b e rais e d on t h e groun d th at t h e cont r a d iction m ay

not com e from ignoran c e but f r om t h e ti m idity t h e n e r ,

v o u s n e s s of t h e witn e ss C l e arly how e v e r t h e e vid e n ce

.
, ,

i s in its e lf of no val u e u nt il t h e cont radict io n is c l e a r e d

a w ay I f a stu d e nt t ri e s t o e xam in e h o w t h e cont r adi ct ion
.

a r os e h e pass e s to a s e cond t e st of e vi d e n c e
,
t h e condi —

t ion s u nd e r w hich t h e e vi d e nc e was giv e n

l
l l
.

( )
a [s tb c W i i ng o r R e u c t a n t ?
I Vi t n es s
’
I t i s und er —

thi s t e st that a writ e r sho u l d con si d e r wh e th e r t h e

witn e ss s e e m s r e ady o r r e l uctan t to giv e hi s t e st imony .

“
A man st an ds at t h e ba r on a cha r g e of e mb e z z l e
m e nt I f h e hu nt s fo r and p r oduc e s a l l hi s books
.
,

bill s an d r e c e ipt s and i s r e ady t o go into t h e stat e

, ,

of h is account s and a l l hi s mon e y t r an sa c tion s t h e n t h e ,

’
j u r y who d e l iv e r a v e r d ict of not p r ov e n m ay w e l l i n ‘

t h e e y e s of can did obs e r v e r s S ho w r ath e r t h e s t r e ngt h of

th e i r own p r e j udic e s th an t h e gu i l t of t h e p r ison e r B u t .

if t h e accus e d r e fu s e t o p r odu c e hi s account book s o r

l e dg e r s o r at t h e m om e nt h e fi n d s h im s e lf su sp e ct e d
, ,

d e st r oys e v e ry sc r ap of pap e r wh ich w e r e h e i nnoc e nt , ,

might e stabl i sh hi s i nnoc e nc e but if h e w e r e not innoc e nt ,

m ight d e mon s t r at e his gu i l t t h e n a v e rd ict of not p r ov e n

,

w i ll not cl e a r hi s cha r act e r Ev e r y o n e will f e e l t hat that

.

c on d uct whi c h has sav e d t h e accu s e d f r om co nvictio n has

1 ”
al so l e ft him sub j e ct t o i rr e movabl e s u s picion of gui l t
l
.

Wa s t k e Tes t i m ony g i v e n u n d e r Comp u s i on

b
( ) Pl ainly —

e nough fo rc e d t e st imony i s su sp icious

, O n e gr e at r e ason .

1 Tb c Ve r d i c t, A . Dice y , p . 1 9
. C a ss e l
l
f "C o .
, 1 8 90 .
 A E G U ZV E N TA TI OrV .
229

why i t i s hard to writ e an acc u rat e a c coun t of t h e Sal e m

w i t ch c r aft an d of Spain i n t h e t im e of P hi l ip I I i s that .

in both cas e s to r tu r e fo r c e d f r om agoni z e d m e n and

w om e n m uch of t h e e vi d e nc e now e xtan t Un d e r such
.

cond it ion s m uc h m ust hav e b e e n said wh ich coul d n o t

hav e b e e n t r u e fo r m e n i n ago ny w il l say almo s t anythin g
,

l
t h e y a r e a s k e d t o s ay Su r e ly it wo ul d s e e m appa r e n t
.

t hat e vid e nc e giv e n u n d e r c o m p u s i o n mu st b e handl e d

‘

v e r y caut iou sly Y e t st ud e nt s a r e car e l e ss i n t h e matt e r

.
,

if t h e e vid e n c e t hu s e xt r act e d favo r s t h e i r s id e of a cas e .

F o r i n stan c e t h e qu e st ion Was P hil ip t h e F ou r th s

“ ’

t r e at m e nt of t h e T e mpla r s j ustifiabl e ? involv e s c o n

s i d e r ation of e vi d e n c e wr u n g f r om T e mp l ars upon t h e
r ack T h e w e ight giv e n thi s go e s fa r t o s e ttl e t h e d i s
.

c u s s i o n fo r t h e a ffir m at iv e o r t h e n e gat iv e O f cour s e .

,

t h e r e al l y cautiou s i nv e stigato r wil l giv e s u ch e vid e n c e

but l itt l e c r e d e n c e u n l e ss oth e r e vid e n c e which can

, ,

stan d t h e t e s t s that m ay b e giv e n t o p roof p oint s to t h e ,

sam e con c l u s i on T h e topic Was El i z ab e th j ustifi e d in

.
“

”
b e h ea d ing M a r y Q u e e n of Scot s
,
? invo l v e s con s id e ra
’
t ion of t h e e vi d e nc e fo r c e d fro m M ary s s e c r e tari e s by
to r tu r e . Th e y conf e s s e d only to r e can t wh e n f r e e .

A s signi ng a va l u e t o t h e i r e vi d e nc e on t h e r ack be com e s ,

th e n a v e r y d e l icat e m att e r I t cannot b e u s e d against

, .

l
M a r y wit h any fo r c e u n l e s s s om e valu e has b e e n e stab
i s h e d fo r it by oth e r e vid e nc e w h ich has b e e n ca r e fully
t est e d .

SU M M A R Y O F T H E SEC O N D T EST .

What e v e r t h e n i n t h e c i rcumstanc e s un d e r w hi ch
, ,

t e st im ony is giv e n sugg e st s o r p r ov e s that t h e wit n e s s

d id not sp e ak t h e t r uth m ak e s it suspiciou s i n t h e fo r m e r
, ,

c as e o r i n t h e l at t e r c om p l e t e ly th r ows it ou t
, , ,
.
23 0 A R G UM E N TA TI OIV .

3 . EXA M I N I NG TH E W I T N ESS H I M SE L F .

A thi r d t e st i s to e xami n e n o t t h e stat e m e nt o r t h e

,

c i rcumstanc e s und e r wh ich it i s m ad e but t h e wit n e s s ,

hi m s e lf t o s e e i f anything about t h e man aff e ct s h is

,

l
p o w e r o r h i s will to s p e ak t h e t rut h .

( )
a [s t k e E v i d e n c e P r e u d i ced ,
j d oe s i t s k ow P e rs on a

I n t e r es t ? I n us in g t his t e st a st ud e n t should fi r st of all , ,

b e on h i s guard again st p r e j ud ic e s p e r s o nal int e r e st that

, ,

m a y a f f e ct t h e t e stimony giv e n F o r e xampl e i n t h e

. ,

m i nds of m ost m e n t h e l ov e of th e i r own n at iona l cu s

to m s and m e thod s of l if e st r ongly co l o r s t h e glas ses

t hrough whi ch t h e y s e e and j u d g e a fo r e ign land If .
,

too a wr i t e r i s e vid ently s t r ong l y w e dd e d to som e th e o r y

,

that h e wish e s to e stabl ish o r i s so d e e p l y con c e r n e d in

,

t h e c as e as to hav e i m po r tant is su e s him s e l f at s tak e , ,

h i s r e p utat i on as sci e nti st l awy e r inv e nto r e t c

, , or is , .
,

clos e ly con n e c t e d wit h t h e p e r son u n d e r t r ial hi s t e s ti ,

mony should b e w e l l sc r ut in i z e d b e fo r e it i s acc e pt e d .

T h e ard e nt s u p p o rt e r of t h e b e l i e f that B acon wr ot e

Shak e sp e ar e s p l ays ; a m ill own e r p l e ad ing fo r a hig h
’
-

tari ff ; t h e wif e of a man accu s e d of r obb e r y uphol ding

h i s c haract e r ; may a ll b e h e l d t o b e p r e j udic e d witn e ss e s
who m u st b e r e gar d e d with s uspicion I n d e e d it i s f r o m
.
,

a r e cogn it ion of t h e fact that p e rsona l in t e r est p r o d uc e s a

st rong bia s o n e w ay o r t h e oth e r t hat t h e A r gum e nt f r om
A uthority i s most oft e n q u e st ion e d Thi s i s b e st s e e n in
.

t h e growing h e s itan cy to acc e pt that fo r m of t h e A r gu

m e nt from A utho rity b e s t known as e xp e r t t e stimony .

T h e following sho w s why all t h e e vi d e nc e of an e xp e rt ,

and t h e r e fo r e most of al l h i s u n s uppo r t e d a ss e r tions m u st ,

b e ca r e ful ly s c r utin i z e d .
23 2 A R G U M E N TA TI ON

s e e n and r e p ort e d s u c h c i r c u m stan c e s b u t I have not ,

th e m It m i g ht b e p oss i b l e u nd e r e x traord i nary c i rc u m s t a n

,
’

b u t not i n th i s c as e and so on and so o n r e l u c tant to

’
, , ,

h i m s e lf so that h e m a y b e c i t e d af t e rwards 1 ”

l
ll
.

W
l
b
( ) i [s
t n e s s I
tb c
n t e ec t u a /
y S t r o n
g
? A
t e st und e r t hi s d iv i s ion i s t o e xam in e t h e int e l l e ct ua
;

capacity of t h e w i tn e ss A t t i m e s t h e e vid e nc e of a .

w r it e r or th i nk e r mu st b e t h r own out b e caus e of his

m e ntal d ulln e ss H e may stat e a d e si r abl e conclusion
.
,

but e xamination wil l Show that it i s improp e rly r e ach e d .

T h e du ll n e s s of C r ok e r in t h e following i s M a
r e ason fo r r e fusing to ac c e pt h is stat e m e nt A c a re .

m a n w r it ing a crit ical a r ti c l e u nfavo r abl e to Si r Wil l

’
Jon e s woul d doubtl e s s l ik e t o u s e C r o k e r s wo r d s but ,

cautious r e ad e r wou ld at on c e s e e t h e val u e l e s s n e ss of hi s

e vi d e nc e b e cau s e of t h e stup id ity of t h e wit n e s s

l
l
.

Ar e ad e rs hav e do u b tl e ss s e e n t h e two d i st i c hs of
ou r

Si r W i ll i a m J on e s r e s p e c t i ng t h e d ivi s i on of t i m e of a lawye r
, .

O n e of t h e d i st i c hs i s translat e d fro m so m e old L at i n l i n e s ; t h e

oth e r 15 o r Ig m a l
T h e form e r r u ns th u s
.
:

Si x ho u rs t o Sl e e p t o l a w s g ra ve ,
’
s tu d y six ,

F o u r s p e n d i n p r a y e r t h e re s t o n ,
n a t u r e fix .
’

‘
Rath e r says ’
Si r W i ll i a m J on e s
l
,

rs i n g s l u m b ers s e v e n
l
l
Si x h o u to a w, t o s o oth ,

T e n to th e wo rl d a ll o t and a t o h e a ven

l
.
,

T he s e c ond c o u p l e t p u z z l e s M r Crok e r strange ly Si r Wi . .

‘

l i a m says h e has Short e n e d h i s day to twe nty thr e e ho u rs

,
’
,
‘
,

and t h e g e n e ral ad vi c e of all to h e a v e n d e stroys t h e p ec u l i ar

“

app ro p r i at i on of a c e rta i n p e r i od to r e l i g i o u s e x e r c i s e s N ow . .

w e d i d not th i nk that i t was i n h u m an d u ln e ss to m i ss t h e

1 A M od e r n l
/
Vi z a r d . R O tto
. l en g ui .
pp . 1 57
—
1 60 .
 A R G U M E N TA TI O V l . 23 3

m ean i n g of t h e l i n e s so c o m p l e t e ly Si r W i ll i a m d i str i b u t e s .

t we nty thr e e ho u rs a m on g v ar i o u s e m p loym e nts O n e ho u r i s

l
-
.

th u s l e ft for d e v ot i on T h e r e ad e r e x p e c ts that t h e v e rs e w i l
.

e n d w i th and o n e to h e a v e n T h e whol e p o i nt of t h e l i n e s
‘ ’
.

c ons i sts i n t h e u n e x p e c t e d s u bst i t u t i on of all for o n e ’ ’

The .

c on c e i t i s wr e t c h e d e no u g h ; b u t i t i s p e rf e c tl y i nt e ll i g i b l e and ,

n e v e r we wi ll v e nt u r e to say p e r pl e x e d m a n wo m an or c h i ld
, , , ,

1
b e for e
”
.

U n d e r th is subdivis ion com e t h e wit n e s s e s who m i s

u nd e rs tand what i s s e lf e vid e nt as in t h e c as e j ust cit e d ; -

wh o cannot r e m e mb e r t r uly ; and who can not mak e a n

“

l
l
2 ”
i nt e llig e nt r e p ort of what th e y hav e obs e r v e d T he
'
.

st u pidity i n t h e fi r st an d thi r d c a s e s f w i b e appar e nt on

t h e fac e of t h e e vid e nc e i n t h e s e con d a past r e putation ,

fo r a bad m e m o ry o r t h e con fl ict b e tw e e n t h e e vid e nc e

,

and that of a numb e r of good w it n e s s e s wh o ag r e e in a ll

t h e d e t ail s of t h e i r st o r y wil l S ho w t h e faulty m e mo r y of ,

t he w it n e s s

l
.

( ) c .
f W
A r e t /ze P /ty s i ca
i t n e s s S ou n d P o w e rs o tb e

N ot on ly m ay m e n tal d u ll n e s s m ak e t e st imony unt r u st

worthy but dul l n e s s of t h e physica l pow e r s may hav e a
,

l ik e e ff e ct .

In e v e ry stat e m e nt of a wi tn e ss i s i n v ol v e d t h e ass e rt i on that

“

t h e s e ns e thro u g h wh i c h h i s i nfor m at i on was d e r iv e d c orr e c tly

r e p r e s e nt e d to h i m t h e o b j e c t h e d e s c r i b e s and i n t h e tr u thfu l ,

n e ss or fals i ty of th i s ass e rt i on i s t h e u lt i m at e and c r u c i al t e st

of h i s r e l i ab i l i ty Th i s i s a fi e ld of i n q u i ry wh i c h t h e vi g i lant
.

c ross e x a m i n e r w i ll n e v e r n e l e c t t o e x p lor e In a e s ast i t

g g p
-

m a y p e rh a p s ha v e safe l y b e e n a ss u m e d that as a r u l e t h e
, , , ,

or g ans of s e nsat i on we r e i n so u nd c ond i t i o n b u t i n th e s e ,

1 E s s ay s C r ok er
’
B l
lj l
’
H l Co 1 8 93

l
on s os w e s o zn s on , p 3 43
. . o t .
, .

2
P r a cti ca P /ze t o r i c , G e n u n g , p 409 . . G in n Co .
23 4 A R G U M E N TA TI OtV .

m od e rn days no s u c h p r e s u m p t i o n c a n b e e nt e rta i n e d W hat .

e ve r b e t h e c au s e t h e p ro p ort i on of m an ki nd i n c ivi l i z e d
,

c o m m u n i t i e s who a r e k nown to s u ff e r fro m t h e fa i l u r e o f o n e or

m or e of t h e g r e at org ans to p e rfor m th e i r p ro p e r f u n c t i ons

s e e m s to b e i n c r e as i n g ; and e v e ry wi tn e ss who p rofe ss e s to

hav e s e e n or h e ard or to oth e rwi s e hav e had a p hys i c al a pp re
,

h e n s i o n of an ob j e c t m a y we ll b e do u bt e d u nt i l t h e so u ndn e ss
,

o f t h e s e ns e e m p loye d has b e e n e stab l i sh e d B y a f e w pr a c t i

l
.

ca e x p e r i m e nts fro m m at e r i als at hand th e s e fa c u lt i e s of t h e

w i tn e ss m a y b e t e st e d so far as th e i r c orr e c tn e ss for m s t h e b as i s ;

of h i s e vi d e n c e and i f th e y fa i l to u nd e rg o t h e te st th e e vi d e n c e
,

d e r iv e d fro m th e m m u st fall 1
.
”

Th i s i s t h e t e s t t hat m ust b e k ept constant l y I n m ind

l
by thos e who i nv e s tigat e su c h st o ri e s as thos e w hich a r e
con stantly r e po r t e d to T/ze Soc i e ty f or P sy ck i ca R es ea rc/z .

I nt e r e sting ghost sto ri e s hav e b e e n fou n d agai n and ,

again t o r e s t on noth ing e xc e pt w e akn e s s of s ight o r

, ,

h e a r in g o r t ouch
, I nqu ir i e s into r ai lr oa d accid e nt s hav e
.

dr agg e d a l ong without pl acing t h e r e s pon sibility fo r t h e

d isa s t e rs u nti l t h e po s sibi l ity that t h e s w itch t e n d e r o r
,
-

t h e e ngin e e r w hos e t e st im ony s e e m e d O p e n t o no o n e of

,

t h e t e st s a lr e a d y e xp l ain e d m ight b e co l o r bl in d sugg e s t e d

,
-

its e lf t o som e o n e A l itt l e e xp e r im e ntat ion s oon s ho w e d

.

t hat such was t h e cas e an d t h e d isa s t e r at onc e b e cam e

,

t h e fault of an e ngin e e r who m isun d e r st oo d t h e s igna l

l ights or of a switchman wh o hung out t h e wr ong l ant e r n

l l
, .

W
l
V/t a t i s M e M or a
l l noth r t s t un d r thi s
d f Ck a ra c t e r tb c i t n es s [s
’
9
( ) o .

ke N a t u ra y Tr u t /zf u t —
A e e e sub
divis ion i s to e xa m in e t h e mo r a l up r ight n e s s of t h e
witn e ss I S h e natu r a ll y v e r acious ?
. O f unv e r aciou s
w itn e ss e s “
th e r e a r e th r e e class e s : t h e innoc e nt l ia r ,

1
For e n s i c O r a t ory , Rob i nson , 2 29 .
23 6 A P G U AI E N TA TI OZV
.

on h i s m i nd and hav e not s i n c e b e e n v e r ifi e d by pe rsonal

,

e x a m i nat i on or e x t e rnal a u thor i ty .W h e n h e was c all e d u p on

to stat e th e m at t h e i nstan c e of t h e ad v e rs e p arty t h e nat u ral
, ,

d e s i r e to s e r v e a fr i e nd st i m u lat e d h i s i m a g i nat i on as we ll a s
h i s m e m ory and t h e story h e r e lat e d was t h e n e t r e s u lt of fan c y
,

and re coll e c t i on T h e c ross e x am i n e r m a y tak e ad v antag e of

.
-

t h e sa m e do c i l i t y i n ord e r to e x h i b i t h i s l i ab i l i ty to s e lf d e c e p L - -

t i on If c i r c u m stan c e s wh i c h th e y k now d i d not o c c u r b u t

.
,

wh i c h a r e i n k e e p i n g w i th t h e oth e r p arts of t h e transac t i on as

narrat e d by h i m a r e now s u g g e st e d to h i m h i s i m a g i nat i on i s
, ,

v e ry l ik e l y to i ns e rt th e m i nto t h e p i c t u r e wh i c h h i s m e m or y
p r e s e rv e s and
,
h e w i ll e x p r e ss h i s c e rta i n ty of th e i r e xi st e n c e

wi th as m u c h p os i t iv e n e ss as that of any o t h e r m att e r to wh i c h

h e has t e st ifi e d Th i s p ro c e ss m a y b e i nd e fi n i te ly r e p e at e d
.
,

u nt i l t h e j u ry s e e that h e i s w i ll i n g to ado p t and swe ar to any

d e ta i ls wh i c h a r e not m an i fe stly i m p ro b ab l e or u nt i l h i s c o n
,

t r a d i c t i o n of oth e r w i tn e ss e s or of for m e r p ort i ons of h i s own

,

e vi d e n c e d e stroys th e i r fa i th i n h i s i nt e ll i e n c e or hon e sty

, g .

A n alt e rnat iv e or so m e t i m e s an add i t i onal m od e of c ross

, ,

e xa m i n i n g th i s w i tn e ss i s t o c o m p e l h i m to narrat e t h e t ra n s a c

t i on p i e c e m e al b e g i nn i ng i n t h e m i ddl e of i ts h i story and

,

s ki pp i ng fro m o n e p ort i on to anoth e r r e v e rs i n g or c onfu s i n g i ts

,

c hronolo g i c al ord e r V ar i at i ons an d o m i ss i ons w i ll p robably

.

r e s u lt wh i c h i f not s i g n ifi c ant e no u g h to d i s c r e d i t t h e w i tn e ss
, , ,

c a n b e so e as i ly m a n ifi e d b t h s st i ons of t h ross
g y e u
gg e e c

e x a m i n e r as to m a k e i t e vi d e nt to all b e hold e rs that t h e wi tn e ss

has no a c t u al k nowl e d g e or c on vi c t i ons of h i s own b u t s i m p ly ,

r e fl e c ts i m p re ss i ons c r e at e d by h i s fan 11 or b
y
,
t h e

ll l
p ro m p t i n g s of h i s q u e st i on e r fro m w i t T h e e x pos u r e of
.

t h e c ar e l e ss l i ar i s a work of i tt f fic u t y T h e c ross
.

e x a m i n e r n e e ds b u t to a ly t h e goad iv h i m r i n T h
pp , g e e . e

sam e q u al i t i e s wh i c h m i sl e ad h i m i n stat e m e nts i n r e g ard

to o n e e v e nt o p e rat e on all t h e o c c u r e s of l i fe and i n h i s
,

m o u th ‘
a l i ttl e o n e always b e c o m e s and two ‘

ro i st e r i ng yo u ths d e v e lo p i nto e l e v e k ra m and

 A P G U /VE N TA TI O ZV .

(
‘
thr e e i n K e ndall g r e e n .
’
L e t fi tt i n g i n c i d e nts whos e d e ta i ls1
,

a re alr e ady a c c u rat e l y k nown b e b u t p r e s e nt e d to h i m fo r ,

d e s c r i p t i on and h i s p al pab l e add i t i ons and e x ag g e rat i o n s w i ll

,

c om pl e te h i s ru i n
2 ”
.

Evid e nt l y y t h e t e st ia
th e s e t wo k i n d s c f l ia rs may of

l
,

by s kil lfu l t r e at m e nt h e b r o u ght und e r t h e d e ci d e dly fi nal

,

t e st of s e f cont ra d ict ion ” -

“
T h e wilfu l l ia r though p r obab l y a r a r e ph e nom e non, ,

som e t im e s app ea r s and wh e n h e do e s app e a r g e n e ra l l y

,

e l ud e s o r ba f fl e s a ll t h e a r t i fic e s of t h e c r o ss e x a m m e r 3 ”
-

I n han dlin g t h e e vid e nc e of a man con sid e r e d to b e a

wi l fu l l ia r it is th e r e fo r e b e s t t o r e m e mb e r t hat th is class
, ,

”
of p e r son s i s a l ways ani m at e d by a d e fi n it e pu rpos e
“
.

’
T h e poi nt i s t h e n to fi n d out what t h e man s mot iv e i s
, , ,

an d to wh at e xt e nt h i s will i s und e r i ts cont r o l Thi s .

m e an s of cours e that fo r t h e m o m e nt att e nt ion i s di r e ct e d

, ,

to n e w e vid e nc e P lai nly t h e e ffort i s t o b r ing t h e

.
,

e vid e n c e un d e r t h e t e st of p e r s ona l p r e j u d ic e p e rs o a l
n ,

i nt e r e s t .

SU M M A R Y .

u s fa r t h e fo ll o w ing t e st s hav e b e e n con s i d e r e d

th r e e as t o t h e s tat e m e nt it s e l f i t mu st n ot cont r adict ,
—

w e l l e stab l ish e d h u m an e xp e r i e n c e o r t h e oth e r w el l

-

,
s

e stabl ish e d fact s i n t h e cas e it m u st not c ont r ad ict it s e lf ,

two as t o t h e con d it ion s und e r which t h e t e st imony is

i l y of
ll
th e ro bb e r s wh o
’
s t a ff s

l
y il
l
1 P rof e s so r R o b n son h e re r ef e rs to Fa st or

s e t u po n h im . It a d m ra b i u s tra t e s th e wo r k of th e c a re e s si ar . [( i ng
H en r
y I V, P t I , A c t 1 1 , SC 4
. . .

2 F or e n s i c O r a t ory , R o b n s o n , i 2 40 , 2 4 1 .

3 [d e m , 241 .
23 8 A R G U M E N TA TZ OJV .

giv e n , t h e w it n e s s shou ld not giv e e vi d e nc e r e l uctantly

—
,

no r s houl d h e b e fo r c e d i n his t e st imony fou r as to

t h e w itn e s s h e mu st b e f r e e from p r e j u dic e o r p e rsonal
,

int e r e st h e mu st b e i nt e l l i g e nt h is s e n s e s m u s t b e r e l iab l e
, , ,

l
h e hims e lf mu st stan d i n t h e com mun ity as an hon e st
think e r a n cP i v e r W h o shun s f h e g fio s s e s of im aginat o
in
“

)
,

T H R EE K I N D S OF EV I D EN C E W H I C H ARE IN TH EM SEL V ES
T R U STWO R T H Y .

Ev e n as t h e kin d s of e vid e n c e j ust con si d e r e d a r e f r om

th e i r v e ry n atu r e su spi c i ou s o r unt rustwo r thy th r e e oth e r ,

kinds f r o m th e i r v e r y natu r e co m m e nd th e m s e l v e s to a
r e ad e r o r h e ar e r Th e s e a r e : ( I ) Und e sign e d T e st i mony
.
,

w hat a w r it e r o r sp e ak e r giv e s i nadv e r t e ntly o r i nci

d e ntally with n o thought fo r it s b e a r in g on t h e point i n
,

d iscus sion ; ( 2 ) N e gat iv e T e stimony “

t h e fail ur e of t h e ,

witn e s s t o m e nt ion a fact s o st rikin g that h e m u s t hav e

noti c e d it had it occu rr e d an d ( 3 ) C onc e s s ions the ,
—

ad mis sion that s om e th in g which mak e s again s t t h e wr it "

’
1
e r s o r t h e s p e ak e r s cas e i s t r u e
’
.

1 . U N D ESI GN ED T EST I M O N Y .

An a rd e nt phi l at e l ist i s t r yin g t o d e m on st r at e t o som e

f r i e n d h ow w id e spr e ad i s t h e p r e s e nt int e r e st i n coll e ct ing
s tam ps and ho w e ag e r t h e coll e cto r s a r e t o gat h e r s p e ci
,

m e n s H e r e m e mb e rs t h e fol l owing f r om H e n r y N o r man s

.
’

Tb e Fa r E a s t an d q u ot e s it , Wh e n e v e r M acao d e si r e s
a l ift fo r it s t r e asu r y it i s abl e to s e cu r e it by abandoning
o n e s e t of stamps and is suing anoth e r wh e n ph i l at e l ist s ,

1 The d i vi s i o i i n th i l
l ly t h
l
ns g ve n s p a r a g ra p h f o o w ro u h
g ose of P rof e s s o r
Ge n u n g , Ou t i n e s f
o P k e t or i c , p 4 1 0 . .
240 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV .

3 . H U R T FU L A D M I SSI O N S .

I n t h e fo ll o w ing e xt r act f r om Tb e M i My s t e ry by A nna l

l ,

K at h e rin e G r e e n t h e e vid e n c e as to a dat e com m e nds

,

it s e lf b e cau s e it i s an ad m i ssion hu rtfu l t o t h e w i t n e ss .

R hoda C olw e l l has b e e n giving e vid e nc e which s e e m s to

show that Gu y P oll a r d wa s t h e mu rd e r e r of t h e R e v e r e nd
M r B arrows
.

Pardon m e h e r v o i c e bro k e i n aga i n y o u hav e h e ard

‘
,
’
,
‘

what I k now .
’
I hold y o u t i g ht SO t i g ht s h e add e d
‘ —
,
’
,

s ha ki n g h e r C los e Sh u t hand that I do u b t i f e v e n yo u r l ife

-
‘
,

c o u ld e s c a p e sho u ld I c hoos e to r e m e m b e r i n c o u rt what I h a v e

r e m e m b e r e d b e for e y o u two h e r e to day -

.
’

Y o u a r e not g o i n g we r e t h e words w i th wh i c h h e [ G u y Pol

’
,

lard ] b ro k e t h e al m ost i ntol e rabl e s u s pe ns e of t h e m o m e nt ; at ‘

l e ast not t i ll y o u ha v e g iv e n u s t h e dat e of th i s r e m ar k ab l e

,

e x p e r i e n c e of yo u rs
’
.

T h e dat e
‘ ?’
S h e r e p e at e d i c i ly W hat day was i t that .
‘

Mr B arrows was fo u nd i n t h e v at ? Sh e i n q u i re d t u rn i ng
.
’
,

to m e w i th an i nd i ffe r e n t look .

“
H i s hand fe ll on h e r a rm l ik e i ron .

Y o u n e e d n o t a p p e al to M i ss St e rl i n g h e r e m ar k e d
’
, .

a m as ki n th i s q st i on and I m not a m a n to b e b al k e d
g y o u u e a ,

or fr i g ht e n e d b y y o u wh e n m y l i fe i ts e lf i s at stak e What .

n i g ht was i t on wh i ch y o u saw m e pla c e M r B arrows i n t h e .

v at ? I c o m m and y o u to t e ll m e or ,

“
Sh e c hos e to s u c c u m b and g as pe d o u t : It was on a
,
‘

n i g ht i n A u g u st t h e s e v e nt e e nth I th i n k I wi sh y o u and
—
, .

y o u r b roth e r m u c h j oy of t h e ac k nowl e dg m e nt .
’

“
H e d i d not answ e r onl y dro p p e d h e r a r m and loo ki n g at
, , ,

m e r e m ar k e d
,

I th i n k that p u ts a d i ff e r e nt fac e u p on t h e m att e r .

’
 A R G U M E N TA TI ON . 24 1

It d i d i nd e e d For Mr B arrows had only b e e n d e ad fo u r

“
,
. .

days and t o day was t h e twe nty e i g hth of Se pt e m b e r

,
1 -

.
”

TH E D EG R EE OF C O NV I N C I NGN ESS O F T H ESE T H R EE K I N DS

O F EV I D E N C E .

I t wou l d s e e m t hat t h e co nvinc ingn e s s i n th e m s e l v e s

of th e s e th r e e kind s of e vid e nc e i s som e what di ff e r e nt .

What a m a n a d m it s m uch agai n st h i s will that i s hu rt

.

l
, ,
’

f u to his cas e may e vi d e nt l y b e tak e n fo r t ruth If .

,

how e v e r a stud e n t u s e s a bit of u nd e sign e d t e stimony h e

, ,

must f e e l s u r e that t h e witn e s s i s v e r acious that what h e ,

says i s t r u e Com p ari son of t h e t h r e e ill ust r at ion s j ust

.
.

giv e n wi ll Show t hat o n e w it n e ss giving n e gativ e t e st i

mony i s not so c onvincing as o n e witn e s s givi ng u nd e
sign e d t e sti mony o r m aking a h u rtful adm is s ion A .

w rit e r may b e s u r e t hat his wit n e s s giving n e gati v e

t e stim ony i s v e r aciou s but i t is e v e n th e n p e r f e ct l y ,

p os sib l e that t h e r e m ay hav e b e e n ov e r s ight If only .

M L e scu r e w e r e cit e d i n t h e s e con d illu st r ation giv e n

.

abov e t h e n e gat iv e t e st imony though it wo u ld co m m e nd

, ,

it s e l f wo u l d n ot b e u nqu e stionabl e Wh e n how e v e r t h e

,
.
, ,

c r itic Shows that s e v e ral biog r a p h e r s an d t h e s e of t h e ,

”
b e st fai l to m e ntion t h e M e m oi rs t h e n e gat iv e t e sti
, ,

mony b e com e s p r act ical ly conv i nci ng N e gativ e t e st i .

m ony t h e n to b e convin ci ng in it s e l f shoul d b e giv e n by

, , ,

s e v e r al v e raciou s w it n e s s e s I n oth e r wo rd s of th e s e .
,

t h r e e k i nd s of e vid e nc e altho u gh al l thr e e a r e s e lf ,

c om m e nd at ory only h u rtf u l ad m is sion s a r e c onvincing

,

w ithout t h e succ e s sf u l appl icat i on of o n e of t h e oth e r

t e st s of e vi d e n c e al r e ady con s id e r e d
l
.

1 l
M illMy t y A K Ge pp 9 1 2
s er1 95 K i
,
ck e b
. .
k N re e n , .
—
. n r oc er o ve s ,

G P
. . P u tn a m
’
s So n s .
242 A R G U M E N TA TI OI V .

EX T ER N A L AN D I N T ER N A L T EST S .

Each of t h e t e st s of e vid e n c e consid e r e d thu s f a r

qu e stion s t h e san ity t h e good faith o r t h e good j u d gm e n t
, ,

of t h e wit n e s s som e t im e s m o r e t han o n e of t h e s e Th e s e

, .

t e st s e xamin e t h e e vid e n c e e xt e r nal ly Th e y con s i d e r t h e .

m a n who giv e s t h e t e sti m ony t h e condition s u n d e r w hich

,

it was gi v e n wh e th e r t h e e vid e nc e as a whol e coin cid e s

,

with oth e r t e st imony kn own to b e t r u e wh e t h e r it i s s e l f ,

cont r a d icto r y t h e y d o not say : I s th e r e anyth ing

faulty i n t h e p r oc e s s of thought t h e l ogi c t hat has p r o ,

d u c e d t h e O pin ion ? I f th e y d id th e y wou l d b e not -

,

e xt e r na l but int e rnal t e st s

,
I t m ay s e e m off hand that
.
,
-

th e r e is o n e e xc e ption to th is stat e m e n t t h e t e st of s e lf ,

cont ra d iction H o w e v e r thi s d o e s not an a l y z e t h e logica l

.
,

p r oc e s s i nvolv e d in t h e e vi d e nc e but s imply l ooking at t h e

, ,

fac e of t h e stat e m e nt poi nt s out that an ass e rt ion mad e

,

in o n e p l ac e is cont r adict e d i n anoth e r Evid e nt ly t h e .

'

witn e ss i s unt r u stworthy N o qu e st ion how e v e r i s at

.
, ,

t h e mom e nt a s k e d as t o t h e p r oc e ss of tho u gh t by w h ich

h e r e ach e d t h e stat e m e nt T h e e xt e r n al t e sts ask :

. IS
th e r e good r e ason t o thi nk t hat t h e e vi d e n c e if int e r na l ly ,

e xamin e d wi l l b e found to b e l ogical ly u n sound ?

, The
i nt e rna l t e st s ask rath e r : “
J u s t what i s t h e l ogica l
u n soundn e ss of t h e a r gum e nt ?

FA L L A C I ES AN D T H EI R D A NG ER S .

l
l
Th e xam inat ion of e vi d e n c e fo r i nt e r na l w e akn e ss e s i s
e

a S e arch fo r fallaci e s B y a f a a c y i s m e ant “

any ’

u n sound mod e of arguing whic h app e a r s t o d e man d o u r

conviction and to b e d e c i s i ve p f t h e qu e st ion i n han d

, ,
244 A P G U YWE N TA TJOZV .

A T T EM P T ED D I V I SI O N S OF FA L L A C I ES .

I n t h e past r e p e at e d att e m p ts hav e b e e n m a d e

c las sify d e fi n i t iv e ly t h e d i f f e r e nt kind s of fall a c i e s but ,

e xp e r i e n c e has Shown t hat a sati sfacto r y hard an d

d iv i sion of t h e m has n ot y e t b e e n found T h e d i vis .

ov e rla p som e of t h e fal l a c i e s fall i n g int o o n e o r ano

,

c lass as t h e stu d e nt l ooks at th e m f r om o n e o r anoth e r

o i nt of Vi ew T h e rough d ivis i on u s e d in t h e follo

p .

1
pag e s bas e d on that of D r What e ly i s di st in ct l y op
, .
,

to t h e ob j e ctio n j u st stat e d b u t i t i s giv e n i n t h e ho

,

l
l
that it m a y h e l p t h e youn g st u d e nt of A rgu m e nt at ion
r e cogn i z e t h e fal lac i e s m ost comm on i n t h e wo r k of c o e g
stud e nt s and in cu rr e n t publ icat ion s .

A C O N C L U SI O N I s N O T N EC ESSA R I L Y T R U E O R FA L SE B EC A U SE
A P R EM I SE I S A P R EM I SE I s N O T N EC ESSA R I L Y T R U E
.

O R F A LSE B EC A U S E A C O N C L U S I O N I S .

I n g e n e r al i n c on s id e ring e vi d e n c e a stu d e nt Shou l d

, ,

r e m e m b e r that it i s always fal laciou s t o assum e that b e

c aus e o n e of t h e stat e m e nt s r m is s from wh ich a
(p e e ) m a n

d raws h i s con cl usion i s cl e arly fal s e o r t ru e h is con c l usion

i s n e c e ssarily fal s e o r t r u e o r t o a s s u m e t h a t b e ca u s e t h e
,
/

l
c on c l u s i o n i s fal s e o r co r r e ct a pr e m i s e i s B e tw e e n a .

p r e m i s e and it s conc l us ion m a

y i e so m any opportunit i e s
fo r e r ro r that it i s u n saf e t o as s u m e anyth i ng about t h e
t ruth o r fal sity of t h e o n e from t h e t r u t h o r fal s i ty of t h e
oth e r O nly wh e n e xam inat io n has shown t hat a pr e m i s e
.

i s co rr e c t that a con cl us ion i s t h e nat u r a l con s e q u e nc e

,

from its p r e m is e s S hou l d stat e m e nt s b e mad e a b o u t t h e i r

,
~

1 E l f
e m e n ts o L og i c , p p . 1 9 2 50
0 —
.
 A R G U M E N TA TI ON . 245

t r uth o r fa ls e n e s s an d th e i r r e l ation s t o o n e anoth e r M uch .

’

of t h e fi r m ad h e r e nc e of e ach r e l igiou s s e ct t o it s pa r ticula r

i d e as r e st s on it s kno w l e dg e that t hough it hol d s diff e r e nt
vi e ws f r o m oth e r s e ct s it bas e s its conclus ion s on p r e m
i s e s c om m on t o an d adm i tt e d by al l Each s e ct assum e s
.
,

ho w e v e r that sin c e a p r e m is e of it s a r gum e nt i s co rr e ct

,

l
t h e concl u sio n mu st b e al so Thi s fallacy und e rl i e s much
.

cha r itabl e wo r k P e op l e h av e too ( t em b e i e ve d t hat

.

i /

l
b e cau s e som e cha r itabl e s ch e m e was bas e d on th e unim .

p e a c h a b e p r e m is e W e S
, h oul
“
d aid t h e poo r and n e e d y i n
”
t i m e s of t ria l t h e i r pa r t icu l a r s ch e m e t h e ir concl u sion
,
'
,

f r om t h e p r e m i s e s Should b e c a r r i e d o u t
, I t i s how e v e r
.
, ,

no u ncom mon e xp e ri e nc e fo r a m a n t o hold an absu r d

opin ion which h e has d r awn f r om e nti r e ly co rr e ct p r e m
i s e s o r a p e r f e ctly co r r e ct opin io n d r awn f r om absu rd p r e m
,

ises . That is h is a r g u m e nt i s a n on s e qu i t u r
,
t h e nam e —

app l i e d t o an a r gu m e nt wh e n e v e r t h e conc l u sion do e s not

l ogical l y fol l ow f r om t h e t w o stat e m e nt s f r om which it i s
d r awn A w r it e r s hou l d b e con t e nt i n s uch cas e s simply
.

to point out t hat t h e con cl u s ion do e s not fo l low f r om t h e

p r e mi s e s o r t hat a p r e mi s e o r t h e p r e mi s e s a r e i nco rr e ct .

Do ing t h is h e po int s out a fa ll a c y i n his oppon e nt s work

, ,

r e n d e rs i t w o r th l e ss an d avoid s Sl ipping f r om e xc e s s of
, ,

z e al
,
i nto o n e of t h e fal l aci e s j u st m e nt ion e d .

What kind s of fal l aci e s b e s i d e s t h e s e wi ll a ca r e fu l

s tu d e nt fi n d in e vi d e n c e ? C e r tainly t h e mom e nt a r e ad e r
,

b e gin s t o con s id e r fal lac i e s t h e t r uth of what was said i n

,

C hapt e r I I as t o t h e impo r tan c e of d e finition in A rgu

.

m e ntat ion i s e mphasi z e d A v e r y l a r g e cl as s of fa l laci e s

.

a r i s e s f r om an ign o r ant o r a ca r e l e ss u s e of t e r m s o r
ph r a s e s T h e r e ad e r saw i n C hapt e r I I that ca r e ful d e fi
.
.

n i t i o n avoi ds t h e confu sion s t h e a r gum e ntativ e e rr o r s

, ,
246 A R G U M E N TA TI O/V .

int e nt ional o r u nint e ntional that m ay r e sult f r om using

,

wo rd s i n th e m s e lv e s a m big u o u s igno r antly car e l e s sly o r

, , ,

with unfa i r p u r p os e Wh e n e v e r i n an argum e n t word s o r

.

phras e s o c cu r wh i ch a r e ambiguo u s o r a r e us e d i n an i n
co rr e c t s e ns e th e y will i f un e x p l ain e d prod u c e confu s ion
, , , ,

int e ntional o r un int e nt ional will l e ad to unsound m od e s

,

”
of r e asoning in a wo rd to fallaci e s, .

FA L L A C I ES A R I SI NG .
ER O M LA C K OF D EFI N I T I O N .

1 . Wor d s w i t/z Tw o Com m on M e a n i ng s ef t Un d efin ed l .

O n pag e 6 1 t h e r e ad e r saw that t h e t opic Was t h e t r e at ,

m e nt of t h e A m e rican Loyali st s by t h e Whigs j u sti fiabl e ?

i s l iabl e t o l e ad to m uch u ns ou nd r e asoni n g T h e qu e s .

t ion was m e ant to ask wh e th e r t h e t r e atm e nt of t h e

A m e ri c an Loyal i st s by t h e Engl ish Whigs w as j u s t ifiab l e .

A stud e nt might p e r f e ctly w e l l t r y t o p r ov e t h e a f fir m a

t iv e t ru e on t h e g r ound t hat t h e t r e atm e nt of som e
A m e r i can Loya l i s t s by a party of Whig s wa s j u stifiabl e ,

an d h i s logic wou l d b e u nas s ailab l e e xc e pt on t h e g r oun d

,

t hat hi s Whigs w e r e t h e A m e r icans in r e b e ll ion again st

G r eat B ritain not t h e Engl ish Wh i gs r e f e rr e d to i n t h e
,

q u e st ion . N atu r ally t h e A m e r ican Loya l ist s could ha r d ly

e xp e ct from t h e r e b e l l ious A m e r ican s again st w hom t h e y

had tak e n Sid e s what t h e y ha d a r ight to e xp e ct f r om t h e

Wh igs i n Eng l an d w h o w e r e ai d in g i n putt ing do w n t h e
,

R e vol ution . A fal l acy i s v e r y l iabl e th e n to r e s u l t wh e n

, ,

l
l
an ambiguou s t e rm i s l e ft un e xp l ain e d .

2 Us i ng a t Wi D iff e r e n t M ea n i ng s of t b c Sa m e Wor d
. .

A not h e r fo r m of thi s fa ll acy which a r is e s f r om t h e u s e

of an ambiguou s w o r d o r p h ras e i s t o e mp l oy t h e sa m e
,

w o r d i n d iff e r e nt part s of an a r gu m e nt i n t wo di f f e r e nt
248 A P G U M E N TA TI O/V .

d e m oc rat i c H e r e t h e stud e nt h as not us e d j u st t h e sam e

.

word i n two d i f f e r e nt s e n s e s b u t th i nking b e cau s e t h e ,

t w o wo r d s l ook e d al i k e th e y m u st m e an t h e s am e t hing ,

h e has t r e at e d t h e m as tho u gh t h e y w e r e id e nt ical i n

m e an ing I n ou r la nguag e w i t h it s two so u rc e s A ng l o
.
,

Saxon an d Latin s u ch c on fid e n c e in r e s e mbl an c e s b e

,

tw e e n w o rd s i s ill found e d M any l ook al i k e t hat com e

-
.

from e nt i r e ly d iff e r e n t sou r c e s an d shou l d ca r ry e nt i r e l y

ll
d i ff e r e n t id e as .

4 . Co nf u s i on o f tb c E ty m o o
g i ca a nd t /t e Co m m on M e a n
i ng s f W o
o rda S t ill a n oth.e r fo r m of t h e fal l acy of
ambigu ity a r i s e s wh e n a wo r d i s us e d withou t e xpl anati on
that has both an e v e ryday m e an ing and o n e m o r e r a r e ly ,

u s e d f r om it s d e rivat ion W e oft e n h e ar t h e sayi ng

, .
,

T h e e xc e p t ion p rov e s t h e r ul e giv e n as p roof that t h e ,

e xc e ption t o t h e ru l e i s what shows t h e r ul e t o b e co rr e ct

—
p e rf e ct non s e n s e H e r e t h e s p e ak e r tak e s p r ov es fo r
.

ou r w ord p r o ve s wh e n i n t h is cas e it i s u s e d i n its st r ictl y

,

e tym ol ogical m e an ing d e r iv e d f r om t h e Lat in p r o bo to ,

l l
t e s t an d t h e m e a n ing i s
, T h e e xc e pti on t e s t s t h e r ul e
, .

W
l l
U i d d e d w i t /z M e a n i n s w zi c /t d o n o t
5 . n ex
p a n e o r s u s
g
v

be ong t o t t e m D r What e ly giv e s as an e xam pl e of t h e

. .

fall acy j u s t con s id e r e d what s e e m s e v e n b e tt e r t o il lu s

t r at e u s in g wo rd s with m e anings whi ch do n ot b e l ong to
th e m H e co n s id e r s t h e a r gu m e nt som e t im e s bas e d on
.

t h e oft e n u s e d wo r d r ep r e s e n t a t i ve “
A s sum ing t hat it s .

r ight m e aning m u st co rr e spond e xactly w ith t h e st r ict

’
s e n s e of t h e v e rb r e p r e s e n t t h e Sophist p e r suad e s t h e
‘
,

multitud e that a m e m b e r of t h e H ous e of C ommon s i s

bound to b e gu i d e d i n al l point s by t h e O pinion of hi s
con stitu e nt s : a n d i n Sho r t to b e m e r e l y th e i r sp ok es m a n
, , .

wh e r e as l a w and cu stom wh ich i n t hi s cas e m ay b e con

, , ,
 A R G U III E N TA TI OIV .
249

re das fi xing t h e m e an ing of t h e t e r m r e qu i r e no such ,

g but e n j oi n a r e p r e s e ntat iv e to act acco rding t o t h e

,

b e st of h is o w n j udgm e nt and on hi s own r e spon sibil ity 1

, .
”

P l ain ly e nough in su c h cas e s as this wh e th e r t h e i h

, ,

b e i nt e nt ion a l o r unint e ntional a ca r e fu l

~

c o r r e ct u se ,

d e fi n ition of t h e w o r d o r ph r as e on w h ich t h e a rgum e nt

tu r n s w il l d e mo nst r at e t h e fa ll acio u s u s e ma d e of t h e wo r d .

SU M M A R Y .

Wh e n a r e a d e r r e m e m b e rs that t h e s e ambiguit i e s of
ph ras e t h e s e i nco rr e ct u s e s a r e l ik e ly t o occ u r not m e r e ly
,
, ,

i n t h e m ai n th e si s but in any o n e of t h e v e ry many s e n

l
t e n c e s t hat m ak e u p an arg u m e nt an d t hat th e y con ,

st a n t y combin e wi th ot h e r fall aci e s st ill t o b e m e ntion e d ,

h e m u st s e e h o w i m portan t i t i s that h e s hou l d b e on h is ‘

gua r d again st t h e fall aci e s arising f r om th e s e sou rc e s .

L e t h im r e m e m b e r that w h e n e v e r h e us e s a w o r d or
ph ras e which m ay b e am biguo u s h e shoul d d e fi n e it ; that ,

w h e n e v e r h is oppo ne nt o r e v e n h is ally us e s o n e h e Shoul d ,

i n si st o n a d e fi n ition of it ; that h e s h ou l d n e v e r u s e
word s o r ph r as e s i n s e n s e s whi ch d o not b e l ong to th e m ;
t hat h e Shoul d n e v e r al low an O pp on e nt o r an al ly t o u s e
word s i nc orr e ctly D efin i t i on i s e i t /i e r t/ze p re ve n t i on or
l
l l
.

t /t e d es t r u c t i on o
f f a i
a c es o f t /zi s c a ss .

Q _
n

TH E F A LLA C Y ,
B EGG I NG TH E Q U EST I O N P ET I T I O P R I N C I P I I
,
.

A
s e con d kin d of fallacy, by n o m e ans un common i n
t h e wo r k of b e gin n e rs i n A r g u m e n t a t l
on ls B e ggi n g t h e ,

Q u e stion P e t i t i o P r i n c ip i i
,
I n t hi s fal l acy a stu d e nt
. ,

co nscious l y o r u n c on sciou s l y e ith e r ( 1 ) mak e s an u n ,

1 E l em en t s o f L og i c , W ha te l
y , p . 1 97 .
25 0 A R G U M E N TA TI OIV .

suppo r t e d a s sumpt i o n which i s t h e sam e as o r r e s u l t

ll
f r om t h e con c l usio n h e i s to p r ov e t r u e o r ( 2 ) as s e r t ,

u n qu a i fie d t h e t ruth of a p r e m i s e w hich it s e l f n e e d
y
suppo r t .

l l l
1 A s s u m i ng t /t e
. Tr u t /z f
o a n Un s uppor t e d A ss u mp t i o
w ki c /t i s E qu i va en t t o t /t e Co n c u s i on o r R es u t s f r om it .

I n t h e argum e nt b e t w e e n T h w acku m an d Squa r e 0

”
?
C an hono r e xist i nd e p e nd e nt of r e l igion Thwackum b e gs
t h e q u e st ion i n t h e p r e m is e of h is a r gum e nt w hich d e fi

hono r H e says it m e an s
.
“
That which cannot ,

i nd e p e nd e nt of t h e t e n e t s of t h e C hu r ch
'

i e . r e l igion
.
, Gr an t this p r e m i s e an d you g ra n t t
.
,

who l e cas e fo r it i s nothing but t h e d e s i r e d conc l u si

,

i n an e xpan d e d fo r m I n a sim i l a r way t h e wr it e r on t h

.

qu e stion “
A r e t h e e nj oym e nt an d t h e cu l tivat ion of t h
,

F in e A r t s e s s e n t ial t o t h e h igh e st typ e of civi l i z at ion ?

b e gs t h e qu e st ion i n h i s p r e m is e wh ich d e fi n e s hi s u s e
“
c ivili z at ion “
T h e s u m of t h e m at e r ia l and m o
,

acqu i sition s of a rac e th e s e qual iti e s b e ing e mbo d i e d i n

,

t h e Fi n e A rts Gr ant th i s d e fin ition an d you g r ant t h e

.
,

con c l u sion sought fo r th e y a r e o n e an d t h e s am e t hing

, .

Evi d e nt l y if th e r e can b e no civi l i z ation w ithout F in e

,

A r t it is c l e a r that i n t h e high e st typ e of civi l i z at ion

,

t h e e nj oym e nt and cu l tivat ion of t h e F i n e A r t s m u s t b e

p r e s e nt .

T h e fo l lowi ng il lu st r at e s b e gging t h e q u e s tion by taking

as a p r e m is e w hat i s t r u e on l y if t h e conc l usion has
al r e ady b e e n g r ant e d to b e c o rr e c t A r e a d e r of t h e book .

m e nt ion e d p 2 3 9 which p ur po r t s to b e t h e M e moi rs

.
,
“

of t h e P rin c e s s Lamba l l e a r gu e s that i t i s g e n uin e b e cau s e

l
,

it r e co rd s s uch an d su ch i t y of th e s e fa cts
25 2 A P G U M E I VTA TI OZV .

a r is e f r om att e mpt s to fin d a c aus e fo r kno w n

T h e fi r st fo r m of t h is is t o mi stak e a Sign of t h e p

l
of t h e r e sul t in q u e st i on fo r a caus e of it F o r i ns .

a la r g e part of t h e p r e s e nt d iscus s ion about fr e e Si

r e st s on t h e id e a t hat S inc e th e r e i s u sually much s ilv e r
wh e n t h e r e i s w e alt h i n a count r y much silv e r i s t h e ,

cau s e of w e a l th R e ally it i s not t h e si l v e r that mak e s

.
,

t h e w e a l th but t h e w e al th th at d e man d s m u ch si l v e r as
,

1
a conv e ni e nt m e d ium of e xchan g e T e chn ically thi s .

l
fal l acy has b e e n known as n on ca n s a p ro ca u s a .

1 1 P os t k oc e rg o p r op t e r t oc
. A noth e r v e ry common .
—

form of un d u e as sum ption i s t o cons i d e r t h at s inc e two ,

ph e n om e n a fol l ow o n e anot h e r o n e mu st b e c a u s e a n d
‘
'

t h e oth e r e f f e c t Th is i s p e rhaps t h e c o m m ohe s t fo r m

.

of fa l lacy I t i s a stock i n t r a d e of t h e d e magog ue P oint

.
- -

ing t o d e si r abl e e conom ic o r po l it ica l con d itions whi ch

hav e j ust b e gu n t o a p p e a r h e nam e s som e l e gislat iv e ,

m e a s u r e of h i s party som e tim e p r e c e d e nt an d d e cla r e s ,

that t h e d e s irabl e r e sult s com e f r om it I t is upon th is .

fa ll acy t hat much of t h e succ e ss of pat e nt m e dicin e s

d e p e n d s A man has b e e n u nw e ll
. H e tak e s s om e .

much a d v e r ti s e d nost r u m an d aft e r a t im e h e is b e tt e r

-

, .

H e and t h e publ ic d e clar e t hat su r e ly t h e m e d ic in e cu r e d

him A col l e g e stu d e nt d e bat ing t h e qu e stion
.
, I s C ivi ,

l llation H a r mful t o t h e I nd ian ? d e v e l op e d t hi s l in e of

a r gum e nt : T h e Z u ni s a r e t h e m o s t civi l i z e d of t h e
“

I ndian t r ib e s ; t h e Z u ni s a r e dying off fast e st ; th e r e fo r e

”
civi l i z ation i s d e st r uct iv e t o t h e I n d ian R e c e ntly o n e .
,

of t h e B o s t on d ai l y pap e rs gav e con s i d e r abl e Spac e to a

discussion of t h e va l u e of vivi s e ct ion and t h e e xt e nt to
w hich it i s practic e d i n t hi s c ount r y A t this t im e t h e .

1 E l
em e n t s o f L og i c , W h a t e ly , p . 2 24 .
 A R G U M E N TA TI OI V .
25 3

fo l lo w ing i l l u st r at io n of thi s fa l lacy app e a r e d in on e of its

co l u m n s :
An d that an i m als a re syst e m at i c ally stol e n for th i s pu r pos e
vivi s e c t i on ] th e r e i s so m e g ro u nd f o r b e l i e f In day
[ o
. n e th e
ad v e rt i s i n g c ol u m ns of a S i n g l e da i ly p a pe r had Si x ad v e rt i s e
m e nts of lost do g s A n I r i sh s e tt e r was lost fro m Dor c h e st e r
;
.

anoth e r Ir i sh s e tt e r fro m W i nthrop ; a l i ttl e fo x t e rr i e r fro m

H i n g ha m ; a larg e s m ooth c oat e d St B e rnard fro m Ro xb u ry ;
-

a s m all Skye t e rr i e r fro m W at e rtown and a br i ndl e and wh i t e

,

b u ll t e rr i e r fro m W e st Ro x b u ry . O f c o u rs e th e s e ad v e rt i s e
m e nts c o u ld ha v e r e p r e s e nt e d b u t a p ro port i on of t h e dogs
‘
lost i n and aro u nd B oston on that day
’
.
”

M any of ou r com mon sup e rs t it ion s r e st on t h e fall acy

t hat what happ e n s aft e r an e v e nt is probably cau s e d by it .

What chi ld has not h e a rd s om e o n e say aft e r a d ay of p e tty ,

an noyanc e s : W e ll w hat coul d I e xp e ct ? I got out of

“
,

b e d on t h e wr ong S i d e t h i s mo r n ing or “
I t is a l way s
, ,

t h e way A ft e r I sta r t e d f r om hom e I w e nt back th r e e

.

l
l
t im e s fo r t hings I h a d fo rgott e n That alway s b r ings bad
.

l
l uck A
. t h e s e i ll u s t rat ion s Sho w w hat logician s hav e
call e d t h e fall acy P os t zoc e rg o p rop te r k oc
l
l
.

Tb e Sou r ce of t /t e s e L a s t Tw o Fa a c i es I n th is .

fallacy an d t h e C l os e l y al l i e d fo r m i ll ust r at e d j ust b e fo r e

it [Von c a u s a p r o c a u s a th ink e r s fail t o r e m e mb e r two
, ,

id e as that sh oul d n e v e r b e fo rgott e n wh e n a caus e fo r

a r e sul t i s na m e d : th e y m u st m ak e su r e ( I ) that th e r e

l
i s som e cau sal con n e ct ion b e tw e e n t h e t w o ; and ( 2 ) that
t h e cau s e ass ign e d i s s u f fici e nt t o p r oduc e t h e r e s u t

n am e d Sin c e t h e y a s sum e j ust what th e y S houl d p ro v e

.

t ru e th e y r e a ll y b e g t h e qu e st ion Th e s e w r it e r s should
,
.

hav e r e m e mb e r e d a l so : ( I ) that (a ) b e caus e th e r e s e e m s to

,

b e som e pos s ib l e c onn e ction b e tw e e n two ph e nom e na i t ,

25 4 A R GU M E N TA TI OI V .

do e s not n e c e s sarily e xi st and ( b) if t h er e i s som e con ,

I t is not n e c e ssar i ly causal ; 2 ) that it i s v e ry

n e ct IOn , (
ra r e ind e e d that a n y ph e n o m e non Hi t h e r e sult of o n e
"
"

cau s e on l y ; an d ( 3 ) t hat wh e n m any ca u s e s a r e at work ,

l
l
som e m ay n e gat iv e oth e r s and t h e c a u s e ass ign e d fo r t h e
,

r e sult m a y not b e a t a t h e r e ason for i t '

’ h

C e rtainly i t m u s t b e cl e ar e n ough that b e cau s e th e r e

,

See m s to b e a pos sibl e conn e ct ion b e t w e e n two ph e nom e na ,

i t n e e d n ot e xist T h e ill ust r ation from co m mon s u p e r

.

s t i t i o n s giv e n abov e s hows t hi s Th at if a conn e ct ion.

l l
do e s e xist b e tw e e n two p h e nom e n a it i s not n e c e s sa r ily
cau s al t h e il l u st r atio n i n r e ga r d t o w ea t /t and s i ve r
,

p rov e s and so do t h e a rgum e nt s f r om Sign giv e n on p p

,
.

203 2 1 0
,
I t Sho u l d n e e d l ittl e i l l ust r at ion to p r ov e t hat
.

v e ry f e w p h e no m e na r e sul t f r om o n e caus e B attl e s hav e .

doubtl e s s b e e n won s i m ply by t h e Spl e n d i d fi ghti ng of t h e

m e n on o n e s id e but fa r m o r e oft e n s e v e r al r e a sons h av e
,

combin e d to p ro d u c e t h e victo r y t h e sup e r io r st r at e gy

,

of o n e g e n e r a l t h e b e tt e r t r ai nin g of his m e n t h e failu r e

, ,

of ammun ition amon g som e of t h e oppo s ing t r oops e t c ,

.

W e r e t h e i nt e r min gl ing t h e compl e xity of cau s e s l e s s w e

, ,

S ho u l d not hav e so many d i f f e r e n t O pin ion s as t o bi stori

cal e v e nt s and th e i r caus e s I n t h e cas e of t h e pat e n t .

m e dicin e s t h e no st ru m m ay hav e d on e l ittl e o r n othing

,

l
toward t h e cu r e I f it was har m l e s s t h e m e d i c m e s p r e vi
.
,

tak e n but not giv e n t i m e e n ough b e fo r e t h e n ost ru m

ou s
y ,

was tak e n to p r oduc e t h e i r e ff e ct s m ay hav e w o rk e d t h e ,

c u re . T h e t ro u bl e may hav e b e e n l arg e ly i magina r y an d ,

t h e faith of t h e pat i e nt i n hi s nost ru m m ay hav e e f f e ct e d

t h e cu r e ai d e d a l itt l e by q ual iti e s of t h e nost r um l ik e

,

thos e of t h e m e d ici n e s h e had b e e n t akin g I n t h e cas e .

of t h e l o st dog s it i s pos s ibl e that t h e d e s i r e to s e l l dogs

25 6 A P GU M E N TA TI OI V .

A fo r m t his fal l acy oft e n tak e s i n wo r ks of histo ry ,

e cono m ics and philosophy is t h e foll owi ng Early i n

, , .

t h e book t h e writ e r mak e s a sh r e wd gu e s s at past cond i

t ion s at p r obabl e cau s e s d e v e lops a th e ory that h e says

, ,

i s p ossibl e L at e r h e r e f e r s to his gu e s s e s as fact s t h e

.
,

possibl e t h e o r y as an e stabl ish e d fact A part of thi s .

fallacy i s t h e u s e s om e t i m e s m ad e by stud e nt s of m e ta
p h o r s ,S im i l e s i nv e
,
nt e d illust r ations Th ese m a
y of .
,

cou rs e b e u s e d t o mak e c l e a r e r t h e m e aning of a wr i t e r

, ,

but h e shou l d n e v e r u s e t h e m as fact s upon wh ich h e c a n

bas e an a r gu m e nt F o r in st anc e a stud e nt w rit i ng on
.
,

’
t h e qu e stion I S W e i s sm an n s th e o r y of H e r e d ity sound
p r o v e d that it i s t ru e by using nu m e r ou s e xampl e s of
acq u i r e d charact e r i s tics i n par e nt s t rans mitt e d to th e i r o ff
s p r ing Wh e n ask e d t o stat e wh e r e h e foun d th e s e
.

e xt r e m e ly va l uabl e d ata h e s ai d that h e ha d concoct e d

, ,

th e m and that what h e m e ant to say was : If i n chil d r e n

,
“

w e s houl d fi nd a cas e l ik e t his an d that an d con sid e ring

,

t h e r e ma r kab l e cas e s w e d o s e e why might not this hap ,

p e n —
th e n W e i ssman n s th e o r y would b e co rr e ct .

l l
St u d e nt s of A r gum e ntation S houl d not fo r g e t that

l
t k o ug /t m e ta p /t or s , s im i es , i m a g i n a ry c a s es , a r e a d m i ra b e

in s k ow i n
g w /ta t a w r i te r m ea n s , t /zey s /zo u d n e ve r be u s ed

as
p f f
r oo o tb e t r a d e
f I
o f a stu d nt
a ny
e d o e t k i ng
s u se .

t h e m as p r oof h e at onc e b e gs t h e important qu e stion

, ,

“
A r e what you t ak e as fact s r e al l y fact s and fall s into
t h e fallacy h e r e u n d e r d i scus sion .

A common form of th i s fal lacy i s to o f f e r an ana l ogy

b e t w e e n two cas e s as p roof t hat t h e r e su lt fou nd i n t h e
fi rst ca s e m ay b e e xp e ct e d i n t h e s e cond T h e r e a r e two .

poss ib l e dan g e rs in t his I n t h e fi r st p l ac e t h e ana l ogy

.
,

m ay b e fal s e not r e al i n t h e s e con d a s w as poi nt e d out

,
'

,
 A R G U M E N TA TI ON .
25 7

on p 2 0 7 t h e A r gum e nt fro m A na l ogy i s but a kind o r

.
,

sim i l e and un t il i t i s shown t hat t h e point of s imilarity

,

i s con n e ct e d with t h e poi nt i n qu e st ion t h e s o call e d ,

.
-

a r gum e nt S hou l d not b e u s e d to prov e anyth ing t r u e o r

fal s e H e r e i s an att e mpt t o u s e t h e A rgum e nt f r om
.

A na l ogy a s if in it s e l f it had p r obat iv e fo r c e

Th e gro u nd u pon wh i c h H e r Ma j e sty s G o v e rn m e nt j u st i ’

fie s or at l e ast d e f e nds t h e c o u rs e of t h e Canad i an v e ss e ls

, ,

r e sts u p on t h e fac t that th e y a re c o m m i tt i n g th e i r a c ts of

d e str u c t i on on t h e h i g h s e as vi z m or e than 3 m ar i n e m i l e s
,
.
,

fro m t h e shor e l i n e I t i s do u btfu l wh e th e r H e r Ma j e st y s

.
’

G o v e rn m e nt wo u ld ab i d e b y th i s r u l e i f t h e att e m p t w e r e m ad e
to i nt e rf e r e wi th t h e p e arl fi sh e r i e s of C e ylon wh i c h e x t e nd ,

m or e than 2 0 m i l e s fro m t h e shor e l i n e and hav e b e e n e n j o y e d

b y England w i tho u t m ol e stat i on e v e r Si n c e th e i r a c q u i s i t i on 1 ”

.

I n this e xamp l e Se nato r M organ d o e s not fin d a past

cas e of s e a l fis h i n g f r o m which t o d r aw an argu m e nt but
-

point s out in p e a rl d iving an d catch ing s e al s a l ik e n e ss

-

an anal ogy i n that bot h a r e cal l e d fi s hing Th is i s co r

,
.

'

r e ct b u t fo r t h e an a l ogy t o hav e any p r obat iv e fo r c e

‘

, ,

Se nato r M o r gan m us t Sho w som e n e c e ssa r y conn e ction

b e tw e e n t h e m e r e e xi s t e n c e of s o ca ll e d fi s h ing i n both -

cas e s an d h i s d e s i r e d conc l u s ion that both m ust hav e t h e

sam e l im itation s I t i s p e r f e ctly poss ibl e that t h e con
.

d i t i o n s of p e ar l fis h i n g di f f e r su f fi ci e nt l y f r o m thos e of
-

s e a l fish i n g to m ak e it i m po ss ib l e to Show th i s conn e ct ion

- .

l l l
I n that cas e t h e an al ogy though good prov e s nothing , ,

t r u e o r fal s e A g ood a n a ogy a t bes t t /i en s cow s on y

l l
. , ,

be p r o v ed t o k a v e
l
res e m b a n ce, u n es s it ca n s om e n ec e s s a ry
c o n n ec t i o n w i t /z t b c r es u t i n qu es t i o n .

1
B ek r i ng Sea Tr i bu n a l5
, p . 2 . W i
a sh n g t o n , D C . .
,
18
93 .
25 8 A R 6 U /VE 1 VTA T1 01V .

d
( ) R ef e r r i ng t o A m bi g u ou s E v i d e n c e
if as it cou l
d na v e
bu t on e I n t e rp r e t a t i on A not h e r phas e of th is fa ll acy
—
,

B e gging t h e Q u e stion is a favo rit e w ith ca r e l e s s wr it e rs

, ,

—
that of broad r e f e r e nc e s O ft e n a coll e g e stud e nt
.

r e f e r s to som e w r it e r t o so m e ch a pt e r pa r ag r aph o r s e n
, ,

t e nc e which c e r tai n l y may b e so int e rp r e t e d as to su p po rt

,

h is i d e as but i s e q u ally op e n to oth e r i nt e r p r e tat ions

, .

P lainly th e n h e l e av e s u n s e ttl e d j ust t h e point fo r t h e

, ,

l
mom e nt mo s t d e man d ing d e c ision wh e th e r hi s int e r p r e ta
,

t ion o r an oth e r i s t h e mo r e co rr e ct U n e ss t h e pas s ag e

.

r e f e rr e d to can hav e but o n e m e aning h e s hou l d e ith e r not ,

u s e it o r a s h e u s e s it s houl d s ho w w hy hi s i nt e r p r e tat ion

, ,

of it is p r e f e r ab l e to any oth e r .

SU M M A R K

Aw r it e r m ay th e n b e g t h e qu e sti on i n any o n e of t h e
, ,

fo l lowing w ay s ( a ) H e m ay as sum e w ithou t suppo r t t h e

l
t r uth of a stat e m e nt e qu iva l e nt t o t h e conc l usion o r possi ,

b e on l y if that b e grant e d ; ( b) h e m ay u n d u l y a ss um e
t h e t r uth of a p r e m i s e that n e e d s e xam inat ion ( 1 ) b e cau s e

it i s not s e l f e vid e nt ( 2 ) b e cau s e t h e wr it e r m ay h av e

-

mi stak e n a sign fo r a caus e ( 3 ) b e cau s e h e may hav e

,

m i s tak e n fo r cau s e an d e ff e ct t w o ph e nom e na which a re

m e r e ly succ e s s iv e (4 ) b e cau s e it i s fal s e ( 5 ) b e cau s e i t
, ,

may hav e mo r e than o n e int e rp r e tat ion A gain st a ll of .

th e s e fo r m s of fa l l acy a stu d e nt of A r gum e nt at ion s hou l d

g u ard by car e ful analysi s to fi nd t h e qu e s tion that at t h e
m om e nt d e mand s p r oof F inding that h e wi ll s e e at
.
,

onc e wh e th e r t h e e vi d e nc e b e gs t h e qu e s tion .
260 A R G UM E N TA TI OZV .

th is argum e nt wh i c h c a n b e convin c ing on l y fo r thi s s m all

c lass of m e n as if it must b e c onvin cing for human ity in

l
g e n e r al F o r i n s tanc e most O f ou r app e al s to f r i e nd s to
.
,

b e con sist e nt i n th e i r act ion s a r e a rg m n en t a a d zo n zi n enz .

A fri e nd has fo r e xa m pl e t u r n e d away a b e gga r f r om hi s

, ,

doo r an d w e u r g e t hat h e shoul d hav e g i v e n i n thi s cas e

,

b e caus e w e hav e n e v e r s e e n h i m r e f u s e a l m s b e fo r e an d ,

hav e h e ard h i m say r e p e at e dly that a man who has e nough ,

as h e ad mitt e dly has shoul d al w ays b e wi l ling t o spa r e a

,

l i tt l e to t h e n e e dy A noth e r fri e n d has O ft e n d e cl a r e d i n

.

ou r p r e s e nc e that ou r syst e m of f r e e public schools i s t h e

st r e ngth of t h e nation an d th at e v e ry cit i z e n shou ld giv e
,

it al l pos sibl e sup po rt Wh e n how e v e r hi s chil d r e ach e s

.
, ,

t h e a g e fo r e nt e ring t h e g r ammar s choo l h e s e n d s it to a

p rivat e school W e tax hi

. m with i nco n s i s t e ncy and u s e ,

t h e A rg u n ze n t n m a d H o n t i n e n z I t is by an a rg m n e n t u n t .

a d I mm i n e n t that t h e Sign o rin a N ug e nt in t h e l ast ,

s e nt e n c e b u t o n e O f t h e fo ll owin g g e ts t h e b e tt e r of ,

M r M artin
.

sa i d noth i n g b u t stood th e r e b i t i ng t h e ros e

Sh e , , .

G iv e i t t o m e I sa i d
‘
i t shall b e m y bad g e of s e rv i c e
’ ‘ ’
, .

Y o u w i ll s e r v e m e th e n ? sa i d s h e ,
’
.

For w hat r e ward ?

Wh y t h e ros e ,

I sho u ld l ik e t h e own e r too I ve nt u r e d to r e m ark

‘
, ,
’
.

T h e ros e i s p r e tt i e r than t h e own e r s h e sa i d ;

‘
and at ,
’ ‘
,

any rat e o n e th i n g at a t i m e Mr Mart i n " Do y o u p a y yo u r

, , .

s e r v ants all th e i r wag e s i n ad v an c e ? ’

M y p ra c t i c e was so m u c h t h e c ontrary that I r e ally c o u ld n t ’

d e ny t h e forc e O f h e r r e ason i n g 1
.
”

1 A Ma n f M a rk
o , pp 4 6, 4 7
. . An th o n y H o pe . H . H o lt Co .
, 1 89
5 .
 A R G U M E N TA TI O IV .
26 1

I n a ll t h e s ecas e s t h e A rg u rn e n t u n z a d H onzi n e nz has b e e n

c o rr e c t l y us e d I f how e v e r t h e s u cc e s sf u l argu e r i n any
.
, ,

o n e of t h e cas e s giv e n shou l d as s um e not that h e has

p r ov e d that h is f r i e nd sho u l d giv e t o al l b e ggars but that ,

b e ggars shoul d a l ways b e giv e n ai d ; or not that t h e ,

f r i e n d sho u l d s e nd h i s c hild to t h e pub l ic school s but t hat ,

al l goo d citi z e n s shoul d s e n d th e i r child r e n t o t h e public

schoo l s ; o r n ot that M art in shou l d not e xp e ct a fu ll
,

r e w a r d t il l h is s e r vic e had b e e n d on e but that no o n e ,

s hou l d e xp e ct a ful l r e w a r d t ill hi s s e rvic e i s don e that ,

i s if h e att e mpt s t o m ak e a univ e r sal ap pl ication of an

,

a r gum e nt th at ha s fo r c e only fo r a sp e cial cas e he ,

—

l
th e r e by fal l s i nto t h e fa l l acy n ow u n d e r d iscu s s ion Evi .

d e n t y d oing t hi s h e fai l s to s e e what i s t h e work t hat

, ,

l
h e s houl d d o , e stab l i sh t h e g e n e r a l t r uth of t h e p r in ci

p e , not it s app l icabi l ity i n a sp e cial cas e and so igno ,

r es
—

l
t h e qu es t ion .

3 . S z
if t i ng G r ou n d A noth
. e r fo rm of this fal l acy i s
t h e v e r y e xa s p e r at in g o n e Shift ing Gr oun d ,
I n this a .

t e r wh e n p r e s s e d ha rd s hift s from th e o r iginal th e s is

'

, ,

sta r t e d t o suppo rt ; and wh e n p r e s s e d hard i n his n e w

s hift s t o st i ll a th i rd U sua ll y t h e d i f f e r e nt
.

a r e so c l o s e l y a ll i e d s o s t rongly r e s e mbl e o n e
,

r th at t h e shift i n g i s not e as ily s e e n an d t h e

, ,

may by p roving som e th ing t r u e O f o n e of hi s

,
‘

e s e s which h e c ou l d by no m e an s p rov e t ru e of t h e

riginal q u e st ion s e e m to e stabl ish t h e t r uth of t h e

,

r iginal th e sis M any of t h e chan c e a r gum e nt s o n e h e a r s

.

n En gl ish co m pos ition as a p r e sc r ib e d pa r t of a coll e g e

ou r s e ill u s t r at e th i s fa l lacy A n Engl i s h in s t r ucto r i s
.

?
Why fo r c e stu d e nt s to st u d y Eng l ish compo sit ion
a subj e ct w h ich can not b e t aught T o w rit e .
262 A R G UM E N TA TI ON

w e ll i s a Go d giv e n p ow e r -
Wh e n t h e in st r ucto r s hows
.

that t h e c r it i c i s h e r e m ak i ng no d i stin c t ion b e tw e e n

inborn l i t e rary g e n i us that may e xpr e s s i t s e lf fo r cib l y ,

though c r ud e ly without t rai n in g an d a t r ainin g i n co rr e ct

, ,

usag e i n fo rc e cl e a r n e ss and e l e ganc e t h e n t h e c rit i c

, , , ,

says s hift ing his gro u nd sl ightly :

,
B u t you know a “

st u d e nt can j u st as w el l pick up styl e f r om contact with

good books by browsin g i n a fin e l i b r a ry
, Wh e n h e i s .
”

s hown that such a n oppo r tun ity i s r a r e and that th e r e a r e ,

s e r iou s O bj e ct ion s to such a m e thod h e an s w e rs : I f e e l

’

s u r e that m e thod i s t h e b e st fo r som e boys cannot l e a r n ,

to w ri t e w e l l Wh e n t h e in st ructo r point s out that

.
,

though t hi s i s t r u e of a v e r y s ma ll n umb e r most boys c a n ,

l e a r n t o w r it e w e l l an d that many un d e r t h e sy s t e m of
, ,

p r e sc rib e d Eng l ish d o b e com e p r ofi ci e nt who oth e r wi s e

,

woul d n ot l e a r n t h e O ppon e nt an s w e r s : Y e s that is

,
“
, ,

t hos e who hav e t h e i nbo r n pow e r though th e y w e r e not ,

”
awa r e of it B y th i s h e t r iu mphan t l y r e v e rt s to his
.

o r igina l position shifting hi s g r ound a th i r d t im e C l e ar l y

, .
,

such wo rk as th i s igno r e s t h e r e al qu e st ion fo r d i scussion , .

con s tantly subst it utin g fo r it anoth e r t opi c v e r y s imi l a r ,

l
l
but not t h e sam e .

4. T /ze F a a cy fo Ob j e c t i o n s S ti ll anoth e r fo r m o f t —

thi s fal lacy i s to r ai s e O bj e ction s of any k i n d to a p l an , ,

t h e o ry o r syst e m and th e n t o i nf e r that it m u st b e

, ,
:

r e j e ct e d Wh e n h ow e v e r O bj e ct ion s a r e r ais e d two

.
, ,

i mpo r tant q u e st ion s at on c e a r i s e : ( I ) A re t h e obj e ction s

rai s e d e s s e nt ial l y con n e ct e d with t h e po int i n qu e stion ?
an d ( 2 ) grant e d that i n n e a rl y a l l cas e s th e r e m u st b e both
ad v antag e s and di s advantag e s d o t h e ob j e ction s i n th i s ,

cas e outw e igh t h e a d vantag e s ? I t i s n ot fo r ,

d i f ficult to p oint out in ca s e s w h e r e t h e A r gum e nt f r oma

,
264 A l
i
’
G U /V
I E N TA TI ON

igno r e t h e r e a l q u e st ion : D O “
the val id obj e ction s out
w e igh t h e prov e d advantag e s ? U nl e s s t h e n an a r gu
, ,

m e nt from O b j e ction s can s tan d t h e two t e st s m e nt ion e d ,

i t must fal l
l
.

l
5 . P r ov i ng Som e t /zi ng Tr u e f f
o a P a rt on y , n ot o tb c

W/zo e St ill anoth e r phas e Of t h e fal l acy I gno ring t h e

.
,

Q u e stion i s proving som e th ing t r u e O f a pa r t wh e n it

,

shou ld b e p r ov e d t ru e of t h e who l e T h e t opi c j ust us e d .

,

Shoul d t h e A u s t r al ian B a l lot Syst e m b e adopt e d i n t h e

U nit e d Sta t e s gav e at H a r va r d in stan c e s of thi s fal lacy .

M any stud e nt s aft e r con s i d e r ing a d vantag e s to b e e x

,

l
’

p e c t e d fro m it and ov e r com ing O bj e ctions t o it d e c id e d

, ,

t hat t h e syst e m s h o u d b e adopt e d What i nt e r f e r e d wit h .

t h e conc l usiv e n e s s of th e i r O p inion s was that e ach st ud e nt

wr ot e on l y O f thos e pol itica l condit ion s w hich h e kn e w

b e st T h e N e w Eng l an d e r t h e O hioan fo r got that N e w
.
, ,

Eng l an d t h e M i d d l e Stat e s t h e South t h e N o r th w e s t

, , , ,

t h e P acifi c Sl op e a ll hav e d i f f e r e nt po l itica l probl e m s

,

which t h e s y s t e m of ba ll ot ing aff e ct s A ft e r p rovin g not .

l
that t h e d i ff e r ing n e e d s i n a ll th e s e s e ction s w oul d b e m e t
b e tt e r by t h e n e w than t h e O d syst e m but that t h e s e c ,

tion b e st known to th e m w ou ld b e b e n e fit e d , t h e y stat e d

th e i r conclusion as h o ld in g goo d fo r t h e w ho l e count r y .

Th e i r con cl us ion if it was not t o b e fal l aciou s shou ld

, ,

hav e r e a d n ot T h e syst e m wou l d b e b e n e fi cia l t o t h e

“
,

U n it e d Stat e s bu t T h e syst e m wou ld b e b e n e fi cia l t o

“
,

N e w Eng l an d o r t o t h e N e w Eng l an d an d t h e M iddl e

,
”
Stat e s .

SU M M A R Y .

A that t h e imp r op e r u s e of t h e A rg u
re ad e r m u s t see

m e n t u m a d H om i n e m ; sh ifting g r ou n d ; r ais ing O b j e ct ion s

w ithout con sid e r in g w h e th e r t h e y a r e conn e ct e d wit h t h e

 A R G U M E N TA TI O N . 265

point i n d i s cu s s ion o r if conn e ct e d outw e igh t h e a dva n

, , ,

tag e s p rovin g som e t hing t ru e of a pa r t w h e n t h e w ho l e

shoul d b e cons i d e r e d a r e a l l ca s e s i n which t h e a r gu e r
,

igno r e s t h e r e al qu e s tion C l e a rl y analys is w ill by sho w

.
, ,

i ng what t h e sp e c i a l i ssu e i s l ay bar e t h e s e fal laci e s

, .

WH Y A F U R T H ER SU B -
DI V I SI O N OF F A L L A C I ES IS N OT N EC ES
SA R Y H ER E .

Th e th r e e m ai n po s sibl e sou r c e s of fa ll acy ; ambiguous —

o r i nco rr e ct us e s of word s ; b e ggi n g t h e q u e st ion that is , ,

assum ing e it h e r t h e co ncl u s ion of t h e a r gum e nt o r a p r e ,

mis e that n e e d s p r oof igno r ing t h e qu e st ion in han d an d

l
p rovi n g som e thin g e l s e s houl d b e ca r e fully k e pt in m ind
by a st u d e nt of A r gum e ntat ion Littl e by l itt e h e w ill
.

r e cogn i z e i n h i s wo rk of sifting e vi d e nc e t h e sub d ivi s ion s

, ,
-

of th e s e th r e e al r e ady e xpl ain e d V e r y p r obably b e will .

fi n d o th e rs but t h e sp e cial sub d ivi sion i s so unimportant

,
-

if t h e m ai n d ivi sion to which it b e longs i s cl e arly r e cog

n i z e d that it has not s e e m e d W i s e to do m o r e h e r e than
,

s h o w t h e m ost co mmon asp e ct s of t h e big d ivisions .

M o r e ov e r t h e d ivision s at b e st run i n to o n e anoth e r and

, ,

it i s d i f ficul t t o say that a fa ll acy b e l ongs mo r e to o n e

,

cla s s than to an oth e r Fo r in stan c e t h e man who a r gu e d

.
,

again s t p r e sc rib e d Eng l i sh compo s it ion ( p 2 6 1 ) not only .

sh ift e d h i s g r ou n d but a r gu e d i n a ci r cl e L e t a s t u d e nt .

r e m e mb e r that what h as b e e n s ai d has b e e n giv e n not fo r ,

t h e pu rpos e O f h e l pi ng h im t o cl assify d e fi nit iv e l y e v e r y

fa l l acy h e s e e s but m e r e ly to h e lp h im to r e cogni z e

,

un soun d m od e s of r e ason ing I f h e can pl ac e an a r gum e nt

.

i n any o n e of t h e cl ass e s of fa ll aci e s that s hou ld b e ,

e nough fo r him fo,

r th i s d ispos e s of it I f t o u s e t h e e x .
,
266 A R G U M E N TA TI O N

l
a m p l e of t h e c r itic of p r e s c rib e d Engl ish c omposition h e ,

r e cogni z e s fi r st t h e shift ing g r ou n d e t him th r ow out ,

l
t h e a r g u m e nt as that ki nd of fallacy
~ I f h e s e e s fi rst t h e
.

ci rcula r a r gum e nt e t h i m put asi d e t h e a r gum e nt on that

,

g r ound Wh e th e r it is m o r e o n e t han t h e oth e r n e e d

.

t r oub l e l ogician s on l y .

A N A L Y SI S TH E G R EA T FO E OF FA L L A C Y .

I f fal l aci e s w e r e as d i r e ct l y an d Simply stat e d in a ll

cas e s as fo r t h e sak e of c l e a r n e s s th e y h av e b e e n i n t h e
, ,

abov e i l lu st r ation s th e y w ou ld not b e d i fficu l t t o r e mov e

, .

A s has b e e n said ho w e v e r th e y h i d e t h e m s e l v e s away

, ,

i n a m as s of ot h e r m att e r that may b e w hol ly t r u e and , ,

l
t hu s i m b e dd e d t h e y a r e d i f fi cu l t t o r e cogn i z e Th e s im
, .

p e s t m e thod of fi n d ing th e m i s t o cut t h e l on g a r gum e nt

d own t o it s si m p l e st p r opo r tion s to fi n d j ust w hat it s
,

main th e si s i s an d on what subo r d in at e th e s e s that r e sts

, .

That i s what was d on e in n e arly all t h e i l lust r ation s giv e n

f r om t h e wo r k of c o l l e g e stud e nt s B u t wh at i s this .

e xc e pt ana l ysi s t h e e xc l u s ion of i d e as fo r a c e nt r a l

”
id e a o r i d e as A nalys is i s t h e n as ha s b e e n s ai d t h e
, , ,

p r e v e nt iv e o r t h e d e st r oy e r of fa ll aci e s L e t a r e ad e r .

cut an a r gum e nt d own to it s simp l e st p r opo r tion s that —

i s mak e a b ri e f of i t
, an d h e w il l fi n d v e r y Sh o r t l y
—

w h e th e r t h e u s e of am bi guou s wo r d s o r i nco rr e ct m e an
ings b e gging o r i gno r ing t h e q u e sti on i s p r e s e nt
, in ,
-

a wo rd wh e th e r th e r e i s any fa ll acy i n it Su r e l y t h e
, .

i mpo rtan c e of ana l ysi s in A r gum e ntat ion m u s t again b e

cle ar .
26 8 A R GU M E N TA TI OZV .

h is s e n s e s m ust b e r e l iab l e h e him s e l f m ust s tan d in

,

t h e commun ity a s an hon e s t think e r an d l iv e r who shun s ,

t h e gloss e s of imaginat ion .

T h e int e r nal t e st s a r e : th e r e shou ld b e i n t h e argu

m e n t ( I ) no ambiguou s OW O f wo rd s ;
( )
2 no
b e gging of t h e q u e st i on that i s n o u n d u e as su m ption of
, ,
.‘ fi - m

a c oncl u s ion o r__a_prem i s e ; ( 3 ) n oi gr g ri ng O f t h e q u e st i on .

F inal ly a st ude nt sh o u l d not a SSII m e that b e caus e h e has

,
’
fo und that a pr e mi s e of a n O ppon e nt s argum e nt i s fal s e
o r t r u e t h e conc l u sion n e c e s s a r ily i s fa l s e o r t r u e ; no r
,

that b e cau s e h e has sho w n t h e conc l u sion of an a r gum e n t

i s fa l s e o r t r u e a p r e m is e i s
, .

TH E I M P O R TA N C E OF TH E ST U D Y OF EV I D EN C E .

A stu d e nt cann ot t oo ca r e ful l y con sid e r thi s g r e at d ivi

sion of A r gum e ntat ion Evid e n c e I t i s fu ll y as i mpo r
, .

tant a s A na l ysis and st ud e nt s m a s t e r it much m o r e

,

slo wl y A t t h e b e ginn ing of C hapt e r I I t h e r e ad e r w as

. .

to ld th at to a r gu e c l e a rl y th r e e co ndi tion s a re absol ut e l y .

n e c e s s ary : to know ( I ) What t h e qu e sti on m e ans ; ( 2 )

What you b e l i e v e an d why ; an d ( 3 ) H ow you a r e to stat e
you r cas e s o that it shal l (a ) convinc e and ( b) p e r suad e , .

H e w ho un d e r stan d s analys is can ma s t e r t h e fi rst d ivi

s ion Wh e n a s tu d e nt u nd e rs tan d s what e vid e n c e is
.
,

what k i nd s of e vi d e n c e th e r e a r e and by w h at t e st s e v i
,

d e nc e may b e j udg e d goo d o r bad h e w i ll b e ab l e wh e n , ,

h e has a cas e to t r e at t o d e ci d e what h e b e l i e v e s about it

,

and why t h e s e cond impo r tant st e p in al l A r gum e ntat ion

, .

T h e work O f t h e n e xt d ivis ion i s to Sho w h o w a stu d e nt

m ay b e st ph r as e his m at e r ial s o a s to convinc e a r e a d e r .
 C H A P T ER V I .

TH E F O R E N SI C I T SE L F .

TH E R ELAT I O N OF TH E F O R E N SI C To TH E B R I EF .

H EN a stud e nt und e r stand s Ana l ys is and in c o n se ,

«

q u e n c e has
, car e fully d rawn up hi s b r i e f of h i s sub ‘

j e c t ; wh e n h e has d e cid e d wh at e vid e nc e h e w i ll u s e and why

,

h e i s c e rtainly r e a d y to w r it e h i s a r gum e nt h is fo r e n s ic , .

This is r e a ll y but an e xpan s ion of t h e b r i e f its e l f In it .

fi r

p rop e
-
r and t h
, e concl
-
u s ion of
t he b r i
ef a r e d e v e l o e d i n l it e r a r y fo rm i nto t h e i n t r o d u c
fl
p ,

t iq ng h e ar n t i s l f and t h p r o r ation J ust as h

m n
t e , e e t e .

s ca f fo ld ing p r e c e d e s t h e bui l ding an d aids i n it s c o n s t r u c

t ion to d isapp e a r e nti r e l y w h e n t h e building i s compl e t e d
, ,

so t h e b r i e f
W t h e fo r e nsi c aid s in it s con st r uct ion
,

an d d isapp e a r s wh e n t h e wo r k i s c o mp l e t e d A s kill e d .
,

bui ld e r wil l k now that a c e rt ai n kin d of Sca f fol d ing must

hav e h e l p e d i n t h e con s t r uction of a parti cula r bui l ding ;
so too any skil l e d wo r k e r i n A rg u m e n tat ion wil l s e e t h e
, ,

n e at s t r uctu r e u nd e r lying a w e ll const r uct e d for e n sic -

J u st ho w e v e r a s t h e bu i l d e r cann ot t e ll at onc e of what

, ,

woo d t h e s caffo ld in g wa s m ad e so t h e s tud e nt O f A rgu

,

m e nt at io n wi ll not kno w j u st how t h e h e ad s an d s u bh e ad s

w e r e ph ras e d o r m ark e d I n oth e r wo rd s t h e b r i e f und e r
.
,

l ying a fo r e n sic shou ld b e e vid e n t not on it s fac e but , ,

on ly aft e r ca r e ful s c ruti ny of t h e work N O l e tt e r ings .

,

h e adi n gs n u m b e rings m ark a good fo r e n s i c ; it i s s imply

, ,
.

a w ritt e n argu m e nt r e sul ting f r om car e fu l anal y s is that

 270 A R G UM E N TA TI OZV .

ha s t ak e n fo r m i n a goo d b r i e f ca r e fu l s e l e ction of e vi ,

d e n c e and l it e r ary ski l l that knows how p l acing t h e

, ,

ca r e fu ll y s e l e ct e d e vid e n c e at t h e pl ac e s wh e r e t h e b r i e f
prop e r cal l s fo r it to e xpand t h e b r i e f into t h e comp l e t e
,

x/ a r g u m e n t T h e fo r e n s ic wil l b e w e l l const r uct e d b e cau s e

.

it s b r i e f had u nity th at i s al l it s pa r t s w e r e m ad e
,
—
,

“
subs e r vi e nt to o n e p r incipa l e n d cl e a r b e caus e it s ,

b r i e f d e v e l ops c l e a r ly and it s autho r knows ho w to writ e

,

3
cl e a rl y ; forcibl e b e cau s e t h e b ri e f ha d c l imax an d t h e
,

w r it e r has s e l e c t e d and handl e s hi s e vid e nc e w e l l and ,

ph r as e s his i d e as w ith st r e n gth ; e l e gant if n e e d b e , ,

b e cau s e t h e writ e r has a g r ac e f u l fl owin g s tyl e A s fa r , .

as convict ion i s con c e rn e d th e n if a stud e nt has mast e r e d

, ,

A na l y s is an d t h e s e l e ction of Evid e nc e and f r om p r e vi , ,

ou s s t udy un d e rstand s t h e r ul e s of R h e to ric w e l l e nou gh

,

t o hav e c l e a r n e s s fo r c e and e l e ganc e i n t h e ph r a s ing of

, ,

hi s id e as th e r e a r e but f e w sugg e stion s as t o writi ng a

,

fo r e n si c t o b e a d d e d to tho s e giv e n in t h e p r e c e ding

chapt e r T h e s e f e w w il l d e al w ith e ff e ct iv e m e tho d s of
.

han d l in g e vid e nc e I t i s t h e fact that t h e wo r k of almost

.

e v e r y a r gum e nt con si s t s of som e thi ng mo r e than c o n v i c

t ion of p e rs uasio n as w e l l that m ak e s th is chapt e r r e al ly

, ,

n e c e ssary I t i s v e ry i m po r tant that b e fo r e a s tud e nt

.

wr it e s m u ch a r gum e nt h e sh oul d und e r stan d t h e w e l l nigh -

in s e pa r abl e u ni on of convictio n an d p e rs uas ion in a ll

s t r ong A r gum e ntat ion .

TH E T H R EE D I V I SI O N S OF A F O R EN SI C .

As ha s b e e n said a fo r e n sic has t h r e e pa r ts co rr e

, ,

s po n d i n to t h e th r e e pa r ts of t h e b r i e f t hough th e y a r e
g ,

n ot as i n t h e b ri e f car e f u lly d e s i gnat e d by h e adings

, , .
272 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV .

DI D H EN R Y C LA Y E N T ER I NTO A CO RRU P T BA RGAI N IN

1 825 ?

“
P e rhap s o n e Of t h e m ost i m p ortant e v e nts i n t h e l i fe of
H e nry Cla y was t h e c harg e of e nt e r i n g i nto a c orr u p t barg a i n ,

b ro u g ht forward aft e r t h e p r e s i d e nt i al c am p a i g n of 1 8 2 4 T he .

i m p r e ss i on m ad e b y th i s fals e a c c u sat i on r e m a i n e d b y h i m
thro u g ho u t t h e gr e at e r p art of h i s l i fe .

H e n ry Clay m a y b e tak e n as an e x a m pl e of an i nno c e nt

m a n fals e ly a c c u s e d of so m e g ra v e c harg e Th i s i s n ot a n .

u n c o m m on o c c u rr e n c e i n th i s world b u t i t i s so m e th i n g e v e ry
,

o n e sho u ld try and a v o i d b e c a u s e sland e r has w i n g s l ik e M e r

,

c u ry . Th e r e a r e so m any p e o pl e i n t h e world who a r e e v e r

r e ady to b e l i e v e a c al u m ny tho u g h th e y ha v e no p roofs to s u b
,

s t a n t i a t e t h e c har g e It was so w i th H e nry Clay Th e r e w e r e

. .

m any of th e s e sa m e p e o p l e who tho u g ht Clay was j u stly a c c u s e d ,

b e for e th e y had e x a m i n e d t h e c as e on o n e s i d e or t h e oth e r

”
.

A C O N D EM N AT I O N OF TH E E P I C U R EA N T H EO R Y OF L I FE .

The i r an th e ory of l i f e m ak e s m an s a i m t h e atta i n

ep cu e
’

m e nt of p l e as u r e T h e s u pp ort e rs of th i s th e ory m a i nta i n that

.

m a n i s b orn i nto t h e world to e n j oy h i m s e lf H i s all i m p ortant

.
-

u r os e i s to t t h e r e at st oss i bl l as r H i s w i s st
p p g e g e p e p e u e e .

c o u rs e i s t h e short e st wh i c h shall l e ad to t h e a c c o m p l i sh m e n t

of that p u r pos e H i s m otto i s Man hath no th i n g b e tt e r u nd e r

.

t h e s u n than to e a t to dr i n k and to b e m e rry

1 ’ ”

l
.
, ,

The confus ion of t h e int r oduction to t h e B e a c o n s fie d

fo r e n si c t h e i nad e q u acy of al l th e s e i nt r o d u ct ion s mu st
, ,

b e appa r e nt I n non e of t h e m has p r e l imin a r y ana l ysi s

.

p r e pa r e d a good b ri e f int roduction that s how e d j us t what

t h e q u e stion i n d isput e i s an d how much info r m ation a
,

1 ll
M on t /z y R e zgi ou s M a g a z i n e .
r e a d e r m u s t b e giv e n b e fo r e h e can p r op e rly comp r e h e n d
a d iscu s s i on of t h e point at i ssu e Thi s is pa r ticu l a r ly .

t r u e O f t h e Con d e m n a t i on of t b e Ep i c u rea n Tb e ory of

L if e . I n t h i s a r e ad e r do e s not h e a r what has gi v e n r i s e
t o t h e d is cu s sion H e i s too giv e n a d e fi nition t hat b e gs
.
, ,

t h e qu e stion Sinc e t ho s e who uphol d t h e Epicu r e an s say

,

t hat t h e Vi e w giv e n i s not t h e only pos sibl e int e rpr e tation

of Epicu r e an ism H e i s l e ft u nc e rtai n j u s t what i s t h e
.

qu e st ion fo r hi m t o con s i d e r N O b r i e f at all o r b ri e fs with

.
,

i nad e quat e int r oduct ion s p r e c e d e d th e s e th r e e sp e cim e n s .

C ompar e th e s e with t h e fo l l owi ng an d t h e infl u e n c e of a ,

goo d b r i e f int r odu ction o n t h e fo r e n sic will b e cl e ar

ARE C O N T I N EN TA L A R EA S P ER M A N EN T ?
The q u e st i on A r e c ont i n e ntal ar e as p e r man e nt
‘
i s an ? ’

i m p ortant o n e for u p on i ts c orr e c t sol u t i on d e p e nds t h e r e s u lt

,

of m any i n v e st i gat i ons of ge olog i sts i nto t h e p ast h i stor y of t h e

organ i c and i norg an i c ki ng do m s O f o u r e arth I n fa c t i ts i m p or .

tan c e i s p ro v e d by t h e att e nt i on d i r e c t e d to i t by m an y e m i n e nt
g e olo g i sts T. h e r e s u lt O f th e i r i n v e st i a t i ons has b e e n i n t h e
g
m a i n to l e ad th e m to t h e c on c l u s i on th a t c ont i n e nt a l ar e as a r e

not p e rm an e nt Si r Charl e s L y e ll i n h i s E em en ts of Geo ogy

.
,
l 1
l ,

u b l i sh e d i n 1 8 2 stat s that i t i s n o t too m u c h to s a y that

p 7 e ,

e v e ry p art of t h e land wh i c h w e now t e r m c ont i n e ntal land has

b e e n u nd e r t h e s e a and all that w h i c h i s now b e n e a th t h e s e a

, ,

e v e n that i n t h e g r e at e st d e p ths has b e e n c ont i n e ntal land

,
.

Th i s r e m ar k r e p r e s e nts p r e tt y we ll w hat t h e g e n e ral i d e a was

as to p e r m a n e n c e O f c ont i n e nts u p to 1 8 72 Si n c e that dat e .
,

howe v e r a c onstantly i n c r e as i ng n u m b e r of g e olo g i sts ha v e

,

d e c lar e d that i n th e i r o p i n i on c o n t i n e nts w e r e p e r m an e nt .

altho u g h s u b j e c t to c onstant m od ifi c a t i on of for m Su c h i s .

1 A c a re f u l
re f e re n c e t o t h e vo l
um e a nd p a ge sh o u l
d be g i ve n h e re .
 274 A R G U M E N TA TI OJV .

m y b e l i e f and ,
the arg u m e nts I br i ng forward a re to s u sta
th i s b e l i e f .
”

T H R EE K I N D S OF POO R I N T R O DU c T ION s D EV EL O P ED FR O M

GO O D B R I E FS

l
l
.

A that can p r e v e n t a goo d b r i e f int r o d u ct ion f r

d e v e l oping into a fo r e n sic i nt r o d uct io n good a s fa r ,

y convict ion i s con c e r n e d i s l a z in e s s ,

w r it e r t o p h r as e his i d e a s cl e a r l y and fo r cibly I .

r a r e that a s tud e n t w ho can plan h is b r i e f i nt r

w e l l cannot ph r a s e it c l e a rl y an d fo r cibly i n a d
fo r m but th e r e a r e f r e qu e nt cas e s am ong co ll e g e s t
,

i n w hich l a z i n e s s o r a l ack of f e e l ing for e l e ganc e

, ,

poo r a fo r e ns ic i nt r o d uction r e s ting on a good b r i

Som e t im e s a s tu d e nt w ho has ca r e fu ll y s tat e d d e tai l s
t h e b r i e f int r o d uct ion d o e s not r e p e at th e m i n b e g i n n i
hi s fo r e n sic but r e f e rs to h i s e xpo s ition of
,

b r i e f Fo r e n s ic i nt r o d uct ion s a r e at t im e s but a

.

r e p e t it ion of t h e b r i e f int r o d ucti on w ith a ll t h e ba r e ,

l
of ph r asin g an d e v e n t h e l e tt e rs an d t h e num e r a ls
, .

t h e b r i e f i nt r o d uct ion c l e a r e d of it s num e r a l s an d e t

,

ing s i s r e s tat e d i n s o s l ight l y d e v e l op e d a fo r m that n

,

of t h e r igidity and ba r e n e s s of t h e b r i e f i s l o s t A
ll
.

s b ou d a w ay s rem em be r t b a t t b e br i ef a nd tbe f or e n s i c

to be g
re a r d ed a s d i s t i n c t bi t s of w or k t no t n e i t /ze r s /zo

lf l
in a ny w ay f
re e r t o tb e o t /ze r , a n d tb a t i n pa s s i ng f r om

l l
i fi
l
br i ef t o t ze or en s c i ie is ex
p ec t e d to g v e n i s b by b i s

era
ry ski t o w na t w a s bu t a n ou t i n e i n t b e br i ef .

SH O U LD TH E C O N C L U SI O N B E ST A T E D I N T H E I N T R O DU CT I O N ?
A t the of an int r o d uction t h e qu e st ion a r i s e s I s
en d

it b e st t o stat e b e fo r e b e gi nn ing my p roof t h e e xact

, ,
276 A R G U/VE N TA TI O ZV .

t h e n s l ipp e d skil l fu ll y int o m o r e s e r iou s matt e rs ;

by w e l l told an e cdot e s and st rong a p p e al s r ou s e d
-

sympat hi e s i n t h e O bj e ct of 11 1 8 I nt e r e st h e m ight t h e ,

hav e clos e d with his a pp e al fo r aid wit h a st r on ,

p r obabil ity of fa r d i f f e r e nt r e su l t s .

T h e nat u r e O f t h e s ub j e ct and t h e ci r cum s tan c e s u

which t h e a r gum e nt i s to b e h e a r d m u st d e t e r m in e t ,

wh e th e r it i s b e st to stat e f r ank l y at t h e e n d of t h
i nt r o d uct ion j ust what i s to b e p rov e d t r u e o r fa l s e .

TH E U SE O F AN O U T LI N E IN TH E I N T R O DU CT I O N .

O r d ina r i l y , t h e
int r o d uction to a fo r e n s ic giv e s in ,

c onvict ion on l y what t h e q u e st ion i s w hat it m e an s ; but

, ,

th e r e i s o n e cas e i n wh ich it may stat e in addition e v e n , ,

what i s t h e wo r k t o b e d on e Wh e n i t i s c l e a r that t h e
.

d e v e l opm e nt O f a sub j e ct b e cau s e of t e chn ica l ity o r

,

l e ngth wi ll b e ha r d to fol lo w i t i s som e t im e s w i s e t o

,
.

giv e at t h e e n d of t h e i nt rod u c t ion a r apid outl in e of t h e

t r e atm e nt plann e d fo r t h e cas e Such an outl in e i s a
.

ki nd O f pl an of t h e count r y t o b e t r av e r s e d that wil l

m ak e t h e way c l e a r e r as t h e r e ad e r go e s ov e r it If .
,

ho w e v e r fo r o n e O f t h e r e as on s point e d out in t h e p r e
,

c e d ing paragraph such a n out l in e s e e m s l ik e l y t o b e

,

p r e j ud icial t o t h e i nt e r e s t s of t h e wr it e r it shou ld of , ,

cou r s e b e om itt e d
, .

TH E Ex T EN T To W H I C H E L EG A N C E SH O U L D B E SO U GH T I N AN

I N T R O DU C T I O N .

Such r udim e ntary e l e gan c e as thi s r u l e r e qui r e s any

wr it e r Shou l d st r iv e fo r b ut it i s to b e not e d that though
,

cl e a r n e s s and fo r c e a r e a l ways to b e d e si r e d i n fo r e n si c
 AR G UM E N T/ 1 TI ON . 277

w o r k e l e ganc e e xc e pt t o t h e d e gr e e j us t e xp l ain e d i s not

, , ,

a lw ays in d isp e ns abl e an d may e v e n t ak e f r om t h e fo r c e

,

of t h e ph r asing H e w ho i s w r it i ng an a ddr e s s to b e
.

d e l iv e r e d to a s e t of ha l f e d ucat e d m e n t o s om e I n d ian s
-

at a m i s sio n chap e l o r to an au d i e nc e of ag e nt s an d I n d ian

,

b r av e s h e w ho i s t o sp e ak to a bo d y of co ll e g e s t u d e nts ,

o r a d in n e r party c e l e b r at ing s om e h ist o r ica l occa s ion

-

mu s t bot h b e c l e a r an d fo r cib l e C e r tain l y how e v e r .

, ,

though t h e s e con d shou ld s t r i v e t o b e n ot on l y c l e a r an d

~

fo r cib l e bu t al so e l e gant t h e fi r st i n an e f fo r t fo r e l e gan c e

, , ,

may sac r ific e fo r c e fo r that wh ich w i ll m o st e f f e ct iv e ly

,

co nv e y h i s m e aning t o h i s au d ito rs m ay b e ph r a s e s not

sanct ion e d by any book on r h e to r ic I t i s not imp r obab l e .
,

too th at e l e gan c e of sp e e ch i n s uch a ca s e m ay i rr itat e t h e

,

h e a r e r s and h e nc e not on l y spoi l t h e fo r c e of t h e sp e ak e r

,

bu t w e ak e n h i s p e rs u a s iv e e f f e ct El e ganc e i n i n t ro d u c
.

t ion s t h e n un l ik e c l e a r n e s s an d fo r c e va r i e s i n its d e s i r
, , ,

abi l ity an d on l y study of t h e ci r cum stan c e s of t h e pa r t ie

,

u l a r ca s e can d e t e r m in e t h e n e e d of i t I n d e e d as t h e .
,

l a s t s e nt e nc e but o n e h int e d stu d y of t h e e xt e nt t o w h ich

,

e l e ganc e s hou l d b e u s e d tak e s u s into t h e s tu d y of t h e

m e tho ds of p e rs ua s io n .

U N FA I R L Y P R EJ U D I C I A L I N T R O D U C T I O N S .

Wh e n b r i e fs w e r e und e r d i s cu s s ion s tu d e nt s w e r e w a r n e d
again st p r e j u d ic e d i nt r o d uct ion s w hich st at e as t r u e s om e
,

t hing d e man d ing d i s cu s s io n Som e ti m e s i n d e v e l opin g a

.

b r i e f int r o d uct ion int o t h e b e gin n i ng of a fo r e n s ic a

stud e n t l e t s t h e p r e j udi c e c r e e p in that w as not in h i s
bri e f H e shou l d b e st e a d i l y o n t h e wat ch fo r t h i s fau l t
. .

H e r e i s w hat a p r e j udic e d b r i e f i nt roduction o r ca r e l e s s ,

278 A R G U M E A TA T/ O/V
T
’
.

n e s s i n d e v e l oping an unp r e j udic e d b r i e f into a fo r e n sic ,

w il l produc e

W A S C L E M EN T X IV . J U ST I FI ED IN SU P P R ESSI NG TH E J ESU I T
IN 1
7 73 ?
In ord e r that w e m a y hav e c l e arly i n m i nd t h e s u b j e c t
l
“

hand e t u s c ons i d e r i n o u tl i n e t h e h i story of t h e J e s u i ts fro

,

th e i r org an i z at i on b y I g nat i u s L oyola i n I 5 4 0 to th e i r s u pp r

s i on b y Po p e Cl e m e nt X I V i n m Fro m al m ost t h e day
.

th e i r org an i z at i on th e y i n c r e as e d i n n u m b e rs and i nfl u e n c e w

aston i sh i ng ra p i d i ty I n 1 5 4 9 th e y we r e t e n ( 1 o ) i n n u m b
.

wh i l e i n 1 76 2 th e y n u m b e r e d twe nty two tho u sand ( 2 2 -

and th e i r g a i n i n i nfl u e n c e i s e v e n m or e r e m arkab l e B y .

strat e gy th e y g a i n e d c ontrol of t h e e d u c at i onal syste m of

n e u tal E u ro p e fi ll e d m ost of t h e O f fi c e s i n t h e I n q u i
,

b e c am e t h e c onfe ssors and c on fi d e nt i al ad vi s e rs of ki ng s

we r e t h e m ost e lo q u e nt and i nfl u e nt i al p u l p i t orators .

larg e n u m b e rs of J e s u i ts we nt as m i ss i onar i e s to I nd i a C ,

N orth and So u th A m e r i c a and t h e i slands of t h e s e a and

, ,

lab ors we r e r e ward e d wi th i m m e ns e n u m b e rs of c on v e rts

of who m howe v e r r e t u rn e d to p agan i s m lat e r) In
, , .

t h e J e s u i ts we r e m ost p ro m i n e ntly i d e nt ifi e d w i th t h e

e v e nts O f th e i r t i m e s H u ndr e ds of c harg e s hav e b e e n

.

ag a i nst th e m Th e y a r e a c c u s e d of c o m p l i c i ty
y
.

l
att e m pts on El i z ab e th s l i fe t h e G u n powd e r Plot t h e m
’
, ,

W i ll i a m of O rang e and t h e M assac r e O f St B a r t h o o m e

,
.

and of c a u s i n g t h e Th i rty Y e ars W a r and t h e Fr e n c h’

t i on A s t h e nat u ral r e s u lt of s u c h c harg e s n o t sat i s

.
,

e x p la i n e d away th e y c a m e i nto e x tr e m e u n p o u lar i ty and

l p
,

fa v or wh i c h e d to th e i r e x p u ls i on fro m Port u gal i n 1 75 3 fr

, ,

Fran c e i n 1 764 and th e i r s u pp r e ss i on b y Cl e m e nt X I V

, .

I t i s c l e a r that t h e w ho l e eff e ct of thi s i s p r eju d i c i

again s t t h e J e s uit s an d that , h e w ho pass e s u n qu
 A R G U M E /VTA TI ON
'

280 .

o r sp e ak e r o r o n e of t h e oth e r r e ason s m e nt ion e d p u t

, ,

as id e t h e articl e o r l e av e t h e roo m b e fo r e t h e th e s is is
, ,

w e l l stat e d A sp e ak e r o r w r it e r may al so tho u gh not fo r

.
,

any of th e r e aso ns giv e n abo v e wi sh at t im e s t o i m pr e ss ,

on h is a u di e n c e h is own fi tn e ss fo r h i s wo r k o r t h e u n fit ,

n e ss of h is O ppon e nt Th e fi r st p l ac e fo r any su c h ampl i

.

f y i n g of h i s own p ow e r s an d d i m in i s h ing of t h e valu e of

,
’
his O pp on e nt s abi l it i e s is of cou r s e i n t h e int r oduct ion
, , .

AN I NT R O DU CT I O N TO A T EC H N I CA L SU B J EC T .

l
Th e i n t roduct ion t o fi rst of Pr of e s s o r H ux l e y s
t he
’

T/t r e e L ec t u r e s o n E v o u t i on ill ust r at e s t h e val u e of p e r

suasion wh e n a sp e ak e r f e e l s th at h e has a s u bj e ct that
may b e d ul l b e cau s e of t h e d e tail and t e chnica l ity me c e s
sa r y i n t r e at ing it Pr of e sso r H ux l e y fi rs t po int e d out
.

t h e s ignifican c e fo r e v e r y m an of t h e p r obl e m s to b e con

s i d e r e d an d ma d e e ach of h is h e a r e r s r e cogni z e t hat in

,

l anguag e fa r f r om t e ch n ical h e h ad at t im e s con s id e r e d

t h e v e r y p r ob l e m t o b e d i s cu s s e d at t h e l e ctu r e A t on c e .

e ach h e a r e r gain e d a p e r sona l int e r e st in t h e d iscuss ion .

I t cou ld ha r d l y b e d ul l fo r h im a s h e g r adual ly sa w t h e
b e a r ing t h e Signifi can c e of t h e d e tai l s n ot fo r a m e r e
, ,

l
sci e n t ific p r obl e m but fo r a qu e st ion t hat ha d oft e n p u z
,

z e d him an d which h e cou l d f e e l s u r e w a s in t h e natu r e

, ,

O f things if not s e tt l e d l ik e l y to r e cu r an d both e r hi m

, , .

We l i ve i n and for m p art of a syst e m of th i n g s of i m m e ns e

d iv e rs i ty and c o m pl e xi ty wh i c h w e c all N atu r e ; and i t i s a

,

m att e r of t h e d e e e st i nt e r e st to all of u s that w e sho u ld for m

p
j u st c on c e pt i ons of t h e c onst i t u t i on of that syst e m and of i ts
p ast h i story W i th r e lat i on to th i s u n iv e rs e m a n i s i n e x t e nt
.
, , ,

l i ttl e m or e than a m ath e m at i c al p o i nt i n d u r a t i on b u t a fl e e t

 l
A R G U /V E /VTA T O/V l . 28 1

ing shadow ; h e i s a m e r e r e e d shak e n i n t h e wi nds O f for c e .

B u t as Pas c al lon g a g o r e m ark e d altho u g h a m e r e r e e d h e i s

, , ,

a th i n ki ng r e e d ; and i n V i rt u e of that wond e rf u l c ap ac i ty of

tho u g ht b e b as t h e p owe r of fra m i n g for h i m s e lf a s ym bol i c
,
'

c on c e pt i on O f t h e u n iv e rs e wh i c h altho u g h do u b tl e ss h i g hly
, ,

i m p e rfe c t and i nad e q u at e as a p i c t u r e of t h e g r e at whol e i s ,

y e t s u f fi c i e nt to s e r v e h i m as a c hart for t h e g u i dan c e of h i s

p ra c t i c al a ff a i rs It has tak
. e n lon g a g e s of to i lso m e and oft e n
fr u i tl e ss labor to e nabl e m a n to loo k st e ad i ly at t h e sh i ft i n g s c e n e s

l
O f t h e p hantas m a g or i a O f N at u r e to not i c e what i s fix e d a m on g
,

h e r f u c t u at i ons and what i s r e g u lar a m ong h e r a pp ar e nt i rr e g

l
,

u a ri t i e s and i t i s only c o m parat iv e ly l at e ly w i th i n t h e last f e w ,

c e nt u r i e s that t h e c on c e p t i on of a u n iv e rsal ord e r and of a

,

d e fi n i t e c o u rs e of th i n g s wh i c h w e t e r m t h e c o u rs e of N at u r e
, ,

has e m e rg e d B u t on c e or i g i nat e d t h e c on c e pt i on of t h e c o n
.
, ,

s t a n c y of t h e ord e r of N at u r e has b e c o m e t h e d o m i n a n t i d e a of

m od e rn tho ug ht T O any pe rson who i s fa m i l i ar w i th t h e fa c ts

.

u on wh i c h that c on c e t i on i s bas e d and i s c o m t nt to e st i

p p p e e ,

m at e th e i r s i g n ifi c an c e i t has c e as e d to b e c on c e iv ab l e that
,

c han c e sho u ld ha v e any p la c e i n t h e u n iv e rs e or that e v e nts ,

sho u ld d e p e nd u pon any b u t t h e nat u ral s e q u e n c e of c au s e and

e ff e c t. W e hav e c o m e to look u pon th e p r e s e nt as t h e c h i ld of
t h e p ast and as t h e p ar e nt of t h e f u t u r e and as we ha v e e x ,

c l u d e d c han c e fro m a p la c e i n t h e u n iv e rs e so w e i g nor e e v e n , ,

as a p oss i b i l i ty t h e not i on O f any i nt e rfe r e n c e w i th t h e ord e r of

,

N at u r e . W hat e v e r m a y b e m e n s s p e c u lat iv e do c tr i n e s i t i s
’
,

q u i t e c e rta i n that e v e ry i nt e ll i g e nt p e rson gu i d e s h i s l i f e and

r i sks h i s fort u n e u pon t h e b e l i e f that t h e ord e r of N at u r e i s
c on stant and that t h e c ha i n of nat u ral c a u sat i on i s n e ve r
,

broke n .

“
I n fac t no b e l i e f wh i c h w e e nt e rt ain has so c ompl e t e a
,

lo g i c al bas i s as that to wh i c h I ha v e j u st r e fe rr e d I t ta c i tly .

u nd e rl i e s e v e ry p ro c e ss of r e ason i n i t i s t h fo ndat i on of
g ; e u

e v e ry a c t of t h e w i ll It i s b as e d u p on t h e broad e st i nd u c t i on
.
,

and i t i s v e r ifi e d b y t h e m ost c onstant r e g u lar and u n iv e rsal of , ,

28 2 A A G U M E N TA T O /V
’
l .

d e d u c t iv e p ro c e ss e s B u t w e m u st r e c oll e c t th a t a n y h u m an
.

b e l i e f howe v e r b ro a d i ts b as i s howe v e r d e fe ns i b l e i t m a y s e e m
, , ,

i s aft e r all onl y a p ro b a b l e b e l i e f and that o u r wi d e st a n d

, , ,
.

safe st g e n e ral i z at i o n s a r e s i m pl y state m e n ts of til

l
e b ig
’
d e g r e e of p ro b a b i l i t y Tho u g h w e a r e q u i te c e a r a b o u t t h e
.

c onstan c y O f t h e ord e r of N at u r e at t h e p r e s e n t t i m e and i n , ,

t h e p r e s e nt stat e of th i n g s i t b y no m e ans n e c e ss a r i l y follo w s

,

that w e a r e j u stifi e d i n e x p and i n g th i s g e n e ral i z at i on i nto t h e

i n fi n i t e p ast and i n d e n yi n g ab sol u t e l y that th e r e m a y hav e
, , ,

b e e n a t i m e wh e n N at u r e d i d not follow a fix e d ord e r w h e n ,

t h e r e lat i ons of c a u s e and e f fe c t we r e not d e fi n i t e and w h e n ,

e x tra nat u ral a e n c i e s i nt e rf e r e d w i th t h e e n e ral c o u rs e of

g g
-

N at u r e Ca u t i o u s m e n w i ll allow that a u n iv e rs e so d i ff e r e nt
.

fro m that wh i c h w e k now m a y hav e e xi st e d ; j u st as a v e ry

c and i d th i n k e r m a ad m i t that a world i n wh i c h two and two
y
do not m ak e fo u r and i n wh i c h two stra i g ht l i n e s do e n c los e
,

a s p a c e m a y e xi st B u t t h e sa m e c a u t i on wh i c h for c e s t h e
, .

ad m i ss i on O f s u c h p oss i b i l i t i e s d e m ands a g r e at d e al of e vi d e n c e
b e for e i t r e c o g n i z e s th e m to b e anyth i n g m or e s u b stant i a l .

A n d wh e n i t i s ass e rt e d that so m an y tho u sa n d y e a rs a g o , ,

e v e nts o c c u rr e d i n a m ann e r u tt e rly for e i g n to and i n c ons i st e n t

ll
w i th t h e e xi st i n g laws of N at u r e m e n who w i tho u t b e i n g p a r , ,

t i c u a r y c a u t i o u s a r e s i m pl y hon e st th i n k e rs
,
u nwi ll i n
g t o ,

d e c e iv e th e m s e l v e s or d e l u d e oth e rs as k for tr u stworthy e v i ,

d e n c e O f t h e fa c t .

D i d th i n g s so ha pp e n or d i d th e y not ? Th i s i s a b i stor i
l
“
,

ca q u e st i on and o n e t h e answe r to wh i c h m u st b e so u g ht i n
,

1
t h e sa m e wa y as t h e sol u t i on of an y oth e r h i stor i c a l p ro b l e m
”
.

1 Sp ec i m en s o f A rg u m en ta t ton ( M o d e r ) pp 60 63
n , .
—
.
28 4 I E N TA TI O/ V
A R G U /V .

of thi s Sp e ak e r That s u ch a man thought P h e r e n i c u s

.

worthy of so st rong a fri e ndship might e v e n p r e d ispo s e

t h e a u di e n c e i n favo r of hi s cl i e nt T h e fo l lowing op e n .

i ng of a Sp e e c h of A b r aham Lin col n d e l iv e r e d i n C o l um ,

bu s O hio shows an e ffort to win sympathy b e caus e t h e

, ,

sp e ak e r was not w e l l known t o his aud i e nc e

“
F E L L O W C I T I Z EN S O F T H E ST AT E O F O H I O : I c annot fa i l
-

to r e m e m b e r t hat I a pp e ar for t h e fi rst t i m e b e for e an a u d i e n c e

i n th i s now g r e at Stat e a n a u d i e n c e that i s a c c u sto m e d to
,
—

h e ar s u c h s pe a k e rs as Corwi n a n d Chas e and W ad e and , , ,

m any oth e r r e nown e d m e n ; and r e m e m b e r i n g th i s I f e e l that ,

i t w i ll b e we ll for y o u as for m e that y o u sho u ld not ra i s e

, ,

yo u r e x pe c tat i ons to that st a ndard to wh i c h y o u wo u ld ha v e

b e e n j u st ifi e d i n ra i s i n g th e m had o n e of t h e s e d i st i n g u i sh e d
m e n app e ar e d b e for e y o u Y o u wo u ld p e rha p s b e only p r e p ar
.

i n g a d i sa pp o i nt m e nt for yo u rs e l v e s and as a c ons e q u e n c e O f , ,

yo u r d i sa ppo i nt m e nt m o rt i fic a t i o n for m e I ho p e th e r e for e

, .
, ,

that yo u wi ll c o m m e n c e w i th v e ry m od e rat e e x p e c tat i ons ; and

p e rha p s ,
i f y o u w i ll g iv e m e yo u r att e nt i on I shall b e abl e to ,

i nt e re st y o u i n a m od e rat e d e gr e e 1
.
”

AN I N T R O D U C T I O N W H E N T H E A U D I EN C E M AY B EC O M E

H O ST I L E .

Th e va l u e of w i nn in g sympathy at t h e outs e t wh e n a
sp e ak e r o r w r it e r f e a r s that l at e r h e may a r o u s e by hi s
wo rd s t h e hosti l ity of hi s au d i e nc e i s sho w n by t h e
op e ning paragraph of t h e F i r st L e tt e r of J un ius An .

unkno w n p e rs o n i s to say v e r y s t a r t l i n g wor d s about

thos e high i n autho r ity i s to mak e stat e m e nt s that wil l ,

by th e i r audacity so shock som e of hi s r e a d e r s that th e y

1 A br a h a m L i n col n , C om p lW et e or k s , vo l
. I, p .
538 . N icola y H a
y
.

C en t u ry C o .
, 1 8 94.
 A R G U M E N TA TI ON . 28 5

a re l iab l e th ough ag r e e ing that w r ong e xi st s to dr aw

, ,

back . I t i s impo r tant th e n fo r t h e w r it e r to fin d som e

, ,

commo n g r ound at t h e out s e t upon wh ich h e an d m o s t of

h is r e ad e rs can agr e e Th e n lat e r wh e n m e n a r e d is
.
, ,

pos e d to d r aw back b e caus e of t h e da r ing of hi s c r it ici sm ,

th e y wil l s e e that h is c e n su r e s a r e but t h e l ogica l out com e

of t h e stat e m e nts t h e y ag r e e d to at t h e b e gin n ing of t h e
l e tt e r and wi l l b e l e s s l ik e l y t o r e volt
,
J u niu s as t h e.
,

fo ll owi ng will Show fi r st put s b e for e h i s r e a d e rs a g e n e r al

,

p r opos it ion which th e y wi ll r e ad i l y acc e pt ; th e n w ith a ,

s udd e n tu r n mak e s a sp e cia l app l icat ion of it an d

, ,

th r oughout h i s l e tt e r s i mp l y a dds d e tai l t o d e tai l of hi s

sp e cia l ca s e .

SI R : The s u b m i ss i on of a fr e e pe opl e to t h e e x e c u t i v e
a u thor i ty of g o v e rn m e nt i s no m or e than a c o m pl i an c e w i th
laws wh i c h th e y th e m s e l v e s ha v e e na c t e d W h i l e t h e nat i onal
.

honor i s fi r m ly m a i ntai n e d abroad and wh i l e j u st i c e i s i m par

l
l
,

l
t i a y ad m i n i st e r e d at ho m e t h e o b e d i e n c e of t h e s u b j e c t w i ll
,

b e v ol u ntary c h e e rf u l and I m i ght s a y a m o s t u nl i m i t e d

, , ,
.
A .

g e n e ro u s nat i on i s g rat e f ul e v e n for t h e p r e s e r v at i on of i ts

r i g hts and w i ll i n g ly e x t e nds t h e r e s pe c t d u e to t h e o ff i c e of a
,

g ood p r i nc e i nto an a ff e c t i on for h i s p e rson L oyalty i n t h e

.
,

h e art and u nd e rstand i ng of an Engl i sh m an i s a rat i onal ,

atta c h m e nt to t h e g u ard i an of t h e laws Pr e j u d i c e s and p a s

l
’
.

s i on ha v e so m e t i m e s c arr i e d i t to a c r i m i nal e n g t h y a n d
what e v e r for e ig n e rs m a y i m ag i n e w e know that Engl i sh m e n
,

ha v e e rr e d as m u c h i n a m i stak e n z e al for part i c u lar p e rsons

and fa m i l i e s as th e y e v e r d i d i n d e fe ns e O f what th e y tho u ght
,

m ost d e ar and i nt e r e st i n g to th e m s e l v e s .

“
I t nat u rally fi lls u s w i th r e s e nt m e nt to s e e s u c h a t e m p e r
i ns u lt e d a n d ab u s e d In r e ad i ng t h e h i story of a fr e e p e o p l e
.

whos e r i g hts ha v e b e e n i n v ad e d w e a r e i nt e r e st e d i n th e i r
,

ca u s e,
O u r own f e e l i n g s t e ll u s how lon g th e y o u g ht to hav e
 28 6 I E N TA TI O ZV
A R G U /V .

s u b m i tt e d and at what m o m e nt i t wo u ld ha v e b e e n tr e ac h e ry
,

to th e m s e l v e s not to hav e r e s i ste d How m u c h wa r m e r wi ll .

b e o u r r e s e nt m e nt i f e x p e r i e n c e sho u ld b r i n g t h e fat a l e x a m p l e
ho m e to o u rs e l v e s
T h e s i t u at i on of th i s c o u ntr y i s alar m i n g e n o u g h to ro u s e
t h e att e nt i on of e v e ry m a n who p r e t e nds to a c o n c e r n f o r t h e
1
p u b l i c w e lfar e .
”

AN I N T R O D U C T I O N W H EN TH E A U D I EN C E IS H O ST I L E .

Without p e r suas ion H e n ry Wa r d B e e c h e r cou l d n e v e r

hav e won a h e ari ng fo r t h e argu m e ntat iv e part O f h is
s p e e ch in Liv e r p ool i n 1 8 6 3 in b e half of t h e N o rth e r n
, ,

Stat e s Th e s e w e r e t h e cond ition s u nd e r Wh i ch h e

.

spok e

Whe n M r Be e c he r
we nt to England i n 1 8 63 Eng l i sh
.
,

fr i e nds of t h e N orth u r g e d h i m to s pe ak p u b l i c ly for N orth e rn

l
i nt e r e sts Th e y fe lt that as c ha m pi ons of t h e N orth th e y had
.

b e e n tre at e d w i th c ont e m pt and v i i fic a t i o n and that u nl e ss h e , ,

as a p ro m i n e nt A bol i t i on i st sho u ld r e c og n i z e th e i r e f forts th ey

, ,

we r e lost . L i v e rpool was t h e h e ad q u art e rs of t h e So u th e rn

sym p ath i z e rs and a g re at m any So u th e rn m e n we r e i n t h e
l
,

c i ty . T h e f e e l i ng was v e r y stron g that i f Mr B e e c h e r sho u d .

s u c c e e d th er e h e wo u ld wi n t h e day ; and a d e t e r m i n e d and

l
,

d e s p e rat e e ff ort was to b e m ad e to pr e v e nt t h e d e iv e ry of t h e

s p e e c h T h e str e e ts w e r e p la c ard e d w i th ab u s iv e and s c u rr i
.

lo u s p oste rs u rg i n g En g l i sh m e n to s e e that h e g e t s t h e
,

we l c o m e h e d e s e r v e s O n t h e m orn i n g of t h e 1 6t h t h e l e ad
.
’

i n g p ap e rs c a m e o u t w i th V i ol e nt and fals e e d i tor i als ag a i n st

Mr B e e c h e r It was o p e nly d e c l are d that i f h e Sho u ld dar e to
. .

addr e ss t h e m e e t i n g h e wo u ld n e v e r l e a v e t h e hall a l iv e It
, .

was we ll k nown that t h e m o b was ar m e d ; not SO we ll k nown

1 Sp ec i m en s o f A rg u m en t a t i o n ( M o d e rn ,
) p p 4 2.
44
—
.
 PI E N TA TI O ZV
A A G UJ
’
288 .

'

sta r t l e t h e host i l e o rt ion in to att e nt ion H e re IS w hat

p .

B e e ch e r s aid

l
For m or e than twe nt y fiv e ye ars I ha v e b e e n m ad e pe rf e c t
-

y fa m i l i ar w i th p po u lar ass e m bl i e s i n all p arts of m y c o u ntry

e x c e p t t h e e x tr e m e So u th .Th e r e has not for t h e whol e of
that t i m e b e e n a s i n g l e day of m y l i fe wh e n i t wo u ld ha v e
b e e n safe for m e to g o so u th of Mason and D ix on s l i n e i n ’

m y own c o u ntr y and all for o n e r e ason : m y sol e m n e arn e st

, , ,

p e rs i st e nt t e st i m ony a g a i nst that wh i c h I c ons i d e r to b e t h e

m ost atro c i o u s th i n g u nd e r t h e s u n t h e syst e m O f A m e r i c an

sla ve ry i n a g r e at fr e e r e p u bl i c [Ch e e r s ] I have p ass e d
.

thro u g h that e arl y pe r i od wh e n r i g ht of fr e e s p e e c h was d e n i e d

to m e A g a i n and ag ai n I ha v e atte m pt e d to addre ss au d i e n c e s
.

that for no oth e r c r i m e than that of fr e e s pe e c h vi s i t e d m e

, ,

wi th all m ann e r of c ont u m e l i o u s e p i th e ts ; and now s i n c e I

ha v e b e e n i n Eng land altho u g h I ha v e m e t wi th g re at e r ki nd
,

l
n e ss and c o u rte s y on t h e p art of m ost than I d e s e r v e d y e t on , ,

t h e oth e r hand I p e r c e iv e that t h e So u th e rn i n f u e n c e p r e v a i ls

,

to so m e e x t e nt i n Eng land [A ppla u s e and u p roar ] I t i s

l
. .

m y O d a c q u a i ntan c e ; I u nd e rstand i t p e rf e c tly la u ht e r

]
[ g —

and I ha v e always h e ld i t to b e an u nfa i l i ng tr u th th a t

wh e re a m a n had a c a u s e that wo u ld b e ar e x am i n a t i on h e was
p e rf e c tly w i ll i n g to ha v e i t s p ok e n abo u t [ pp
A la u.s e
] A n d
wh e n i n Man c h e st e r I saw thos e h u g e pla c ards : W h o i s ‘

H e nry W ard B e e c h e r ? ’
la
[ g
—
u ht e r c r i e s ,
O f Q u i t e r i ht
“
g ,
”

and ap pla u s e ] —
and wh e n i n L iv e r pool I was told that th e r e
we r e thos e blood r e d p lac ards p u r port i n g to sa y w hat H e nry
-

W ard B e e c h e r had sa i d and c all i n g u p on En g l i sh m e n to s u p

,

p r e ss fr e e s p e e c h —
I t e ll
y o u what I tho u ht
g I tho u ht
g .

s i m p ly th i s :
‘
I a m g lad of i t [ L .a ’
u g ht e r
] W h y
? B e
c a u s e if th e y had f e lt p e rf e c tly s e c u r e that y ou a r e t h e m i n i ons
,

of t h e So u th and t h e sla v e s of sla v e ry th e y wo u ld ha v e b e e n ,

p e rf e ctly st i ll
.
[ pp
A la u s e and u p roar ] A n d th
. e r e for e wh e n
, ,

I s a w s o m u ch n e rvo u s ap pr e h e ns i on that , i f I we r e pe r m i tt e d
 l
A R G U / / E N TA TI O JV . 28 9

to Sp e ak [h i ss e s and app la u s e ] wh e n I fo u nd th e y we r e
— —

af ra i d to ha v e m e Spe a k [h i ss e s la u g ht e r and N O no "

—
, ,
“
,

wh e n I fo u nd that th e y c ons i d e r e d m y s pe a ki n g d a m
ag i ng to th e i r c a u s e [ap pla u s e ] W h e n I fo u nd that th e y
— —

a pp e al e d fro m fa c ts and r e ason i ngs to m o b law [appla u s e

and u p roar ] I sa i d no m a n n e e d t e ll m e what t h e h e art and
,

s e c r e t c o u n c i l of th e s e m e n a re Th e y tr e m bl e and a re afra i d
. .

A pp la u s e la u ght e r h i ss e s N O no " and a v o i c e : N e w

“ “ ”

_ , , , ,

York N ow p e rsonally i t i s a m att e r of v e ry l i ttl e c o n

, ,

s e q u e n c e to m e wh e th e r I s pe ak h e r e to n i g ht or not [L a u ght e r -
.

and c h e e r s ] B u t o n e th i ng i s ve ry c e rta i n i f y o u do p e r m i t m e
, ,

l
to s p e ak h e r e to n i g ht y o u w i l l h e ar v e ry p la i n talk i ng [A p
-
.

p a u s e and h i ss e s ] Y o u w i ll not fi nd a m a n
[i nt e rr u p t i on
]
o u w i ll not fi nd m e to b e a m a n that d ar e d to s pe ak abo u t
y
—

G r e at B r i ta i n thr e e tho u sand m i l e s o ff and th e n i s afra i d to ,

s pe ak to G re at B r i t a i n wh e n h e stands on h e r shor e s [I m .

m e ns e a p pl a u s e and h i ss e s ] A n d i f I do not m i st a k e t h e
ton e and t e m p e r of Engl i sh m e n th ey had rath e r ha v e a m a n ,

who O ppos e s th e m i n a m anly way [a pp la u s e fro m all p arts

of t h e hall ] than a sn e a k that a g r e e s wi th th e m i n an
—

u n m anly way la u se and i f I

[ pp
A
. N o w c an ,

c arry o u w i th m e by so u nd c on vi c t i ons I shall b e i m m e ns e ly

y ,

glad [ a p p la u se
] b u t i f I c annot c arry
y o u w i th m e by fa c ts

and so u nd arg u m e nts I do not w i sh y o u to g o wi th m e at all ;

,

and all that I ask i s s i m ply FA I R P LA Y [A p pla u s e and a .

,

voice “
Y o u shall ha v e i t ,

“
Thos e of y o u w h o a r e k i nd e no u gh to wi sh to fa v or m y
s pe a ki ng —
and y o u w i ll Obs e rv e that m y v o i c e i s sl i g htly
h u s k y fro m ha vi n g s po k e n al m ost e v e ry n i g ht i n s u c c e ss i on
,

f or so m e t i m e p ast thos e who w i sh to h e ar m e wi ll do

,
—

m e t h e k i ndn e ss s i m p ly to s i t st i ll and to k e e p st i ll ; and I ,

and m y fr i e nds t h e Se c e ss i on i sts wi ll m a k e all t h e no i s e .

(M
1
Spec i m e n s f
o A rg u m en ta t i on o d ern
) , pp . I 6
5
—
1
58 .
 A R G U /U E N TA TI OA
'

290 .

I n t hi s cas e th e n i n wh i c h t h e unpopula r ity of t h e

, ,

sp e ak e r and his cau s e with a l a r g e pa r t of t h e audi e nc e

was so gr e at as to e ndang e r his l i f e M r B e e ch e r , .

won a h e ar i ng fo r h i s argum e nt chi e fl y by s ho w ing

that h e was u nda u nt e d d e t e r m i n e d s in c e r e , th r e e , ,

qua l iti e s su r e to wi n sy m pat h y fro m a B r it ish au d i e nc e .

R e sting on t h e p roof h i s v e ry wo r d s gav e of h i s po s s e s

sion of t h e s e qual it i e s h e a pp e al e d t o hi s aud i e nc e t o
,

grant h i m only what any B r it i sh e r i s suppos e d to b e w i l

l i ng to grant any m an fa i r p l ay , Whil e l e ad ing up
“
.

to th i s a pp e al B e e ch e r m an ag e d v e r y sk i llfully to r e nd e r
,

t h e cond uct of thos e who oppo s e d him o r who should i nt e r ,

r upt hi s sp e e ch p r e j udicial t o th e i r cau s e

, Last l y t h e .
,

imp e r t u r babil i ty of hi s man n e r t h e e asy good n atu r e of ,

-

hi s r e ma r k that I an d my f r i e n ds t h e Se c e s s i on i st s w il l
“

”
mak e al l t h e nois e won r e sp e ct and s ympat hy A s a
'

, .

r e s u l t of t h i s mast e r ly p e rs uasiv e e f fo rt B e e ch e r w a s abl e

t o d e v e lop t h e p u r e l y convin cing part of hi s i n t r o d u c
t i on and t h e e a r l i e r pa r t of hi s a r gum e nt without s e r iou s
i nt e rr upt ion .

A M P L I FY I NG O N E
’
S OWN F I T N ESS FO R TH E WO R K IN HAN D .

In t he following e xt ract from t he p e ning of D ryd e n

’
s O

D ef e n c e of a n Es s ay of D r a m a t i c P o e sy t h e po e t by , ,

i ron ic prai s e and m ock s e l f d e p r e ciation succ e e d s i n m ak

-

in g a r e ad e r f e e l t h e p robabl e in c om p e t e n c e of h is
O p pon e nt and hi s own fi tn e ss fo r t h e w o r k c r it ici s e d
p u r e ly pe r s ri a s i v e work :

Bu twh i l e I was th u s e m plo y e d abo u t th i s i m p r e ss i on th e re ,

c a m e to m hands a n e w p r i nt e d p la y c all e d Tb e G r ea t Fa vou r

y ,

i te or T/1 6 D u k e of L er m a ; t h e a u t hor of wh i c h a nobl e and

,
’

,
292 A R G U M E N T/ 1 TI OIV .

sai d as to t h e d e si r abi l ity of win n ing sy m pathy

’
s e lf of c r e ati ng a p r e j u d ic e i n on e s favo r at t h
, ,

n in g of a Sp e e c h o r articl e R e ally ho w e v e r th e r e is n o
.
, ,

l
cont rad i c t i on fo r t h e r e ad e r w as in t h e fi r st cas e w a r n e d
,

o n y not t o m ak e stat e m e nts as u ndi sput e d wh ich a r e

Open t o d e bat e n ot to r e f e r t o m att e rs as t r u e which may
,

not b e t r u e ; that i s h e was to ld not t o b e u nfai r l y pr e ju

,

d ic e d . I n what has b e e n said of p e r suas iv e int r o d uct ion s

h e is n ot adv i s e d t o mak e ass e r t ion s th at n e e d suppo r t ,

but to fi nd i n u n d e batabl e m att e rs sugg e st e d by t h e w o rk

i n hand what wi ll pr e j ud ic e an aud i e nc e in his favor o r
again st hi s O ppon e nt I t wi ll b e s e e n that i n non e of t h e
.

cit e d i nt r o d uct ion s i s any d e batab l e m att e r u s e d to gai n

t h e p r e j ud icia l e f f e ct T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t wo
.

kin d s O f wo rk i s th at b e t w e e n c r e at ing an unfai r; an d a N

fai r p r e j u d ic e .

TH E R ELAT I V E P R O P O RT I O N S O F C O NV I C T I O N AN D P ER SU A
SI O N I N A N I N T RO D U CT I O N .

An i nt r o d uct ion m ay th e n d e p e n d fo r it s fo r c e On
, ,
‘

convict ion o r o n p e r suasion T h e propo r t ion s in .

t h e two m ing l e m u st l ik e t h e n umb e r of t h e

,

part s of ana l y s i s r e p r e s e nt e d i n an int r o d u ction d e p e n d ,

o n t h e n at u r e of t h e subj e ct Th e p r opo r t ion s m ay r ang e

.

from i nt r o d uct ion s W hol ly without p e r s u asion t h r o u gh ,

t hos e that hav e but l ittl e t o thos e i n wh ich convict ion,

an d p e rsuasion m ing l e as subtly as in t h e i nt r oduct ion to

1
t h e D ef e n c e of L o r d Ge org e Gor d o n b y Lo rd Er skin e ,
.

Exam i nation of t h e i nt r o d uct ion s cit e d w i l l S ho w t hat t h e

amou nt of p e r suas ion i n an i nt r odu ct ion d e p e n d s w ho l ly
1 Sp eci m en s o
f A rg u m en t a t i on ( M o d e rn ) , p 86
. .
 A R G U M E N T/ f TI O ZV . 293

upon t h e c i r cum stanc e s u n d e r wh ich t h e s p e e ch is m a d e .

To d e c i d e to what e xt e nt an d how to b e p e r s uasiv e a r e

matt e r s r e qu iring a kn ow l e dg e of t h e e m ot iona l s id e
of hum an nat u r e Of , W hat p ro d uc e s act ion in man .

Th e s e subj e ct s by n o m e an s e asy to g r asp a r e t o b e

, ,

t r e at e d in t h e n e xt chapt e r u n d e r t h e h e ad ing P e r s u a s i on
,

t hat w hi ch aim s not m e r e l y to convinc e a m an but ,

’
al so t o p r o d uc e in h i m act ion as a r e sul t of h i s co nvict ion .

I t i s e nough fo r t h e p r e s e n t t hat a stud e nt shoul d r e a l i z e

that i n m ost good a r gu m e ntat io n t h e i nt r o d uct ion has
a s m uch w o r k to d o i n p e rs uasion as in convict ion .

TH E A R G U M EN T I T S EL F .

Lik e t h e I nt r o d u ct ion t h e A r gu m e nt i t s e l f m ay d o a
,

t wofo ld wo r k I t m a y S im ply convinc e by giving i n a

. .

l it e r a r y fo r m t h e e vi d e n c e fo r whi c h t h e ca r e fu ll y c o n
st r uct e d b r i e f p r op e r cal l s o r i t m ay app e a l to t h e
,

e m ot ion s ,
p e rs uad e Wh e n i t d o e s t h e l att e r it fi n d s i n
.
,

t h e d i ff e r e nt p r oofs o f f e r e d t hat whi ch w i ll s t i r a r e a d e r

o r h e a r e r again st t h e O ppon e nt o r h i s th e sis o r i n b e ha l f

of t h e a r g u e r o r hi s i d e as T h e g r e at e s s e nt ia l s i n t h e
.

argum e nt prop e r a r e bot h f r om t h e argum e ntat iv e and

,

t h e l it e r a r y point of Vi e w u nity c l e a r n e s s and fo r c e

, , , .

h e t h e r e l e ganc e i s d e s i r ab l e w i ll as was poi nt e d out ,

p 2 76 d e p e n d on t h e natu r e of t h e pub l ic a ddr e s s e d

.
, .

N ITY , C L EA R N ESS ,
AN D FO RC E IN TH E A R G U M EN T P R O P ER .

If the
b r i e f has b e e n w e ll d r awn t hat i s if t h e r e l at ion s
, ,

f t h e m ai n id e a an d t h e ot h e r id e a s n e c e ss a r y in t h e d is

l
u s s i o n hav e b e e n co rr e ct l y d e t e r mi n e d ; if a s c l im act ic as

s s i b e an a rr ang e m e nt has b e e n ma d e of t h e pa r t s and ,

294 A R G U M E N TA TI ON

i f t h e t r an sition s from d ivis ion to d ivi s i on hav e b e e n s o

n e at l y man ag e d that e ach s e e m s to grow o u t of t hat wh ich
pr e c e d e d it th e n t h e un ity of t h e a r gum e nt pro p e r Shoul d
,

b e good A w r it e r n e e d s how e v e r to watch h i s p h rasing

.
, ,

as h e pass e s fro m p arag r a p h t o pa r ag r aph withi n t h e

divi sio ns O f t h e arg u m e nt p r op e r O ft e n t h e pa r agraphs .

of a for e n s i c a r e i nd e p e nd e nt an d a pp ar e nt l y m u tually
r e p e l l e nt blo cks of tho u ght T h e id e al wo r k i s that in .

wh ich e ach s e nt e nc e of a p a r ag r aph d e v e l ops natu r ally

i nto t h e n e xt e ach pa r ag r a p h d e ve lops int o t hat w hich fol
,

lows it e ach d ivi s ion l e ad s to t h e o n e s ucc e e ding Such

, .

unity g i v e s n ot only cl e a r n e s s and forc e b u t al so e as e a , ,

fl owing sty l e H ow d is j oint e d and ho w awkward i n

.

ph r asi ng a r e fo r e n s i c s not bas e d on a w e l l u n i fie d bri e f -

l
an d n ot ca r e ful l y ph r as e d i n t h e t r ansit i on s from part t o
part t h e B e a c o n s fie d fo r e n s ic on p 1 8 2 Shows Fo r
,
. .

l
t h e e as e that com e s f r om n e atly p h ras e d t r an sit ion s I n

l
thought s e e P itt s Sp e ec /i o n t /ee S a v e Tr a d e and Gr at
’

tan s D ec a ra t i o n of I r i s /t R zg/t ts 1
'
.

What e v e r wa s su gg e st e d i n t h e s e ct ion s t r e at ing t h e

b r i e f p r op e r as l ik e ly to l e ad to cl e arn e s s and fo r c e i n
d r awing b ri e fs wil l of cou rs e p r od uc e th e s e e f f e ct s i n t h e
, ,

fo r e n sic A knowl e dg e O f e vid e nc e of t h e ways i n wh i ch

.
,

to sift i t w i ll giv e a r e ad e r e vi d e nc e that i s cl e ar an d

,

l
’
fo rcibl e A l so an abil ity to p h ras e o n e s id e as c l e a rl y an d
.

fo rc i bly wi l aid g r e atly Th e r e a r e m o r e ov e r , c e r ta i n .

,

sugg e st i ons p arti cularly i n r e gard to p r e s e nt ing han d l ing

, ,

e vid e nc e a p art fro m t e sting it wh i ch it s e e m s b e st to

, ,

cons id e r h e r e A c ar e f u l r e g ard fo r th e m wil l add to t h e

.

c l e a r n e s s and fo rc e of t h e arg u m e nt p r op e r .

1 Se l e c t ed O r a t i on s . Cam e l
ot Se r i es,
pp . I zo ~
16
5 .
29 6 AR G UM E N TA TI ON .

lp beg i n n i ng
l l
l
f r om tb e d es i r e to s a ve a bo r , ut a t tb e

l l l
the en d o f f b is f or e n s i c t ze n a m es o a t /ze book s or

l lp
m e n t s c on s u p ted , p a nd t /t e n ex ec t tis r ea d er t o ac

lf p
a m ong t /zes e ca e i
q u ot a t i on m a d e i n zi s a
g es .

l l
b e be sa tis
fi e d w i t /z s u e/t a ist a te r u tt i n
g a num e

bef or e ca e i book i n i t
p a nd re ea t i ng t /zi s n u m e ra in

f or e n s i c bef or e e v e ry qu o t a t i on d r a w n f r om t /ze p a r t i cu

Such
’
boob . cont r ivanc e s t o sav e t h e writ e r s t im e w a
t h e pat i e n c e of t h e r e a d e r an d mo r e i s l o s t t han i s gain,

Wh e n e v e r a quotat ion i s m a d e o r w h e n e v e r a w r it e r g i ,

on l y t h e gi s t O f an oth e r m an s writ in g o r wo rd s t h ’

sou r c e shou l d b e ca r e ful ly n am e d at t h e bottom of t h

p ag e t h e t it l e of t h e book t h e autho r t h e vo l um e t h , , ,
'

pag e and if n e c e s s a r y t h e e d ition

, , an d thi s r e f e r e nc e
,
—

shoul d b e conn e ct e d by s om e s ign w ith t h e pa r t of t h e

l ll
t e xt it s uppo r t s .

Do M ere y
l
4 . n ot qu o t e Con c u s i on s , u n es s as an

l l l
A rg u m e n t f ro m A u t /zo r i ty .
-
A w r i ter s /t ou d r e m em be r ,

l ll l
a s o, t /za t i n g i v i ng e v i d e n ce ie is n ot t o qu o t e m e re y a
’
man s c o n c u s i on s , u n es s i i s w or d s m ay be p r op e r y
a s a u tb o r i ta To quot e th e m unl e s s i n t h e e
t i ve .
,

m a d e i s m e r e l y t o sh ift an ass e r t ion f r om t h e

,

sh ou ld e r s to tho s e of oth e r m e n p e rh ap s e v e n l e s s kn ,

than h e i s t o h i s r e a d e r Thi s i s what t h e writ e r on .

Ea s t e r n Q u e s tion d i d wh e n b e a s s e r t e d “
Lo r d B e a c
fi e l d sai d t hat C on stant i n op l e i s t h e Ke y of t h e
( see p N.ot Lo r d B e a c o n s fie d s con clu sion bu l ’

hi s r e ason s fo r it a r e what shoul d b e giv e n Pr of e s so

,
.

Dic e y r e cogni z e d t h e t ruth of th i s r u l e i n hi s t r e atm e n t 0

t h e r e po r t of t h e P a r ne ll Comm i ssion :

“
T h e whol e of t h e do c u m e nt s i gn e d by t h e Co m m i ss i on e rs ,

and not only t h e fi nd i ngs wh i c h s u m m ar i z e th e i r c on c l u s i ons

 A R G U M E N TA TI O/V . 29 7

n us
. t b e r e ad and a c c e p t e d as th e i r v e rd i c t c on c e rn i n g t h e
n att e rs r e f e rr e d to th e i r d e c i s i on .

“
T h e fi nd i n g s a re l i ttl e m or e t han a s u m m ary O f t h e r e s u lts
‘

I t w h i c h t h e Co m m i ss i on ha v e arr iv e d T h e fi nd i n g s i n d e e d
l
.
, ,

f r e ad alon e a r e hardly i nt e l i g i b l e and at any rat e los e half

, ,

:h e i r i m p ort T h e word i nt i m i dat i on for e xa m pl e ad m i ts of

.
‘
,
’
,

1n d has r e c e iv e d v ar i o u s i nt e r p r e tat i ons W e u nd e rstand .

vh a t i t m e ans i n t h e fi nd i n g s only wh e n w e ha v e r e ad t h e

l
.

e s c r i p t i o n s and t h e e x a m p l e s of i t g iv e n i n t h e body of th e

Re p ort W h e n w e r e ad i n F i nd i n g N o 4 that t h e r e s pond e nts

l
.
,
.

d i d d i ss e m i nat e t h e I r i sb Wor d and oth e r n e ws p a pe rs i n c i ti ng

O t h e c o m m i ss i on of c r i m e w e hardly k now what was th e i r
’
,
,

> ff e n s e . To u nd e rstand i ts nat u r e w e m u st know othe r fa c ts

se t forth i n t h e R e p ort ; we m u st l e arn w hat styl e of p a p e r

l l
wa s t h e I r i s i Wor d and what i ts c onn e c t i on w i th t h e L e a g u e
, .

A g r e at d e al m or e a g a i n follows than t h e Parn e ll i t e s or th e i r

ll
l
En g i s h a i e s c ar e to ad m i t fro m t h e fa c t now p ro c la i m e d by
R e p ort to t h e En g l i sh s pe aki ng world that U n i ted I r e a n d
-

, l
b e e n fro m t h e fi rst t h e o ffi c i al org an of t h e L e ag u e and ,

fo u nd e d b y Mr Parn e ll M r W O B r i e n and oth e r L and

.
, . .
’

5
. B u t t h e p o i nt now i ns i st e d U p on n e e ds no l e ngthy
i on A n y r e ad e r O f i nt e ll i g e n c e w i ll soon s e e that i t i s
l
.

e R e p ort a nd not t h e fi nd i n s alon e

, g wh i c h m u st b e ,

a s t h e j u d i c i al d e c i s i on or d e l iv e ran c e of t h e C om
1
i ssio n e rs
”
.

’
N ot an al ly s fi nal O p ini on th e n but t h e e vi d e nc e by , ,

l
h ich h e r e ach e s i t i s t h e i m po r tant m att e r fo r citat ion .

Do
l l
f f tb e A rg
l
5 . n ot r e e r r om u m en t i ts e f t o tb e B r i ef .

w r i te r s b ou d be ca u s e b e b a s g i ve n e v i d e n ce f
’

n eve r, u y
b i s br i ef f , r e er t bc r ea d e r t o t b c br i e
f f o r i t Let . hi m
m e mb e r h e r e as e v e r ywh e r e i n h i s fo r e n s i c that t h e
, ,

r e n s i c an d t h e b ri e f a r e s e p arat e e ffo r t s an d r e p e at ,

1 Tb c Ver d i c t , p 7 . . D i c ey .
 A R G U M E N TA TI ON
‘
298 .

at t h e p r op e r pla c e in the fo r e n si c t h e e vi d e n c e a lr e a d y
giv e n i n t h e b ri e f .

6 . Se l ect , e v en i n Good E v i d e n ce
I n t h e chapt e r on .

Evid e nc e t h e stud e nt w a s t ol d ho w t o va l u e t h e kin d s of

e vid e nc e H e w i l l fi nd t hat aft e r h e has e xc l ud e d al l t h e
.

h a d e vi d e nc e e v e n t h e n h e m ust s e l e ct
, Wh at r e main s .

is of d i ff e r e nt val u e s Som e of it i s by it s e lf conclu s iv e

. .

O t h e r bits that w h e n al on e a r e not conc l u s iv e b e com e so

wh e n com bi n e d with two o r th r e e ot h e r s of t h e s am e so r t .

Th e r e wil l b e som e that though not b ad m ay b e e x c l u d e d , ,

'

by t h e w o r k e r b e cau s e h e has oth e r e vi d e nc e w h ich i s

l
m o r e convi ncing Wh e n han dl i ng e vi d e n c e a stu d e nt
.

w il l fi n d it conv e n i e n t t o r e m e mb e r t h e O d d i s tich ,

W he re on e
’
s p r o o f s a r e a pt l y c h o s e n
Fou r a re a s v a l id a s f ou r doz e n 1 .
”

l
N ot tbe num be r f
o tb c p f
r oo s , bu t t b e i r c on v i n ci ng n ess , is

ll
i m p or t a n t in i d en ce , w r i te r s b ou d
l
tb c m a t te r ev a nd a

a w ay s u se a s i tt e e v i d e n ce a s is con s i s t e n t w i tb p r ov i n
g
b i s p oi n t thi s m e an s h e gai n s i n fo r c e fo r as ha s
. By , ,

l
b e e n j ust l y said P roof w b i cb g oes f or n ot b i ng g oes f o r
“
, ,

2 ”
es s t b a n n otb i n Th is i s t r u b caus a k e n r a d e r
g e . e e e e ,

s e e i ng that noth ing i s gain e d by t h e p r e s e nc e of t h e

p r oof in qu e s ti o n is fo r c e d to b e l i e v e that t h e wr it e r
,

t hought it h ad va l u e wh e n it had non e o r was wi ll ing t o ,

pal m o ff as convincing e vid e nc e which w as not o r w as a ,

car e l e s s wo r km an A n y of th e s e suppos ition s wil l m ak e

.

h im s uspiciou s of t h e man an d of a ll h is w ork H e nc e .

t h e p r oof that s e e m e d ha r ml e ss has don e d e c i d e d ha r m .

Q u o t ed l
l
1 by J Q
. . A d a m s , L ec t u r es on O r a t ory , vo . I I, p 92. .

2 Tb e ory f
o P r ea c b i n g , P h e ps .
3 00 A R G U M E N TA TI O N

H e r e fo r i n st an c e i s t h e way in which P rof e s s o r D ic e y

, ,

i n his con sid e ration of t h e v e rdict O f t h e P arn e l l C omm is

s ion s hows w hy h e t hinks al l r e ad e rs should t r ust t h e
j udg e s
“
Of hon e sty of t h e thr e e j u d g e s of th e i r i nt e nt i onal
the ,

fa i rn e ss O f th e i r u n b l e m i sh e d c h a ra c t e r of th e i r j u d i c i al
l
, ,

c ap a c i ty i t i s n e e dl e ss to say anyth i n g
,
Th e i r s p e c i al q u a i fi
.

c at i ons for t h e d i s c harg e of a m ost ard u o u s tas k a r e on all

hands ad m i tt e d Th e m e ans p oss e ss e d b y th e m for a s c e r

.

tai n i ng t h e tr u th we r e str i c tly s p e a ki n g u n p a r a ll e l e d ; th e s e

, ,

m e ans w e r e s u c h as n e v e r ha v e b e e n and p robabl y n e v e r

,

ag a i n w i ll b e p oss e ss e d b y any oth e r m e n wh e th e r p ol i t i c i ans

, ,

or m ag i strat e s Si r J a m e s Hann e n and h i s c oll e ag u e s saw

.

and h e ard all t h e w i tn e ss e s who m t h e fo e s or t h e d e fe nd e rs of

t h e L e ag u e c hos e to p rod u c e ; all t h e e vi d e n c e b ro u g ht forward

was g iv e n o n oath i t was s u b j e c t e d to t h e t e st of t h e m ost

,

r i g oro u s c ross e x a m i nat i on i t was s i ft e d wi th t h e u t m ost c ar e

-

w i tho u t any r e g ard to t h e e x pe nd i t u r e e i th e r of t i m e or O f

labo r ; t h e lawye rs e m p loye d on e i th e r s i d e we r e t h e p i c k e d
m e n of t h e l e g al p rofe ss i on i n En g land and i n I r e land No .

on e s m o u th was c los e d
’
T h e o n e c i r c u m stan c e w h i c h i s
.

s u pp os e d to d e tra c t fro m t h e fa i rn e ss of o u r c r i m i nal p ro c e d u r e

—
t h e c o m p u lsory s i l e n c e of t h e a c c u s e d w a s fro m t h e
—

p e c u l i ar nat u r e of t h e i n v e st i g at i o n
g o t r i d of E v e ry r e s pond
.

e n t was at l i b e rty to a pp e ar and m a k e what e v e r stat e m e nt h e

c hos e i n d e fe n c e of h i m s e lf or of t h e asso c i at i on of wh i c h h e

was a m e m b e r T h e a pp e aran c e of so m e and t h e non ap p e ar

.
-

an c e of oth e rs am on g t h e Parn e ll i te s i n c r i m i nat e d we r e e q u ally

i nstr u c t iv e T h e non p rod u c t i on of p roof m a y b e at l e ast a s
.
-

s u g g e st iv e as i ts p rod u c t i on ; s i l e n c e m a y t e ll m or e than
s p e e c h O f t h e a m o u nt of t h e e vi d e n c e b ro u g ht b e for e t h e
.

Co m m i ss i on Co u rt so m e fa i nt c on c e p t i on m a y b e for m e d by
r e m e m b e r i ng t h at ove r 4 5 0 w i tn e ss e s we r e e x am i n e d that t h e ,

p ro c e e d i ngs i n c o u rt last e d for 1 2 8 d a ys and that t h e O f fi c i al

,
 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV .
3 01

a c c o u nt O f th e m fi lls a B l u e b ook of e l e v e n h u g e v ol u m e s
‘ ’

m ak i n g u p a
p g e s D.u r i n g a m u c h lon g e r p e r i od ,

m or e o v e r than t h e 1 2 8 days of t h e i n q u i r y t h e e ff e c t of t h e
,

e vi d e n c e was b e for e t h e m i nds O f t h e j u d e s Th y d i d not

g e .

d e l iv e r any hasty d e c i s i on ; m onths e lap s e d b e twe e n t h e c los i ng

O f t h e i n v e st i gat i on and t h e s e nd i n i n of th i r R ort If the
g e e p .

a c c o u nt g iv e n by s u c h m e n of t h e i nfe r e n c e s to b e drawn fro m

s u c h an i n q u i ry i s not to b e tr e at e d as tr u stworthy and tr u e i t ,

i s hard to say what i s t h e e vi d e n c e on wh i c h any m a n c a n

v e nt u r e to r e ly 1
”

l
.

8 . B e Co n c r e t e i n E v i d e n ce .
—
Aim a w ay s a t c on c r e t e

lll
Do
l
n es s i n tb e e v i d e n ce
g i v en . n ot fi be sa tis ed w i tb a n

a bs t r a c t s t a t e m e n t w b e n i t ca n be I n c ea r i u s t ra te d
y .

t h e cas e of t h e fo ll owing quotat ion s how m uch b e tt e r ,

than any citat ion of t h e m e r e ag r e e m e nt of s om e h isto r ian

o r g e ograph e r wit h t h e m ain t h e s i s i s t h e conc r e t e i ll u s
t r a t i o n of what t h e writ e r m e an s

“
J ohnson c a m e u p to L ondon pr e c i s e ly at t h e t i m e wh e n
t h e c ond i t i on of a m a n O f l e tt e rs was m ost m i s e rabl e and

d e g rad e d I t was a d a r k n i g ht b e twe e n two s u nny days T h e

. .

a e
g O f p atron a e
g had p ass e d away T h e a g e O f g e.n e ral
c u r i os i ty and i nt e ll i g e n c e had not arr iv e d T h e d e fi c i e n c y of .

t h e nat u ral d e m a n d for l i t e rat u r e was at t h e c los e of t h e ,

s e v e nt e e nth and at t h e b e g i nn i n g of t h e e i g ht e e nth c e ntu ry ,

m or e than m a d e u p b y art ifi c i al e n c o u rag e m e nt b y a v ast ,

syst e m of b o u n t i e s and p r e m i u m s Th e r e w a s p e rha p s n e v e r

.
, ,

a t i m e at wh i c h t h e r e wards of l i t e r a ry m e r i t we r e so s p l e nd i d ,

at wh i c h m e n who c o u ld wr i t e we ll fo u nd s u c h e asy ad m i ttan c e

i nto t h e m ost d i st i n g u i sh e d so c i e ty and to t h e h i g h e st honors
,

of t h e Stat e T h e c h i e fs of b oth t h e g r e at p art i e s i nto wh i c h

.

t h e ki n g do m w a s d ivi d e d p a tron i z e d l i t e rat u r e w i th e m u lo u s

m u n i fic e n c e . Con g r e v e wh e n h e had s c ar c e ly atta i n e d h i s

,

1 Tb c Ve r d i ct , pp 3 , 4
. . D ic ey .
3 02 A R G U M E N TA TI O /V .

l
m aj or i ty was r e ward e d for h i s fi rst c o m e dy w i th p la c e s wh i
,

m ad e h i m i nd e p e nd e nt for i f e Sm i th tho u g h h i s I f zpp o

.
,

t u s and P b a ed r a fa i l e d wo u ld hav e b e e n c onsol

,

thr e e h u ndr e d a ye ar b u t f or h i s own folly Rowe was .

only po e t lau r e at e b u t also land s u rv e yor of t h e c u sto m s i n

-

ort of L ondon c l e rk of t h e c o u n c i l to t h e Pr i n c e of W al e s
p , ,

and s e c r e tary of t h e Pr e s e ntat i ons to t h e L ord Chan c e llor .

H u g h e s was s e c r e tary to t h e Co m m i ss i ons of t h e P e a c e .

A m bros e Ph i l i p s was J u d g e of t h e Pr e ro g at iv e Co u rt i n
I r e land . L o c k e was Co m m i ss i on e r of A pp e als and of t h e
B oard of Trad e N e wton was M ast e r of t h e M i nt
. St e p n e y .

and Pr i or we r e e m p loye d i n e m b ass i e s of h i g h d i g n i ty a n d

i m portan c e G a y who c o m m e n c e d l i fe as an a pp r e nt i c e to a
.
,

s i l k m e r c e r b e c a m e a s e c re tary of l e g at i on at five and twe nt y

,
- -

It was to a po e m on t h e D e ath O f Charl e s t h e Se c ond and to ,

t h e C i ty and Co u ntry Mo u s e that Monta g u e ow e d h i s i ntro ,

d u c ti on i nto pu b l i c l i fe h i s e arldo m h i s g art e r and h i s

, , ,

a u d i torsh i p of t h e e x c h e q u e r Swi ft b u t for t h e u n c on q u e rab l e

.
,

p r e j u d i c e of t h e q u e e n wo u ld ha v e b e e n a b i sho
, p O x ford .
,

w i th h i s wh i t e sta f f i n h i s hand p ass e d thro u g h t h e c rowd of ,

h i s s u i tors to we l c o m e Parn e ll wh e n that i n g e n i o u s wr i t e r ,

d e s e rt e d t h e W h i g s St e e l e was a c o m m i ss i on e r of sta m p s
.

and a m e m b e r of Parl i a m e nt A rth u r Ma i nwar i n g was a

.

l
l
c o m m i ss i on e r of t h e c u sto m s and a u d i tor of t h e i m p r e st
,
.

T i c k e was s e c r e tary to t h e L ords J u st i c e s of I r e land A dd i .

son was Se c r e tary of Stat e 1

.
”

“
I ha v e n e v e r y e t s e e n any c hart p i c tor i al e no u g h to e nab l e
t h e s pe c tator to i m ag i n e t h e ki nd of c ontrast i n p hys i c al c har

a c t e r wh i c h e xi sts b e twe e n N orth e r n and So u th e r n c o u ntr i e s .

W e k now t h e d i ffe r e n c e s i n d e ta i l b u t w e ha v e not that broad ,

glan c e and g ras p wh i c h wo u ld e nab l e u s to f e e l th e m i n th e i r

f u ln e ss W e k now that g e nt i ans g row on t h e A l p s and O l iv e s
.
,

on t h e A pe nn i n e s ; b u t we do not e no u g h c on c e iv e for o u r
1 E s s ay s on C r ob e r
’
s
.

[i os w e lj
l ’
s ob n s o n , pp 3 5 3 , 3 5 4
. .
3 04 A R G U I / E N TA TI O/V l .

l
twi l i g ht A n d havi ng on c e tra v e rs e d i n tho u ght i ts gradat i on
.
,

of t h e z on e d i r i s of t h e e arth i n all i ts m at e r i al v astn e ss e t u s ,

o down n e ar e r to i t and wat c h t h e p arall e l c ha ng e i n t h e b e lt

g ,

of an i m al l i fe : t h e m u lt i t u d e s O f swi ft and b r i ll i ant c r e at u r e s

that g lan c e i n t h e a i r and s e a or tr e ad t h e sands of t h e ,

l
so u th e rn z o n e ; str i pe d z e b ras and s p ott e d l e o p ards g l i ste n i n g ,

s e r pe nts and b i rds arraye d i n p u r pl e and s c ar e t L e t u s

,
.

c ontrast th e i r d e l i c a c y a n d br i ll i a n c y of c olor and sw i ftn e ss of ,

m ot i on w i th t h e frost c ra m p e d str e n g th and shagg y c o v e r i n g

,
-

, ,

and d u s ky p l u m a g e of t h e north e rn tr i b e s ; c ontrast t h e

l
A rab i an hors e w i th t h e Sh e tland t h e t i ge r and l e o pard w i th ,

t h e wolf and b e ar t h e ant e lo p e w i th t h e e k t h e b i rd of

, ,

1
p arad i s e w i th t h e os p r e y .
”

’
B e e ch er 1199911
s an d t h
L iv e r p 9_o
l_
e F i rs t L e tt e.
r of 5
.

l
Juni us ill ustr a t e th roughout t h e g r e at va l u e of t h e con
\
_

l
cr e t e B ee ch e r f ol ow ed a l m o st e v e ry st at e m e nt of a
.
-

g e n e r al id e a with a co nc r e t e i l u s t r atio n of it : T h e l e tt e r
l
-

of J unius i s s imply a s e r i e s of conc r e t e e x e m p i fic a t i o n s

of t h e t r uth of t h e g e n e r al th e s is wit h n .

A i m , t b en , a t c on c r e t e n e s s o f s ta tem en t .

9 . A vo i d D i g r e s s i o n fo r e n s ic s . Some
d e nt s t r e at th e i r subj e ct s i n a way that r e m

l
of a d og out fo r a wa l k with hi s m a s t e r T h e o g c e r .

t a i n y cov e rs t h e count r y b e fo r e h e r e tu r n s hom e but h e ,

i s h e r e th e r e and e v e r ywh e r e no w at hi s m ast e r s h e e l s

, , ,
’

now ov e r t h e ston e wall now barking up a t r e e H e i s , .

dr awn off f r om t h e st raight r oad by any n e w th ing that

l
l
catch e s his e y e H e m ak e s no s e l e ct ion i n h is int e r e st s
. .

A th at h as b e e n said of t h e val u e of fi n d ing by analys is

.

j ust w hat matt e r i s e s s e nt ial to t h e cas e an d w h at is

e xt r an e ous a ll t h e r ul e s fo r gai n ing u n ity i n a bri e f t e n d
, ,

1 St on es f
o Ve n i c e, R u s ki n , vo l
. I I , pp . 1
56
—
1
5 8 . J ohn W . Lo ve l
l CO .
 A R G U M E zV TA TI O N . 3 05

p r e v e n t in w r it e r s of fo r e n sics a s im i l ar t e nd e n cy t o
v e t h e st r aight r oad to fo ll ow what e v e r i s att r act iv e
,

m ay not b e i nt imat e l y con n e ct e d with t h e s u b .

i n hand . I f a ll th e s e r u l e s a r e ca r e ful l y ob s e r v e d ,

l
fo r e n sic can not b e l oos e i n it s m ain s t r uctu r e Th e .

e o p m e n t of pa r ag r aph s sh oul d ho w e v e r b e watch e d , ,

thi s t e n d e n cy t o d ig r e s s to d e v e l op t h e wo r k l oos e l y
, ,

ea r i n t he m .

0 . Efie c t i ve M e t b od s f
o R ef u ta t i on : Tb e R ed u c t i o
bs u r d u m . Th e r e a r e th r e e oft e n u s e d m e tho ds O f
— -

ati on w hich a stu d e nt of A r gu m e ntation w i ll fi n d it

t o u nd e r stan d : t h e R ed u c t i o a d A bs u r d u m ,

m m a an d t h e M e t b od of R es i d u es
,
I n t h e fi rs t t h e .
,

e d u c t i o a d A b s u rd u m a w r it e r assu min g fo r t h e mo
, ,

’
e n t t h e t r ut h O f hi s oppon e nt s stat e m e n t Sh o w s that i t ,

ust l e a d t o ab s u rd ity that it p rov e s too m uch B e e ch e r

, .

t h e R e d uctio ad A b s u r d u m t o a ns w e r hi s a u I e n c e

s e e m e d t o favo r t h e Sout h o n t h e g r oun d t hat

h ey mu s t a lw ays s ympat hi z e with t h e w e ak e r p e op l e “
,

h e m in o r ity ; an d show e d t h e ab su rd ity of an att e mpt

”

o ca r ry out th is t h e o ry in a ll cas e s .

Y ou cann ot h e l p go i ng wi th t h e m i nor i ty who a r e str u g ,

l i n g for th e i r r i ghts ag a i nst t h e m aj or i ty N oth i ng c o u ld b e

l
.

o r e ge n e ro u s wh e n a we ak art y stands for i ts own e i t i

, p g
a t e r i ghts a a i nst i m e r i o us r i d and ow r than to sy m a
g p p e p e p ,
3 06 I E N TA TI O ZV
A R G U /V .

ag a i nst h i m t h e arm y of N orth e rn Italy who was t h e we ak e r ,

p arty th e n ? T h e tyrant and h i s m i n i ons ; and t h e m aj or i t

y
was w i th t h e no b l e Ital i an p atr i ots str u gg l i ng for l i b e rty
l
.
,

n e v e r h e ard that O d En g land s e nt d e pu tat i ons to K i n g B o m ba i

l
and y e t h i s troo p s r e s i st e d b rave ly th e r e [L a u g hte r and i nt e r
l
. i

r u p t i on ] To day t h e m aj or i ty of t h e p e o p l e of Ro m e i s w i t
.
-

Italy N oth i n g b u t Fr e n c h b ayon e ts k e e p s h e r fro m g o i n g;

.

b a c k to t h e ki n g do m of Italy to wh i c h s h e b e lon g s Do y o u
,
.

s y m p ath i z e w i th t h e m i nor i ty i n Ro m e or t h e m aj or i ty i n
Italy ? 1
”

l
l
In following f r om t h e s p e e ch on Con c i i a t i on w
t he ,

t b e A m e r i ca n Co on i es B u r k e s how e d t h e ab s u rd ity of
,

stat e m e nt W e shou ld i mpov e r i s h ou r co l on i e s i n o rd

,
“

to mak e t h e m ob e d i e nt
l
l
“
To i m p o v e r i sh t h e colon i e s i n ge n e ral and i n p a rt i c u ,

to arre st t h e nob l e c o u rs e of th e i r m ar i n e e nt e r pr i s e s w o u o ,

b e a m or e e asy task I fr e e ly c onfe ss i t W e ha v e sh

. .

d i s p os i t i on to a syst e m of th i s k i nd B u t wh e n .

s i d e r th a t w e hav e c olon i e s for no p u rpos e b u t to b e

ab l e to u s i t s e e m s to m y p oor u nd e rstand i n g a l i ttl e pr e po s
,

t e r o u s to m ak e th e m u ns e rv i c e abl e i n ord e r to k e e p th e m
2
ob e d i e nt .
”

Evid e n tly a ll that thi s m e th o d e v e r accom pl i s h e s w ,

t h e e xc e ption of t h e ca s e i n w hich but two poi nt s of V i

a r e pos sibl e that r e fut e d an d that h e ld by t h e r e f u t

,

i s to cl e a r t h e g r oun d so that t h e wr it e r can

l l
p r oof in favor of his own t h e o r y .

I b e D i em m a T h e s e con d m e t ho d is t h e D i e m m
.
—

B y thi s a w r it e r r e d uc e s hi s O ppon e nt s ca s e to an a l t e r n
’

tiv e ; shows that t h e fi r st pa r t d o e s not ho l d t r u e ; t h e r

1
M
l
d ), p
ll
Sp e c i m en s o
f A rg u m e n ta t i on ( o e r n . 1 70 .

2 P o i t i ca O r a t i on s . Ca m e ot Se r ie s, p 77
. .
3 08 A R G U /PI E N TA TI O /V .

af r e sh to t h e d i l e m m a wh i c h I hav e alr e ady pla c e d b e fore yo

e i th e r t h e an i m als wh i c h c a m e i nto e xi st e n c e on t h e fi fth d

w e r e not s u c h as thos e wh i c h a r e fo u nd at p r e s e nt a re ,

t h e d i r e c t and i m m e d i at e an c e stors of thos e wh i c h now e

[ th i s i s c ontrar y to t h e b e l i e f of thos e hold i ng t h e th e ory

]
wh i c h c as e e i th e r fr e sh c r e at i ons of wh i c h noth i ng i s sa i d , ,

a p ro c e ss of e v ol u t i on m u st ha v e o c c u rr e d ; or e ls e t h e wh
story m u st b e g iv e n u p as not only d e v o i d O f any c i r c u m s t a n
,

t i al e vi d e n c e b u t c ontrary to s u c h e v i d e n c e as e xi sts
,
1
.
”

Tb e Irf e t b od
f o th R e s i d u es
i rd m e tho d O f r e f
. u t The
ing a cas e i s t h e M e tho d of R e s idu e s A w r it e r s h o ws .

by ca r e fu l analys is wh at a r e a ll t h e possib l e th e o r i e s t hat

m ay b e h e ld i n r e ga r d t o som e d i s put e d matt e r an d th e n , ,

by e xcl ud ing o n e aft e r t h e oth e r fo r convincing r e a s on s

giv e n l e av e s hi s own th e o r y s tan d ing w it h at l e a s t a
,

2
st r on g p r e s u mptio n i n i t s favo r I t i s po s s ib l e of cou r s e .
, ,

unt i l t h e o n e r e m aini ng t h e o r y ha s b e e n s ho w n t o b e
e nt i r e l y sati s facto r y th at som e oth e r hypot h e s is n ot e t
, y
e volv e d may b e t h e co rr e ct o n e Th e r e fo r e p r oof i s u su .

al ly giv e n fo r t h e r e ason l e ft s tand ing by t h e fal l of t h e

l
oth e r th e o r i e s Pr of e s so r H ux l e y u s e d thi s M e t ho d of
.

R e sid u e s i n t h e fi r st O f h is Tb r ee L ec t u r es on E v o u t i on .

Stat ing th at so fa r a s h e kn e w but th r e e hypoth e s e s

, ,

h av e e v e r b e e n h e l d i n r e ga r d to t h e c r e ation of t h e
wo r l d b e ca r e fully e xp l ain e d e ach
, H e Sho w e d why t h e .

fi rst can not b e m aintain e d ; n e xt w hy t h e s e con d fa ll s ; ,

M
l
1 d
Sp ec i m e n s o
f A rg u m e n ta t i on ( o e rn ) , pp 7
9 8 2.
, 8 3 , .

i k s t u d n t s h o u l d d i s t i n g u is h ly
2 T h ro u g h o u t t h s boo a
e ca r e f u b e t we e n
a i
p re s u m p t o n a n d a n a s s u m p t o n i W
h e n a m a n i s s a d t o h a e a p re
. i v
i i ii
l
s u m p t o n i n h i s f a v o r , t h s m e a n s t h a t h i s p ro p o s t o n i s a s s u m ed t o b e
“

t r u e i n t h e a b s e n c e o f p r o o f t o t h e c o n t ra r
”
(H
’
s R b e t or i c , py . il .

i v va n c e s i
l
A m an m ak es an p t o n wh e n e e r h e
a ss u m a d w th o u t s u pp o r t a

s ta te m e n t, the i
t r u t h o f wh c h i s n o t g e n e r a ly d m i t t e d
a .
 l
A ec UM EN TA T/ otv . 309

an d t hu s l e ft a c l e ar way fo r hi s p r oof of t h e t r u th O f t h e
1
th e o r y of Evo l ution and a st r ong p r e sum pt ion i n it s favo r .

Sti ll anoth e r e ff e ctiv e m e thod of r e futat io n a favo r it e —

’ ’
of M acau l ay s i s t o tak e up an oppon e nt s a r gum e nt as
—

if t o r e fut e it an d th e n sho w t hat it mak e s n o t fo r but

, ,

again s t t h e O ppon e nt T hi s i s an a r gum e nt at iv e t u r n i ng

.

of t h e e n e my s fl ank
’
M acau l ay s a ss au l t on pr i m og e n i
.
’
“

t u r e il l ust r at e s hi s m an n e r of r e to r ting that t h e fact s p r ov e

e xact l y t h e Opposit e of w hat i s a ss e r t e d

‘
It i s e vi d e nt that th i s th e ory tho u g h i nt e nd e d to str e ngth e n
,

t h e fo u ndat i ons of G o v e rn m e nt alto g e th e r u ns e ttl e s th e m ,

.

D i d t h e d ivi n e and i m m u tabl e law O f p r i m oge n i t u re ad m i t

fe m al e s or e x c l u d e th e m ? O n e i th e r s u p pos i t i on half t h e ,

s o ve r e i n s o f E u ro e m u st b e u s u r e rs r i gn i ng i n d fi an of
'

g p p e e c e ,

t h e c o m m and of h e a v e n and m i g ht b e j u stly d e p os e d b y t h e

,

r ightf u l h e i rs 2
.
’

R EFU T AT I O N Is D EST R U C T I V E ,
N OT C O N ST R U C T I V E .

Th e s e e xamp l e s of r e futat ion m u s t m ak e c l e a r a Ve ry

ll
impo r tant fact t hat e v e ry stu d e nt s ho u l d r e m e m b e r .

l
Ex c ep t w b e n i t b a s bee n c o n c u s i ve y sb ow n tb a t bu t a ce r

lp l
in
l
ta num be r o
f t b e o r i es or s t a te m e n ts a re p os s i b e in re
g a rd

l
t o tb e m a tte r u n d er d i s c u s s i on , a nd a tbe os s i b e t b eo r i e s

l
bu t e s t r u c t i ve,

l
on e b a v e be e n re u ted,
f re f ut a
p t i on is u re y d

ll
a nd d oes n ot t b i ng t o be t r u e to ex i s t In a
p r o ve a ny or .

ca s e s bu t t b a t ex c e
p t e d , it m er e y f c ea rs tbe g rou n d or tb e

l
l
p r oo
f tb e re u f t e r w i s b es t o g i v e f f o tbe tru tb o b is ow n

i d ea s . I n tb e ex c e p t i o n m e n t i on e d , by s b ow i n
g tb a t a

( M o d e rn ) pp 60
1

l
Sp ec i m e n s f A rg u m e n t a t i on
l
et s e
o , .
q .

2 [Ma n u a f o E ng i s b L i t e r a t u r e p . . 1
5 0, M in to .
3 10 A R G U M E /VTA TI O/V .

l t b e o r i es e do l l
l
tb e p os s i b e bu t on n ot b o d, i t a t ea s t e s t a b
i s b es a s t ron
f g p f r es u m p t i on in a vo r o tb a t on e . So d iffi
c u lt how e v e r is it to b e su r e th at all possibl e e xpl anat ion s
, ,

l
of a ph e nom e non al l t h e th e o r i e s i n r e ga r d to it hav e
, ,

b e e n na m e d that ca r ef u w or b e rs i n A rg u m e n t a t i on
,

for e xampl e P rof e sso r H uxl e y s e e p 3 0 8

, a re , .
—

sa t i sfie d w i t b g e t t i ng , e v en f r om tb e ex c e t
p ni o n ot e d , a s

l
p r es u m
p t i on i n tb e i r f a vor , a nd g o on to p r o ve w by t b e i r
t b e o ry , tb e i r ex p a na t i on , i s t o be a cc e p t e d .

1 1 . S t u dy Em p b a s i s .
-
A ve ry i mp o r t a n t m a t t e r fa r
too oft e n n e g l e ct e d by st u d e nt s of A r gum e nt ation i s s t u dy

l
b s is,i i i tb a t
i b i
o
f em
p a s , g v n
g p ro m n e n c e t o t a t n

a r u m e n t w b i eb i t i s i m o r t a n t a r ea d e r s b o u d a nd
g p g ra s
p
r e ta i n i n m i n d T h e who l e analyt ica l p r oc e s s of s e pa r at
i n g what i s e ss e nt ial i n a t r e at m e nt of t h e ca s e in hand
f rom what i s e xt r an e ou s i s a st udy of a kin d of e m phasi s .

So t oo wh e n a stud e nt con sid e rs in p r e pa r ing hi s b r i e f

, , , ,

wh e th e r an id e a i s to b e ma d e a h e a d o r a s ub h e a d and ho w -

h e m u st a rr ang e hi s i d e as t o g e t c l imax h e agai n s tudi e s ,

e mphas is fo r what i s giv e n a m ai n posit ion what is put at

, ,

t h e e n d of a cl imax i s e m pha s i z e d I n d e e d t h e e m phasi s

, .
,

that com e s from t h e po s ition giv e n an id e a i s l a r g e l y s e tt l e d

in t h e bri e f R h e to r ic how e v e r m ay s t i ll d o mu c h to giv e
.
, ,

e mphasi s an d m ay d o it s wo rk both by t h e posit ion and

,

by t h e ph r asing it giv e s an id e a A n y col l e g e stu d e nt .

kno w s that wh e th e r an i d e a i s plac e d at t h e b e ginn ing in ,

t h e m idd l e o r at t h e e n d of a s e nt e nc e o r pa r ag r aph
, it s
pos it ion in r e l at ion to oth e r w o rd s m ay aff e ct e m phasi s —
.

H e knows too that t h e v e r y ph r a s ing of an i d e a that

, , ,

r e it e r at ion of it can m ak e it p rom in e nt d i ff i cul t to forg e t

, , .

A n y and all d e vi c e s that h e kn ows fo r givin g e mphasi s h e

3 12 A R G U M E N TA TI O /V .

A va u a ll b e m ea n s o f i m p r e s s i ng on a r ea d er tb e t r u t b s a

w r i t e r w i s b es b i m t o f a cce p t as
p r o ve d i s tb e u se o sum

m a r i es A t t h e e n d of a d ivis ion which has b e e n l ong

.
,

invo l v e d t e c h ni cal o r fo r any r e aso n n ot e asy t o g r asp a

, , ,

w r it e r sum s up t h e sign ifi canc e of what h e has b e e n say

ing H e giv e s an out l in e i n a s u ccinct fo rm l ik e ly to stay
.

i n a r e ad e r s m ind an d th u s e mpha s i z e s what h e wish e s

’

to hav e r e m e mb e r e d B u r k e w as a m ast e r of t h e su m .

l l
m a r y T h e fol lo w in g e xampl e s O f h i s u s e O f it i n hi s
.

sp e e ch o n Co n c i i a t i o n w i tb t b e A m e r i ca n Co on i es Show
how e ff e ctiv e an aid t o cl e a r n e s s and fo r c e t h e summary
can b e .

Th e n s i r fro m th e s e s ix c a p i tal so u r c e s : of d e s c e nt ; of
, ,

for m O f g o v e rn m e nt ; of r e l i g i on i n t h e north e rn p ro vi n c e s ; of
m ann e rs i n t h e so u th e rn ; O f e d u c at i on ; of t h e r e m ot e n e ss of

s i t u at i on fro m t h e fi rst m o v e r O f g o v e rn m e nt fro m all th e s e ,

—

c a u s e s a fi e r c e s i r i t of l i b e rty has rown I t has rown

p g up
g .

wi th t h e g rowth of t h e p e o p l e i n yo u r c olon i e s and i n c r e as e d ,

wi th t h e i n c r e as e O f th e i r we alth a s p i ri t that u nhap p i ly m e e t

l
, ,

i n g wi th an e x e r c i s e O f p owe r i n En g land wh i c h howe v e r , ,

lawfu l i s not r e c on c i lab l e to any i d e as of l i b e rty m u c h e ss

, ,

w i th t he i rs has ki ndl e d th i s fla m e that i s r e ady to c o n

,

su m e u s .
” 1

I f th e n t h e r e m o v al of t h e c a u s e s of th i s s p i r i t of A m e r i c an
, ,

l
l i b e rty b e for t h e g r e at e r p art or rath e r e nt i r e ly i m p r a c t i c a
, , ,

b e ; i f t h e i d e as of c r i m i nal p ro c e ss b e i na ppl i c abl e or i f ,

a p p l i c ab l e a r e i n t h e h i g h e st d e g r e e i n e x pe d i e nt ; what way y e t
,

r a i ns
e m ? N o wa y i s o p e n b u t t h e th i rd and last to c o m ply
,

wi th t h e A m e r i c an s p i r i t as n e c e ssary ; or i f y o u p l e as e to , ,

s u b m i t to i t as a n e c e ssary e vi l .
” 2

H e r e i s m y th i rd e x a m pl e It was atte nd e d wi th t h e s u c .

c e ss of t h e two for m e r Ch e st e r c ivi l i z e d as we ll as W al e s

.
, ,

1 P o ll i t i ca O ra t i on s . Cam e lot Se r i es, p 72

. .
2 I d em , p 82
.
 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV . 3 13

has d e m onstrat e d that fre e do m and not s e rvi t u d e i s t h e c u r e

, ,

of anar c h y ; as r e l i g i on and not ath e i s m i s t h e tr u e r e m e dy

, ,

for s u p e rst i t i on .
1
”

Si r h e r e i s t h e r e p e at e d a c knowl e dgm e nt O f p arl i a m e nt that

,

t h e c olon i e s not only g a v e b u t g a v e to sat i e ty

,
Th i s nat i on .

has for m ally a c k nowl e d g e d two th i ngs ; fi rst that t h e c olon i e s ,

had gon e b e y ond th e i r ab i l i t i e s p arl i a m e nt ha vi ng tho u g ht i t

,

n e c e ssary to r e i m b u rs e th e m ; s e c ondly that th e y had ac t e d ,

l e g ally and la u dably i n th e i r grants of m on ey and th e i r m a i n ,

t e n a n c e of troo p s s i n c e t h e c o m p e nsat i on i s e x p r e ssly g iv e n as

,

r e ward and e n c o u rag e m e nt R e ward i s not b e stowe d for a c ts

.

that a re u nlawf u l ; and e n c o u rag e m e nt i s not h e ld o u t to th i ngs

that d e s e r v e r e p re h e ns i on My r e sol u t i on th e r e for e do e s
.
, ,

noth i n g m or e than c oll e c t i nto o n e p ro p os i t i on what i s scatt e r e d

l
thro u g h yo u r j o u rnals I g iv e y o u noth i ng b u t yo u r own and
.

o u c annot r e f u s e i n t h e ross what o u ha v e so oft e n a c k n o w

y g y
e dg e d i n d e ta i l T h e ad m i ss i on of th i s wh i c h wi ll b e so
.
,

ho n orab l e to th e m and to y o u w i ll i nd e e d b e m ortal to all t h e

, , ,

m i s e rab l e stor i e s b y wh i c h t h e p ass i ons of t h e m i s g u i d e d p e o p l e

2
ha v e b e e n e n g age d i n an u nhappy syst e m .
”

H e r e i s t h e sum ma r y with w h ich J u s tic e H a rl an con

c l ud e d t h e s e con d pa r t of h i s a r gum e n t b e fo r e t h e B e h r ing
Se a T r ibunal i n P a r is i n 1 8 9 3
, ,

If I a m c orr e c t i n t h e vi e ws abo v e e x pr e ss e d t h e answe rs ,

l
l
t h e fi rst fo u r p o i nts of A rt i c l e V I sho u ld b e s u bstant i ally as .
, ,

OWS

To t b e fir s t . Pr i or to and u p to t h e t i m e of t h e c e ss i on of
as k a to t h e U n i t e d Stat e s R u ss i a d i d not ass e rt nor e x e r c i s e
,

e x c l u s iv e j u r i sd i c t i on i n B e hr i n Se a or any e x c l u s iv e
g ,

i n t h e f u r s e al fi sh e r i e s i n that s e a ou ts i d e of or d i n a ry
ria l w a te r s e x c e p t that i n t h e U k as e of 1 8 2 1 s h e d i d
,
,

t h e r i g ht to p r e v e nt for e i g n v e ss e ls f ro m a roa c h i ng
pp

ns . Cam e otl Se r ie s,
p .
9 2 .
2 I d em , p 99
. .
3 14 A R G U M E N TA TI OJV .

n e ar e r than 1 0 0 Ital i an m i l e s t h e c oasts and i slands na m e d i n

that U k as e B u t p e nd i ng t h e n e g ot i at i ons to wh i c h that
.
,

U k as e g a v e r i s e R u ss i a v ol u ntar i ly s u s p e nd e d i ts e x e c u t i on s o l
, ,

far as to d i r e c t i ts O f fi c e rs to r e str i c t th e i r s u r v e i llan c e of fore ign

v e ss e ls to t h e d i stan c e Of c annon shot fro m t h e shor e s m e n
t i o n e d and b y t h e tr e aty O f 1 8 2 4 w i th t h e U n i t e d Stat e s as
, , .

we ll as b y that of 1 8 2 5 wi th Gr e at B r i ta i n t h e a b o v e U k as e ,
;

was wi thdrawn and t h e c la i m of a u thor i ty or t h e powe r to p r o

, ,

l
h i b i t for e i gn v e ss e ls fro m a p p roa c h i n g t h e c oasts n e ar e r than J
1 0 0 I tal i an m i l e s was a b andon e d by t h e ag r e e m e nt e m b o d i e d
,

ll
l
i n thos e tre at i e s to t h e e f fe c t that t h e r e s p e c t iv e c i t i z e ns and ] .

l
l
s u b j e c ts of t h e h i g h c ontra c t i ng p art i e s sho u ld not b e t r o u b e d ‘

or m ol e st e d i n any p art of t h e G re at O c e an c o m m only c a e d

,

t h e Pa c ifi c O c e an e i th e r i n navi g at i n g t h e sa m e or i n fi sh i n g
,

th e r e i n or i n land i ng at s u c h p arts of t h e c oast as shall not ha v e

,

b e e n alr e ady o c c u p i e d i n ord e r to trad e w i th t h e nat iv e s u n d

, ,

t h e r e str i c t i ons and c ond i t i ons s p e c ifi e d i n oth e r art i c l e s

thos e tr e at i e s .

To t b c secon d G r e at B r i ta i n n e v e r r e c ogn i z e d nor c o

—

c e d e d any c la i m by R u ss i a of e x c l u s iv e j u r i sd i c t i on i n B e h

Se a nor of e x c l u s iv e r i g hts as to t h e s e al fi sh e r i e s th e r e i n
, ,

s i d e of ord i nary t e rr i tor i al wat e rs ; altho u gh s h e d i d r e c og

and c on c e d e R u ss i a s e x c l u s iv e j u r i sd i c t i on w i th i n h e r
’

t e rr i tory and s u c h j u r i sd i c ti on i ns i d e of te rr i tor i al wat e rs

,

was c ons i st e nt wi th t h e law of nat i ons .

To tb c t b i r d T h e body of wat e r now known as B e hr i

.

Se a was i n c l u d e d i n t h e p hras e Pa c ifi c O c e an as u s e d i n
’

tr e at y of 1 8 2 5 b e twe e n G r e at B r i ta i n and R u ss i a and , ,

that tr e at y R u ss i a n e i th e r h e ld nor e x e r c i s e d an y
,

i n t h e wat e rs of B e hr i n g Se a o u ts i d e of ord i nary t e rr

—

wat e rs that d i d not b e long i n t h e sam e wat e rs to oth

—

l
l
c o u ntr i e s .

To t b c f ou r tb A t h e r i g hts of R u ss i a as to ju r i s d i c t i o
.

and as to t h e s e al fi sh e r i e s i n B e hr i n g Se a e ast O f t h e wat ,

bo u ndary i n t h e tr e aty b e twe e n t h e U n i t e d Stat e s

3 16 A R G U M E N TA TI OIV .

r e e x p o rtat i on Su c h a law h e p ro c e e ds to say

.
,
’
wo u ld b e ,
‘

att e nd e d w i th t h e followi n g good c ons e q u e n c e s It wo u ld p u t .

an i m m e d i at e sto p to th e s e e x tort i ons ; i t wo u ld e nab l e t h e

p lant e r to r e tr i e v e h i s a ff a i rs by p r e v e nt i n g h i m fro m r u nn i n
g
i n d e bt e i th e r b y r e nt i n g or p u rc has i n g n e g ro e s ; i t wo u ld
,

r e nd e r s u c h r e c r u i ts l e ss n e c e ssary b y t h e r e do u b l e d c ar e h e ,

wo u ld b e obl i g e d to tak e of h i s p r e s e nt sto c k t h e p r e s e r v at i on ,

O f th e i r l iv e s and h e alth ; and lastly i t wo u ld ra i s e t h e v al u e ,

of n e gr o e s i n t h e i sland A N orth A m e r i c an p ro vi n c e b y th i s
.
,

p roh i b i t i on alon e for a f e w y e ars fro m b e i n

, g d e e p ly p l u ng e d
i n d e b t has b e c om e i nd e p e nd e nt r i c h and flo u r i sh i n g
, , , On .
’

th i s a u thor i t y of Mr L on g I r e st t h e q u e st i on wh e th e r t h e
.

p roh i b i t i on of f u rth e r i m p or t at i ons i s that rash i m p ol i t i c and , ,

c o m p l e t e ly r u i no u s m e as u r e wh i c h i t i s so c on fi d e ntl y d e c lar e d

to b e w i th r e s p e c t to o u r W e st I nd i an p lan tat i ons I do not .

,

howe v e r m e an i n th u s tre at i ng th i s bran c h of th e s u b j e c t

, , ,

ab sol u te ly to e x c l u d e t h e q u e st i on of i nd e m n ifi c at i on on t h e ,

s u ppos i ti on of poss i bl e d i sad v antag e s aff e c t i n g t h e W e st Ind i e s

thro u g h t h e ab ol i t i on of t h e sla v e trad e B u t wh e n g e ntl e m e n .

s e t u p a c la i m of c o m p e nsat i on m e r e ly on th e s e ge n e ral all e ga

t i ons wh i c h a r e all that I ha v e y e t h e ard fro m th e m I c a n

l
, ,

only answe r e t th e m p rod u c e th e i r c as e i n a d i st i n c t and

,

s p e c ifi c for m ; and i f u pon any p ra c t i c ab l e or r e asonab l e

g ro u nds i t shall c la i m c ons i d e rat i on i t w i ll th e n ,
b e t i m e

e no u g h for Parl i am e nt to d e c i d e u pon i t

1 ”
.

P it t s e e m s up to I d o n ot how e v e r to b e p r oving
,
“
, ,

that t h e abol ition of Sl av e r y coul d not hu r t t h e p l ant e r s

of t h e W e st I ndi e s I n t h e l in e s aft e r I do not how
“
.
,

”
e ve r , h e im p l i e s that h e can con c e iv e that it m ight hu r t
th e m su ff i ci e ntly for t h e m to b e j ust i fi e d i n ask ing fo r
i nd e mn ity Thi s m ak e s a r e ad e r f e e l that fo r som e
.

r e ason P itt d id not think that what s e e ms his c on cl usiv e

1 P o ll
i t i ca O r a t i on s . Cam l
e ot Se r ie s, pp . 1 4 7, 1 48 .
 A R G U M E N TA TI O /V . 317

p r oof was su c h and w e ak e n s t h e fo r c e of t h e fi r st part of

,

t h e p aragraph A l itt l e chan g e i n t h e ph r asi n g and

.

a rr ang e m e nt of t h e p arag r aph wo uld obviat e thi s d i f fi

cu l ty T h e cor r e ct o rd e r of t h e t rain of thought u nd e r
.

lying t h e pa r agraph i s t h is T h e W e st I nd ian s s ay t h e .

abol it ion of sl av e r y will r u i n t h e m ( 1 ) It m a

y cau s e .

th e m so m e l os s at t h e out s e t b u t ( 2 ) it can not ru in th e m,

and ( 3 ) m ay r e ally h e l p t h e m (4 ) A n i nd e m n ity wou. l d

m e e t satisfacto rily t h e i mm e d iat e lo s s B y sl ight l y con .

f u sing th is o r d e r P itt p r odu c e s t h e e f f e ct of qua l ifi cat ion .

W e r e t h e i d e as t r e at e d st r ict l y i n this o r d e r and fo r m t h e

Wb e n a w r i t e r i s t e m p t ed
ll
qual ifi cat ion woul d d i sapp e a r .

t o qu a if y , et bim fi nd
( ) j
I ust w b a t i t i s b e i s t ry i ng t o

l
i n t b c d i v i s i on ,
l
p r o ve a nd tb en ( )
2 w b e tb e r b i s e vi d en ce is
b is i d en ce i s i n s nfi
l
e
q ua to n ee d s . If b i s ev i ci en t, et bim

l
fi fi
l l
n d n e w e v i d e n ce s u ci en t y s t r on o r cba n b i s p r op os i
y g , g c

l l
l pp
t i on t o s om e tb i n
g b i s or i
g i na ev i d e n ce w i p r o ve tr u e .

Tb e n qu a ifica t i o n w i d i sa ea r .

B e M a s ter
lan d
13 .
f
o tb e
j Su b
r e a d e r of t h e ec t . Any
fo r e n s ic on L o rd B e a c o n s fie d t h e Ea s t e rn Q u e s

t ion ( p 1 8 2 ) m u s t s e e what a ba d e ff e ct i s p r oduc e d

.

wh e n a w r it e r i s e vi d e ntly not mast e r of hi s subj e ct .

T h e work i s not on ly u n convin cing b u t al s o i r ritat ing .

Fo r a writ e r n ot to b e m ast e r of h i s sub j e ct m e an s l oos e ,

u n u n i fie d work ful l of co nt rad ict ion s

, q ualifi cation s and , ,

fallaci e s To b e m ast e r of i t m e an s good st r uctu r e a

'

.
,

c l e ar fo rcibl e d e v e l opm e nt of t h e m at e r i al f r e e f r om
, ,

fal laci e s and an ai r of su r e n e ss t hat will m ak e t h e

,

a u d i e n c e t rust t h e sp e ak e r o r writ e r fro m t h e o u t s e t t hat ,

will h av e a p e r suas iv e fo r c e of it s own C on stant q uota .

tion s e rio u s ly i nt e rf e r e s with any att e m pt to p rodu c e t h e

e ff e ct of mast e ry of t h e s u bj e ct Th e y show an un d i
“
.
3 18 A R G U M E N TA TI OIV .

g e st e d kn ow l e dg e Th e y los e t h e p ow e r of p e r sona l ity

. .

Th e y daub t h e w e l l w i th unt e m p e r e d m ortar H e r e i s .

t h e n e e d of b r oad an d g e nuin e cult u r e L e a r n t o s tudy .

fo r t h e s ak e of t r uth l e a r n to t h ink fo r t h e profit and j oy

,

of t h inking Th e n yo u r s e rmon shal l b e l ik e t h e l e aping

.

1 ”
of a fountai n and n ot t h e pum pin g of a pump St udy .

t ob e ab l e to m e e t yo u r oppon e nt bol dly doing ful l j u s ti c e ,

l l
to t h e cas e h e can m ak e o u t fo r h im s e lf and y e t o v e r c o m ,

ing him D e ve op y ou r w b o e c a s e i n s u cb a w ay t b a t f r om
l
l l
.

ll
tb c beg i n n i ng t o t b c en d a r ea de r or b ea r e r w i f ee , Tb i s
”
m a n is c om p e te y m a s te r o f bis s u b ec t
j .

l
Fi t t b e Tr e a t m en t S b o tb e D e ree o
tb c
14 .
f u
j e c t
o t g f
Kn o w edg e of i t P os s e s s e d by t b e A n d i e Tho u gh a

l
w r it e r should show that h e i s m ast e r of h ect, he

shou l d not e t th is mast e r y l e ad him i nto s c u ri t

y
that oft e n m ak e s t h e wo r k of a sp e cial ist d i f fi cu l t fo r
t h e g e n e r a l pub l ic to un d e r stan d T h e Sp e ci a l i st for g e t s .

that his audi e nc e can hav e but a s m al l part of t h e knowl

e d g e o f h is s ubj e ct wh ich h e poss e ss e s H e shar e s t h e .

f e e l ing of Low e l l “
I am apt al s o to fan c y t hat what has
l ong b e e n fam il ia r t o my own m in d m ust b e e q ual ly ‘

t h e m in d s O f oth e rs and thi s u nco m fo rtabl e su sp

,
11

mak e s m e Sh y of i n sist ing o n what m a y b e al r e ady only

2 ”
too l ittl e i n n e e d of it .

A s a r e sult t h e sp e c i al ist fail s t o e xpl a i n what for h i s

aud i e nc e n e e d s e x p l anation fail s to show why c e rtai n ,

stat e m e nt s wh i c h h e mak e s m u st b e t r u e A st u d e nt .

of A r g u m e ntat ion sh oul d not fo rg e t that any man wh o

has tak e n ti m e to w rit e a car e f u l arg u m e n t o n so m e
sub j e c t i s a sp e cial i st o n that s u b j e ct as c o m par e d with
l
l
i ip ks
l l l
1 L ec t u r es on P r ea c b i ng , P h s B ro o .

2
Lo w e l , L i t e r a ry Es say s , vo . I, p . vi . H o ugh to n , M i fl i n 84 C o .
, 18
90 .
3 20 I E N TA TI O N
A R G U /V .

th e y d e v e l o p e d t h e i r argu m e nt s o r as soon as th e s e hav e

b e e n stat e d fou nd som e thing i n t h e id e as t o sti r t h e
,

e m otion s of th e i r a u d i e nc e s H e r e i s t h e way I socrat e s .

t r i e d t o a r ous e his a u d i e n c e to t h e st r ong e st e nthu s ia s m

fo r Sparta
Th e r e c o u ld b e no nobl e r c a u s e i n wh i c h to d i e th a n t h e
r s nt wh n r st wh n ry st n of arta s
l
p e e ,
e t h e p e i g e e t h e v e e xi ,
e c e S p i
thr e at e n e d E p i da u r u s Cor i nth P h i u s m a y wi tho u t r e p roac h
.
, ,

p r e f e r saf e ty to hono u r ; Sp arta c annot T h e r e p u tat i on of .

t h e c i ty o u g ht to b e as cl e ar to e v e ry Sp artan as h i s own : h e

o u g ht not to s u ffe r i t to d e s e rt t h e p ost at wh i c h o u r fath e rs

p la c e d i t . How c o u ld w e e v e r Show o u r fa c e s at O l y m p i a or

at any H e ll e n i c gath e r i ng i f w e we r e to fi nd o u r own slav e s

,

o u tsh i n i ng u s th e r e by m e ans of we alth ta k e n fro m u s ? Di p a e a ,

wh e r e a s i n g l e l i n e of s partans d e fe at e d all t h e A rg iv e s ;
Th e r m o p y lae wh e r e a tho u sand Spartans h e ld th e i r g ro u nd
,

ag a i nst t h e s e v e nty m yr i ads of P e rs i a o u g ht to t e a c h u s —

s e lf r e l i an c e now N oth i n g i s ho pe l e ss i n war It was b y

-

. .

war not p e a c e that A th e ns and Th e b e s g r e w A n d i n th i s

, ,
.

str u gg l e w e sho u ld b e st i m u lat e d b y r e m e m b e r i n g th a t all

H e llas i s wat c h i n g u s 1
.
”

I n t h e fo l lowin g from t h e Fi r s t O y n t b i a c D e m osth e n e s l

shows i n t h e s e con d parag r a p h t h e s i gnificanc e fo r hi s
, ,

aud i e nc e of his wo rd s i n t h e fi rst paragraph :

Do e s an y o n e O f y o u A th e n i ans c o m p u t e or c ons i d e r t h e
, ,

m e ans b y wh i c h Ph i l i p or i g i nally w e a k has b e c o m e g r e at ?

, , ,

Ha vi n g fi rst tak e n A m ph i pol i s th e n Pydna Pot i d a e a n e x t , , ,

M e thon e aft e rward h e i n v ad e d Th e ss a ly

,
H a vi n g ord e r e d .

m att e rs a t Ph e ra e P a g a s a e Mag n e s i a e v e r y wh e r e e x a c tly as

, , ,

h e p l e as e d h e d e p art e d for Thr a c e ; wh e r e aft e r d i s p l a c i n g

, ,

so m e ki ng s and e stab l i sh i n g oth e rs h e f e ll s i c k ; ag a i n r e c o v ,

1
A tt i c O r a t or s , vo l
. I I , pp . 2 00 , 2 0 1 ,
R C . . J ebb .
e r i n g h e lap s e d not i nto i ndol e n c e b u t i nstantly atta c ke d t h e
, ,

O lynth i ans I o m i t h i s e x p e d i t i ons to I llyr i a and Pa e on i a

.
,

that ag a i nst A r y m b a s and so m e oth e rs ,

.

“
W h y i t m a y b e sa i d do y o u m e nt i on all th i s now ? That
, ,

y ou ,
A th e n i ans m a
y f e e l and u nd e rstand b oth t h e folly of
,

c ont i n u ally ab andon i n g o n e th i n g aft e r anoth e r and t h e ,

a c t ivi t y wh i c h for m s p art of Ph i l i p s hab i t and e xi ste n c e ’

,

wh i c h m a k e s i t i m poss i b l e for h i m to r e st c ont e nt w i th h i s

l
a c h i e v e m e nts If i t b e h i s p r i n c i pl e e v e r to do m or e than
.
,

h e has don e and yo u rs to app ly yo u rs e lf v i g o u ro u s y to

, ,

noth i ng s e e what t h e e n d p ro m i s e s to b e H e a v e ns "wh i c h

, .

of y o u i s so s i m p l e as not to know that t h e war yond e r w i ll ,

soon b h r e i f e
e e w a r e
, c ar e l e ss ? A n d Sho u ld th i s ha p pe n I ,

fe ar O A th e n i ans that as m e n who tho u g htl e ssly borrow on

, ,

large i nt e r e st afte r a br i e f a c c o m m odat i on los e th e i r e stat e so

, , ,

w i ll i t b e wi th u s ; fo u nd to ha v e p a i d d e ar for o u r i dl e n e ss
and s e lf i nd u l g e n c e w e shall b e r e d u c e d to m any hard and u n
-

p l e asant sh i fts and str u

g gl,e for t h e sal v at i on of o u r c o u ntry .
” 1

H e n r y Wa rd B e e ch e r w as v e r y s ki ll fu l i n so s tating hi s
i d e as h is conc l us i on s as t o m ak e th e m no t on l y co nvin e
, ,

ing but p e r suasiv e H e r e i s an e xt ract f r om t h e sp e e ch

.

at Liv e r poo l which sho w s thi s ski ll

,

for a m o m e nt hav e th e y [t h e So u th e rn l e ad e rs ]
N e ve r

g iv e n u
p t h e p lan of S p r e ad i n g t h e A m e r i c an i nst i t u t i ons as ,

th e y c all th e m stra i g ht thro u g h toward t h e W e st u nt i l t h e

, ,

sla v e who has wash e d h i s fe e t i n t h e A tlant i c Shall b e c arr i e d

, ,

l
to w ash th e m i n t h e Pa c ifi c Th e r e I I hav e g o t that stat e m ent .

ou t ,
and y o u c annot p u t i t b ac k N o w e t u s c ons i d e r t h e .
,

p ros p e c t If t h e So u th b e c o m e s a Sla v e e m p i r e what r e lat i on

. ,

w i ll i t hav e to y o u as a c u sto m e r It wo u ld b e an e m p i r e of
twe l v e m i ll i ons O f p e o p l e N o w of th e s e e i g ht m i ll i ons a r e
.
, ,

wh i t e and fo u r m i ll i ons b l a c k Cons i d e r th a t o n e th i rd of t h e

,
.
-

1 De m os t b e n es p 4 1 , , . K e n ne dy . H
’
a rp e r s C li li
a ss ca L b ra ry .
 A R G Ufl/ E A TA TI OIV
’
3 22 .

whol e a r e t h e m i s e rably p oor u nb u yi n g bla c ks Y o u do n o t ,

.

m an u fa c t u r e m u c h for th e m Y o u h a v e not g o t m a c h i n e r y
.

c oars e e no u g h Yo u r lab or i s too Ski ll e d b y far to m a n u f a c

.

t u r e b ag g i ng and l i ns e y wools ey ( A So u th e rn e r : W e a r e
—
.
‘

g o i n g to fr e e th e m e v e ry ,
Th e n you and I a g r e e

e x a c tly .O n e oth e r th i rd c ons i sts of a p oor u ns ki ll e d , ,

d e g rad e d wh i t e p o pu lat i on ; and t h e r e m a i n i ng O n e th i rd -

wh i c h i s a larg e allowan c e w e wi ll say i nt e ll i g e nt and r i c h

, , .

“
N ow h e r e a r e twe l v e m i ll i on of p e o pl e and only o n e th i rd ,
-

of th e m a r e c u sto m e rs that c a n aff ord to b u y t h e

1
that y o u b r i n g to m ark e t .
”

l
Stu d y of t h e s e il l u st r at ion s w i ll ho w
l
S

va ue m ay be g i v en t o a rg u m e n t s e i t b e r by a d i r ec t app e a ,
s u g e s t e d by t b e m , t o t b e e m o t i o n s , or by p o i n t i ng o u t o r
g

ll
es t i n s ig n fi b c i d e a s a d va n c e d w b i c b ,
su
gg g t b a t i c a n c e of t

is i b e y to sti r tb c a u d i e n ce a c t i on
f or a ny r ea s on , to .

TH E P ER O RA T I O N : I TS I M P O RTA N C E .

The t hi rd d ivision of a fo r e n s ic that w h ich co rr e s pon d s ,

to t h e conclu sion of a bri e f i s t h e P e r o r at ion T h e w o r k , .

of t h is i s by no m e an s un important fo r i n i t a w r it e r ,

m ak e s hi s fi nal imp r e s s ion upon h i s r e a d e r an d thi s mu s t ,

b e a s st r ong as l ast ing as h e can p r oduc e

, Stu d y of
, .

b r i e fs s houl d hav e sho w n that any car e fu ll y const r uct e d

bit of a r gum e ntat i on i s a s t e ady p r e pa r at ion fo r t h e p e r o
r at ion . I t i s to t h e a r gu m e nt what t h e cl i m ax i s to t h e
story t h e fifth act to t h e play I t i s t h e r e fo r e e xt r e m e ly
, .
, ,

impo r tant that any work e r i n A r gum e ntation shoul d u n d e r

stan d what p rop e rl y i s t h e wo r k O f t h e p e r o rat ion an d
, , ,

how thi s m ay b e b e st accomp l i sh e d .

I n any l it e rary wo rk t o kn ow wh e n t o st op i s a po w e r
,

1 Spec i m e n s ( M o d e r n ) pp
'

y
c A rg u m e n t a t i on , . 1 67, 1 68 .
3 24 A R G U M E N TA TI O/V .

Thi s is the p e r orat ion of A e sch in e s

R e m e m b e r th e n that t h e c i ty whos e fat e r e sts wi th y o u

, ,

i s no al i e n Ci t y b u t yo u r own G iv e t h e p r i z e s of a m b i t i on b y
,
.

m e r i t not b y c han c e ; r e s e r v e yo u r r e w a rds for thos e whos e

,

l
m anhood i s tr u e r and whos e c h a rac t e rs a r e worth i e r ; look at

e a c h oth e r and j u d g e n o t o n y w i th yo u r e ars b u t w i th yo u r

, .

y
e e s who ,
O f y o u r n u m b e r a r e l ik e ly to s u pp ort D e m osth n
e e s ?

H i s yo u thf u l c o m p an i ons i n t h e c has e or g ym nas i u m ? N o ,

b y t h e O lym p i an Z e u s " H e has not s p e nt h i s l i f e i n h u n t i n g

or i n any h e althf u l e x e r c i s e b u t i n c u lt iv at i ng rh e tor i c to b e
,

u s e d a a i nst m e n f ro e rty Th i n k of h i boastf ln ss

g O p p s . u e ,

wh e n h e c la i m s b y h i s e m b assy to h a v e snat c h e d B y z ant i u m

, ,

o u t of t h e hands O f Ph i l i p to hav e thrown t h e A c h a rn a n i a n s

,

i nto r e v olt to ha v e aston i sh e d t h e Th e bans wi th h i s harangu e "

,

H e th i nks that y o u ha v e r e a c h e d a p o i nt O f fat u i ty at wh i c h

o u c a n b e m ad e to b e l i e v e e v e n th i s as i f yo u r f e llow c i t i z e n
y
— -

m orta l
we r e t h e G odd e ss of P e rs u as i on i nst e a d of a p e tti fogg i ng
A n d wh e n at t h e e n d of h i s Sp e e c h h e c alls as h i s
.
,

ad v o c ate s thos e who shar e d h i s b r i b e s i m ag i n e that y o u s e e

,

on th i s p l a tfor m wh e r e I now s p e ak b e for e y o u an array drawn

, ,

u p to c onfront th e i r
p r o fl i a
g y c t h e b e n e fa c tors of A th—
e ns ;
Solon who ord e r e d t h e d e m o c ra c y by h i s g lor i o u s laws t h e
, ,

p h i loso p h e r t h e g ood ,
l e g i slator e ntr e at i n g y o u w i th that
, ,

g ra vi t y wh i c h so we ll b e c a m e h i m n e v e r to s e t t h e rh e tor i c of ,

D e m osth e n e s ab o v e yo u r oaths and ab o v e t h e law ; A r i s t e i d e s ,

—
who ass e ss e d t h e tr i b u t e of t h e Confe d e ra c y and whos e ,

da u g ht e rs aft e r h i s d e ath we r e dowe r e d b y t h e Stat e

, ,
i n d ig ,
—

nant at t h e c ont u m e l y thr e at e n e d to J u st i c e and ask i n g A r e

l
, ,

Wb en
l
a sba er s i a n
m ed A r t b m i os f Z e ei a br oug b t P
lln p
y ou n ot o

d t o G r eece , a nd f bim
l
v i s i t ed A tb en s , tb er s w e

l
go ou r a -

n ut

t o d ea t b , r oc a i m ed b i m

p l
t b ou g b i c g u es t , a n d
lf
be wa s
l
l
ou r p ub p
ed ter r i tory t b a t t b c A tb en i a n s
l l l
ex e r om A tb en s , a nd f r om a

ru e ; wbi e D em os tb en es , w b o b a s n ot br oug b t us P er s i a n go d,
bu t b a s t a b en br i be s f or b i m se m a nd b a s b ep t t b em to tb i s d a y , i s
 A R G U M E N TA TI O / V . 3 25

a bou t to r ece i ve a l
g o d en w r ea t b Th e m i sto c l e s f r om y ou An d ,

and th e y who d i e d at Marathon and Plata e a a y and t h e v e ry , ,

g ra v e s of o u r for e fath e rs do y o u not th i nk that th e y w i ll u tt er

a vo i c e of lam e ntat i on i f h e who c o v e nants w i th barbar i ans to

,

Work ag ai nst G r e e c e Shall b e c rown e d ? ’

Th i s was t h e t r u e cl im ax B u t A e schi n e s f e l t t h e .

p r e s e nc e of t h e A tt ic r ul e H e m u st n ot e n d t hu s .The .

sto r m must b e laid in a fi n a l ha r mony A n d so h e pas s e d .

on t o t h e m ost t r e m e ndou s fai l u r e that e v e r fo ll o w e d SO

c l os e upon a t riumph
O Earth and Su nl i ght " O y e i nfl u e n c e s O f G oodn e ss O f ,

I nte ll ige n c e of that C u lt u r e b y wh i c h we l e arn to d i st i n g u i sh

,

th i n g s b e a u t i f u l or sha m e f u l I ha v e don e m y d u ty I hav e —

,

fi n i sh e d If t h e p art of t h e a c c u s e r has b e e n p e rfor m e d we ll

.
,

and ad e q u ate l y to t h e O ff e ns e th e n I hav e s p o k e n as I wi sh e d

, ,

—
if d e fe c t iv e ly y e t I ha v e s p o k e n as I c o u ld
,
J u d g e for .

yo u rs e l v e s fro m what has b e e n s p o k e n or fro m what has b e e n

l e ft u nsa i d and g iv e yo u r s e nt e n c e i n ac c ordan c e w i th j u st i c e
,

and wi th t h e i nt e r e sts of A th e ns 1
.
’

TH E WO R K OF C O NV I C T I O N IN TH E P ER O R A T I O N .

Th e
work that t h e P e r o r ati on m ay d o i s l ik e th at of t h e ,

t w o ot h e r pa r t s of a fo r e n si c t wofo l d I t m ay app e a l to , .

t h e r e ason ; it may app e al to t h e e m ot io n s I t s s i m p l e st .

wo rk i n c onvi ct ion is t hat call e d fo r by t h e con cl us ion

of t h e b ri e f r e ca p itu lati on of t h e a r gu m e nt
, Se c ondly .
,

it m a y am plify an d d imini sh ; that i s point o u t t h e i m ,

po r t a nc e an d t h e con clu siv e n e s s of t h e p r oof giv e n by t h e

’
writ e r t h e un i mpo r tanc e of what e v e r i n t h e O ppon e nt s
,

cas e i s l e ft u n d e st r oy e d t h e i n con clu s iv e n e s s of hi s p r oof

,

1 A t t i c O r a t or s , vo l . I I , pp 40 6, 40 7 , J e bb
. .
3 26 A R G UM E N TA TI OI V .

as a who l e T h e fi r st p e r o r at ion which fo ll o ws sho w s m e r e

.
:

l
r e capit ulation T h e q uotat ion f r om A R o m a n L a wy e r i n
.
:

j e r u s a e m giv e n on pp 2 2 1 2 2 3 i s t h e fi r st part of a ,
.
—

p e r o r ation that d im in ish e s by Showi ng t h e imp r obabil ity '

of t h e or d ina r y V i e w of J udas and ampl ifi e s by showing ; ,

’
how natu r a l t h e wr it e r s V i e w m ak e s h is cond uct .

amp l ifying part of t h e p e r o r at ion i s giv e n b e l o w .

th i rd quotat ion show s r e cap itulat ion fol l ow e d by ampl i

f y in g .

T heatt i t u d e O f t h e J e ws i n R u ss i a m a y b e s u m m e d 11
u nd e r two m a i n h e ads t h e i n j u r i e s wh i c h th e y i nfl i c t e d u p o
,
—

t h e go v e rn m e nt and u pon t h e p e o pl e Th e i r O f fe n c e s a g a
.

t h e c e ntral a u thor i ty w e r e fi nan c i ally by d e fra u d i n g i t thro

, ,

c ontra c t work and s m u gg l i n g ; so c i ally by e n c o u rag i n g ,

v e nal i ty of o ffic i als and b y form i ng no p art of t h e l i fe of

nat i on ; and p ol i t i c ally b y i ntr i g u i ng for th e i r own a d va n t
,

wi th fore i gn c o u ntr i e s and b y a c t i ng as s p i e s O n t h e

, .

hand th ey we r e not a c lass val u ab l e to t h e nat i on s i n c e

, ,

m ad e p oor sold i e rs ; s i n c e far fro m b e i ng a rt i sans th e y

, ,

m ostl y e n g ag e d i n d i shonorabl e o c c u p at i ons ; s i n c e th e y

u nl i k e ly to add to R u ss i a s i nt e ll e c t u al p rogr e ss ; and 5

’

l
th e i r m od e of l i fe was r e v olt i ng and m any we r e c r i m i nals,
.

add i t i on th e y we r e i n c re a s i n g d a n g e ro u s y
'

.
,

“
Th e i r r e lat i ons w i th t h e p e o pl e m a y b e br i e fly s u m m a r i z
T h e J e ws we r e a so u r c e of i ll h e alth to t h e Chr i st i ans
-

th e i r fi lthy hab i ts and thro u g h th e i r hab i t u al sal e of b

,

and vodb a Th e y we re not only i nstr u m e nts of c r u e l

.

s i on b u t we r e d e frau d i ng t h e Chr i st i ans of trad e

,

p ro p e rty th e i r f u t u r e lab or har v e sts and ho m e s

, , ,
.

i n p rote c t i n g i ts e lf and i ts p e opl e fro m t h e e n

t h e J e ws t h e R u ss i an g o v e rn m e nt a c t e d w i s e ly
, ,

lawf u lly s i n c e i t a u thor i z e d no p e rs e c u t i on and

, ,

who had b e e n g u i lty of i nfl i c t i n g i t .

3 28 A R G UM E / V
TA TI O/V .

C o n c e iv e w i t h m e t h a t s a d a n d s u ff e ri n g r
l
h ea t
I f t h is b e t ru e th a t L ys i a s sa ys C o n c e iv e
A las O re s t es , n ot so s a d th y f a te,
ll r
Fo r t h e e A p o o p a d o n e d , p u r i fie d
r r
T h y Fu i e s w e e a p p e a s e d , t h y p e a c e re t u rn e d ,

B u t J u d a s p e ri s h e d t o rt u re d u n t o d e a th
, ,

U n p a rd o n e d u n a pp e a s e d u n p u ri fie d
, ,
.

A n d l o n g a s C h ri s t u s s h a ll b e k n o w n o f m e n
H i s n a m e s h a ll b e a r t h e b r a n d o f i n f a m y ,

T h e c u rs e o f g e n e ra t i o n s s t i ll u n b o r n 1 ”
.

Th i s s i r i s t h e d e ta i l In o n e V i e w b e hold a nat i on o v e r
, , .
, .

wh e l m e d wi th d e b t h e r r e v e n u e s wast e d ; h e r trad e d e c l i n i ng ;
t h e a f fe c t i ons of h e r c olon i e s al i e nat e d t h e d u ty O f t h e m a g i s

trat e transfe rre d to t h e sold i e ry ; a g allant ar m y wh i c h n e v e r ,

fo u g ht u nwi ll i n g ly b u t a g a i nst th e i r f e llow s u b j e c ts m o u ld e r i n g -

away for want of t h e d i r e c t i on O f a m a n of c o m m on ab i l i t i e s

and Sp i r i t ; and i n t h e last i nstan c e t h e ad m i n i strat i on of ju s
, ,

t i c e b e c o m e od i o u s and s u s pe c t e d t o t h e whol e b ody of t h e

p pe o l e
. Th i s d e p lora b l e s c e n e ad m i ts b u t o f o n e add i t i on

that w e a re g o v e rn e d by c o u n c i ls fro m wh i c h a r e a sonab l e ,

m a n c a n e x pe c t no r e m e dy b u t p o i son no r e l i e f b u t d e ath , .

“
If b y t h e i m m e d i at e i nt e rp os i t i on of Pro vi d e n c e i t we r e
, ,

p oss i b l e for u s to e s c a e a c r i s i s so f u ll of t e rror and d e s a i r

p p ,

p ost e r i ty w i ll not b e l i e v e t h e h i stor y of t h e p r e s e nt t i m e s .

Th e y w i ll e i th e r c on c l u d e that o u r d i str e ss e s we r e i m ag i n ar y or ,

that w e had t h e g ood fort u n e to b e g o v e rn e d by m e n of a c

k nowl e d g e d i nt e g r i ty and wi sdo m Th e y w i ll n o t b e l i e v e i t
.

p oss i bl e that th e i r an c e stors c o u ld ha v e s u r viv e d or r e c o v e r e d ,

fro m so d e s p e rat e a c ond i t i on wh i l e a D u k e of G rafton was ,

Pr i m e M i n i st e r a L ord N orth Chan c e llor of t h e Ex c h e q u e r a

, ,

W e y m o u th a n d a H i lls b oro u g h Se c r e tar i e s of Stat e a G ran b y ,

Co m m and e r i n c h i e f and a Mans fi e ld c h i e f c r i m i nal j u d g e O f

- -

t h e k i n g do m
” 1’
.

1 A Ro m an L a wy e r i n j l
er u s a e m ,pp 1 4, 1 5. . W W . . St o r y.

2
Sp ec i m en s o
f A rg u m e n ta t i on ( M o d e rn ) pp 5 8 , 5 9
, . .
 I
A R G Z M E N TA TI ON 3 29

TH E WO R K OF P ER SU A SI O N IN TH E P ER O R A T I O N .

The p e r s u a siv e wo r k of t h e p e r o rat ion i s ( I ) t o t ak e

advantag e O f t h e l ast O ppo r t un ity O ff e r e d t h e wr it e r t o wi n
t h e sympathy of h is au d i e nc e fo r him s e lf o r hi s subj e ct ,

and ( 2 ) to st i r t h e pas sion s of hi s h e a r e r s I n al l t h e .

cas e s r e qu i r ing p e rs uas iv e wo rk wh ich w e r e m e nt ion e d i n

,

t r e ating t h e int r od u ct ion to a fo r e n s ic a d ul l o r t e ch nica l

—

s ubj e ct an audi e nc e that d o e s no t know t h e sp e ak e r o r i s

, ,

hos ti l e to h im o r to h is s u bj e ct e t c t h e w r it e r o r
, .
,
— -

Sp e ak e r will fi nd i n h is p e ro r at io n anoth e r goo d O pp o r t u

n it fo r concil iato r y wo r k H has a chan c e t h e r e to

y e .

S ho w ho w w e l l h e has k e pt p r om i s e s h e m ad e i n b e ginn ing ,

l
to mak e h is au d i e n c e s e e that t h o u gh t h e subj e ct i s dul l
'

o r t e ch n ical h e has don e h is b e st t o i g h t e n o r c l e a r i t

w hy t h e subj e ct i s i mpo r tant e nough fo r e v e r y m an to f e e l
r e pai d fo r t h e l abo r of att e ndin g cl os e ly t o t h e sp e e ch .

H e c a n mak e h i s au d i e n c e f e e l that th ough h e cam e b e fo r e

th e m u nknown h e has j ust ifi e d his r ight t o Sp e ak an d has ,

S hown th e m common i nt e r e st s bon d s of s ympat hy which

, ,

shoul d p r e v e nt ho st il ity t o hi m o r to hi s subj e ct I t is the .

g e n e r al r e cognition of t h e chan c e wh ich t h e p e ro r atio n

o f f e rs fo r a p p e al s t o t h e e mot ion s that has e d F ou rth of l
l
J uly o rato r s to t h ink th e i r add r e s s e s can not e n d p r op e r ly
without so m e sp r e a d e agl e outb u rst
-

t h e O d sto r y of
t h e inco r r e ct

l
app l icat ion of a co rr e ct p r in ci p l e T h e .

following l i n e s w h ich c los e t h e Fi rs t O y n t b i a c of D e mos

,

t h e n e s p e r s u ad e by showi ng t o e ach c l as s i n t h e l ist e ning

,

aud i e nc e t h e sp e cial app e al that t h e p r opos e d p l an fo r

succo r of O l ynt hu s has for i t
On all th e s e a c c o u nts th e n w e m u st u n i t e to l e nd o u r
, ,

s uc c or and dr iv e O ff t h e war yond e r ; t h e r i c h that s p e nd i n g a

, , ,
3 30 A R G U AI E N TA TI OZV .

l i ttl e for th e ab u ndan c e wh i c h th e y h a pp i ly p oss e ss th ey m a y ,

e n j oy t h e r e s i d u e i n s e c u r i ty ; t h e yo u n g that ga i n i ng m i l i tary , ,

e x p e r i e n c e i n Ph i l i p s t e rr i tory th e y m a b e c o m e r e do u btab l e
y ,

c ham p i ons to p r e s e r v e th e i r own ; t h e orators that th e y m a

y ,

p ass a g ood a c c o u nt of th e i r stat e s m ansh i

p for on t h e r e s u lt
of m e as u r e s w i ll d e p e nd yo u r j u d g m e nt of th e i r c ond u c t May .

i t for e v e ry c a u s e b e p ros p e ro u s 1 ”

l
.

The cl o s in g l in e s of t h e Fu n e r a O ra t i on by H y p e re i d e s
on t h e d e ath O f L e o s t h en e s and his f r i e nd s b e fo r e Lam ia , ,

shows d i r e ct app e al to t h e e mot ion s

It i s hard p e rhap s; to c o m fort thos e who a r e i n s u c h a
“
,

sorrow g r i e f i s not la i d to r e st b y s p e e c h or b y obs e r v an c e ;

rath e r i s i t for t h e nat u r e of t h e m o u rn e r and t h e n e arn e ss of ,

t h e lost to d e t e r m i n e t h e bo u ndar i e s of an g u i sh
, St i ll w e .
,

m u st ta k e h e art and l i g ht e n p a i n as w e m a y and r e m e m b e r

, ,

not t h e d e ath of t h e d e p art e d b u t t h e g ood nam e also that th e y

ha v e l e ft b e h i nd th e m W e o w e not t e ars to th e i r fat e b u t
.
,

rath e r g r e at p ra i s e s to th e i r d e e ds If th e y c am e n o t to old .

a g e a m ong m e n th e y ha v e g o t t h e g lory that n e v e r g rows old

, ,

and hav e b e e n m ad e bl e ss e d p e rf e c tly Thos e a m ong th e m .

'

who d i e d c h i ldl e ss shall ha v e as th e i r i nh e r i tors t h e i m m ortal

e u lo g i e s of G r e e c e and thos e O f th e m who ha ve l e ft c h i ldr e n
b e h i nd th e m ha v e b e q u e ath e d a tr u st of wh i c h th e i r c o u ntry s
’

lo ve wi ll ass u m e t h e g u ard i ansh i p Mor e than th i s i f to d i e .

,

i s to b e as tho u g h w e had n e v e r b e e n t h e n th e s e hav e p ass e d ,

away fro m s i c kn e ss a n d p a i n and fro m all t h e a c c i d e nts of

t h e e arthly l i fe ; or i f th e r e i s fe e l i n g i n t h e u m
,

i f as w e c o ri je c t u re t h e c ar e of t h e D ivi n e Powe r
, ,

i t m a y we ll b e that th e y who r e nd e r e d a i d to t h e worsh i p of

g ods i n t h e ho u r of i ts i m m i n e nt d e solat i on a r e m ost p r e c i

to that Powe r s p rov i d e n c e ’

.
” 2

1 Tb e O y ln tb i a c a nd ot b er P u l
b i c Or a t i on s o
f D em ost b en es , pp 44, 4 5
.

K y
l
C R
. . en n ed . H a rp e r B ro s .

2 A t t i c O r a t or s , vo . I I , pp 3 9 2 , 3 93 , R C
. . . J e bb .
332 I E / VTA TI OIV
A R G U /V .

top i c s m i g ht b e u s e fu l i n t h e b alan c e of a do u b tfu l c as e ; y e t ,

l
e v e n th e n I sho u ld ha v e tr u st e d to t h e hon e st h e arts of En
, g
i s h m e n to ha v e f e lt th e m w i tho u t e x c i tat i o n A t p r e s e nt t h e .
,

p la i n and r i g i d r u l e s of j u st i c e and tr u th a r e s u ffi c i e nt to e nt i tl e

1
m e to yo u r v e rd i c t
”
.

The clos e of t h e sp e e ch of Lysias Ag a i n s t E r a t os t b e n es

sho w s an appl icat ion of t h e cas e t o t h e di ff e r e nt part s of
t h e aud i e n c e s imila r t o th at O f D e mosth e n e s in t h e e xt ra c t
,

j u st giv e n I t i s how e v e r a mo r e d i r e ct app e a l to t h e

.
, ,

p a s sion s .

I wi sh b e for e I g o down to r e c all a f e w th i n g s to th e

, ,

r e c oll e c t i on of both part i e s t h e p a rty O f t h e Town and t h e

,

p arty of t h e P e i ra e u s ; i n ord e r that i n p ass i n

g s e nt e n ce, y o u ,

m a y hav e b e for e y o u as warn i n g s t h e c ala m i t i e s wh i c h h a v e ,

c o m e u p on y o u thro u g h th e s e m e n .

“
A n d y o u fi rst of t h e Town
, ,
r e fl e c t that u n d e r th e i r i ron
r u l e y o u we r e for c e d to wag e wi th b roth e rs w i th sons w i th , ,

c i t i z e ns a war of s u c h a sort that ha vi n g b e e n v an q u i sh e d ou

, , y ,

a r e t h e e q u als of t h e c on q u e rors wh e r e as had yo u c on q u e r e d

, , ,

o u wo u ld ha v e b e e n t h e sla v e s O f t h e Tyrants Th e y w o ld
y u .

ha v e g a i n e d we alth for th e i r own ho u s e s fro m t h e ad m i n i stra

t i on ; y o u ha v e i m p o v e r i sh e d yo u rs i n t h e war w i th o n e a n oth e r ;
for th e y d i d not d e i g n that y o u sho u ld thr iv e alo n g w i th th e m ,

t ho u g h th e y for c e d y o u to b e c o m e od i o u s i n th e i r c o m p any ;

s u c h b e i n g th e i r c ons u m m at e a rrog a n c e th a t i nst e ad of s e e ki n g ,

to win yo u r lo y alty b y g ivi n g y o u p artn e rsh i p i n th e i r p r i z e s ,

th e y fan c i e d th e m s e l v e s fr i e ndly i f th e y allowe d y o u a shar e of

th e i r d i shono u rs N o w t h e r e for e that y o u a r e i n s e c u r i ty ta k e
.
, , ,

v e n g e an c e to t h e u t m ost of yo u r p owe r b oth for y o u rs e l v e s and

for t h e m e n of t h e P e i ra e u s r e fl e c t i n g that th e s e m e n vi lla i ns ,

that th e y a re we r e yo u r m ast e rs b u t that n o w g ood m e n a r e

, ,

yo u r fe llow c i t i z e ns
-
yo u r f e llow sold i e rs ag a i nst t h e e n e m y
,
— -

1 Sp ec i m en s o f A rg u m e n ta t i on ( M )
o d e r n , pp . 1
5 2, 1
53 .
 A R G U M E N T/ 1 TI O/V . 333

yo r fe llow c o u ns e llors i n t h e i nt e r e st of t h e Stat e ; r e m e m b e r

u -

i n g too thos e all i e s who m th e s e m e n p ost e d on t h e a c ro p ol i s

, ,

as s e nt i n e ls o v e r th e i r d e s p ot i s m and yo u r s e rvi t u d e T 0 y o u .

—
tho u g h m u c h m or e m i g ht b e sa i d I say th i s m u c h only —
.

“
B u t y o u of t h e P e i ra e u s th i n k i n t h e fi rst p la c e O f yo u r
—
, ,

ar m s th i nk how aft e r fi g ht i n g m a ny a battl e on for e i g n so i l

, ,

o u we r e str i e d of thos e ar m s not b t h e e n e m y b ut b th s e

y pp y , y e ,

m e n i n t i m e O f p e a c e ; th i n k n e x t how y o u w e r e warn e d b y
, ,

u b l i c c r i e rs fro m t h e c i ty b q u e ath e d to o u b y o r fath rs

p e
y y u e ,

and how yo u r s u rr e nd e r was d e m and e d b y t h e c i t i e s i n wh i c h

u we r e e xi l e s R e s e nt th e s e th i n s as o u r e s e nt e d th m
y o .
g y e

i n b an i sh m e nt and r e c oll e c t at t h e sam e t i m e t h e oth e r e vi ls

, ,

t hat y o u ha v e s u f fe r e d at th e i r hands how so m e we r e

snat c h e d o u t of t h e m ar k e t pla c e or fro m t e m p l e s and p u t to a
-

V i ol e n t d e ath ; how oth e rs we r e torn fro m c h i ldr e n p ar e nts or , ,

w i fe and for c e d to b e c o m e th e i r own m u rd e r e rs nor allowe d

, ,

t h e c o m m on d e c e n c i e s of b u r i a l b y m e n who b e l i e v e d th e i r
,

own e m p i r e to b e s u r e r than t h e v e n g e an c e fro m on h i g h .

A n d y o u t h e r e m nant who e s c a p e d d e ath aft e r p e r i ls i n

, ,

m any p la c e s aft e r wand e r i n g s to m any c i t i e s and e x p u ls i on

,

fro m all b e gg ar e d of t h e n e c e ssar i e s O f l i fe p art e d fro m c h i l

, ,

dr e n l e ft i n a fath e rland wh i c h was host i l e or i n t h e land of

,

stran g e rs c a m e thro u g h m any O b sta c l e s to t h e P e i ra e u s

,
.

Dang e rs m a ny and g re at c onfront e d y o u ; b u t y o u p ro v e d

yo u rs e l v e s b rav e m e n ; y o u fr e e d so m e y o u r e stor e d oth e rs to ,

th e i r c o u ntr y .

“
Had y o u b e e n u nfortu nat e a n d m i ss e d thos e a i m s y o u ,

y o u rs e l v e s wo u ld now b e e xi l e s i n f e ar Of s u ff e r i n g what y o u
,

s u ff e r e d b e f ore O wi n g to t h e c harac t e r of th e s e m e n n e i th e r
.
,

t e m p l e s nor altars wh i c h e v e n i n t h e s i g ht of e vi l do e rs ha v e a
,
-

p rot e c t i n g vi rt u e wo u ld ,
ha v e a v a i l e d y o u a g a i nst wron g ;
wh i l e thos e of yo u r c h i ldr e n w h o a r e h e r e wo u ld ha v e b e e n
e nd u r i n g t h e o u tr a g e s of th e s e m e n and thos e who a r e i n a
,

for e i g n land i n t h e ab s e n c e of all s u c c or wo u ld for t h e

, , ,

s m all e st d e b t have b e e n e nsla v e d

,
.
334 A R G U M E N TA TI ON

I do not w i sh howe v e r to s p e ak of w hat m i g ht hav e b e e n

, , .

s e e i n g that what th e s e m e n ha v e don e i s b e yond m y p owe r to

t e ll ; and i nd e e d i t i s a task not for o n e a c c u s e r o r for two
, , , ,

b u t for a host .

l
“
Y e t i s m y i nd i g nat i on p e rfe c t for t h e t e m p l e s wh i c h th e s e
m e n bart e r e d away or d e fi e d b y e nt e r i n g th e m ; for t h e c i ty

wh i c h th ey h u m bl e d ; for t h e ars e nals w h i c h th e y d i s m antl e d ;

fo r t h e d e ad who m y o u s i n c e y o u c o u ld not r e s c u e th e m al iv e
, , ,

m u st vi nd i c at e i n th e i r d e ath A n d I th i n k that th e y a r e .

l i st e n i ng to u s and wi ll b e awar e of y o u wh e n y o u g iv e yo u r
,

v e rd i c t d e e m i n g that s u c h as ab sol v e th e s e m e n ha v e p ass e d

,

s e nte n c e u pon t b em and that s u c h as e x a c t r e tr i b u t i on fro m

,

th e s e hav e tak e n v e n g e an c e i n tb ei r na m e s .

“
I wi ll c e as e a c c u s i n g Y o u ha v e h e a rd s e e n s u ffe r e d
.
— —

y o u ha v e th e m : j u d g e
1
.
”

TH E Ex T EN T W H I C H P ER SU A SI O N A N D C O NV I C T I O N
TO

SH O U L D M I NG L E I N A P E R O R A T I O N .

T he xt e nt to which p e rsuas ion an d c onvict ion s hou

e

m ing l e i n a p e r o r ation will as i n t h e int ro d uction to ,

fo r e n s ic and i n t h e a r gu m e nt it s e lf d e p e nd on t h e n a tu r e ,

of t h e subj e ct i e w h e th e r it cal l s fo r o r p e r m it s p e r s u a
, . .
,

s ion and on t h e cond iti on s un d e r whi ch t h e Sp e e ch i s to

,

b e h e a r d o r t h e pap e r r e ad P e r orat ion s may r a n g e of .

,

cou r s e from t hos e giving only o n e of t h e fou r kin d s of

,

wo r k pos s ib l e i n a p e r o rat i on t h r ough thos e showing r e ,

capitu l at ion with amplifi cat ion an d d imi ni shing o r sho ,

ing th e s e two and som e con c i l iato r y wo r d s o r ap p e al s ,

t h e e motion s t o p e ro rat ion s s h owing al l fou r kind s

,

w o rk To con sid e r wh e n o n e should u s e p e r suasion

.
,

w hat e xt e nt and h ow o n e shou l d gain it b e l ongs 0

, , ,

cou r s e to t h e n e xt cha p t e r P e rs u a s i on
, , .

1 A tt i c Or a t or s , vo l . I , pp . 18
5
—
1 88 , R C . . J e bb .
336 A R G U M E N TA TI O ZV .

on e o r two a r gu m e nt s h e int e nd e d to u s e hav e not b e e n

t r e at e d H e t ucks t h e m in
. th e r e fo r e at t h e l ast , ,

m inut e D oubtl e ss if th e y a r e n e e d e d i t i s b e tt e r
.
, ,

fo r t h e sp e ak e r to stat e th e m than to los e th e m but ,

by p u tt ing t h e m i nt o t h e p e r o ration h e los e s t h e fi n ish

of h i s wo rk and lays hi ms e lf op e n t o a su spicion of ca r e
l e s s wo rkmanship t h r oughout his sp e e c h Th is s u s p i .

c ion m ay mak e h e a r e r s h e sitat e to t r ust h is wo r k as a

who l e Fo r t h e w r it e r who has t im e to p r e pa r e his wo r k

.

such pat ch i ng up of a poo r j ob at its e n d i s in e x c usabl e .

A n y n e e d fo r such patchin g shows that t h e a r gum e n t i s

l
i ncom pl e t e I t shoul d b e m e t by t h e i n s e r t ion of t h e
.

p r oof in q u e stion at it s p r op e r p a ee in t h e fo r e n s ic o r
sp e e ch .

b
( ) T h e w r it e r o r sp e ak e r m ay r e f e r to matt e r s as
p r ov e d i n t h e argum e nt it s e l f whi ch hav e n ot b e e n ,

t r e at e d at all Thi s u sua ll y happ e n s t hrough i n a d v e r

.

t e nc e t h e w r it e r th inking h e has t r e at e d t h e a r gum e nt

,

wh e n h e has not I n any cas e s uch a m e tho d w e ak e n s

.

t h e wo rk A r e a d e r o r h e a r e r wil l j udg e t h e w r it e r o r
.

sp e ak e r e ith e r ca r e l e s s o r unt r ustworthy an d e it h e r j udg ,

m e nt i s d i sa d vantag e ou s to t h e work e r .

3 B r e v i ty
. Wit h coll e g e stud e nt s as y e t u nt r ai n e d
.
—

in A rgum e ntat ion a favo r it e e nd ing fo r a fo r e n si c i s :

H e r e th e n a r e my a r gum e nt s
, ,
I thi nk th e r e for e that .
, ,

”
I hav e p r ov e d m y c as e Th i s i s giv e n wi th out any
.

l
r e c apit u l atio n of t h e arg u m e nt s stat e d in t h e fo r e n sic .

Such work i s too m u ch lik e that of t h e O d m ini st e r of

whom D r P h e l p s wrot e.
1
T h e m I n I s t e r a l ways p r e ach e d
.

j u st an hou r with hi s wat c h lying op e n b e fo r e h i m

,
.

Wh e n h e saw that t h e h o u r was past n o m att e r wh e r e h e ,

1 Tb c Tb e ory f
o P r ea c b i n
g , C . i
Sc r b n e r So n s , 1 8 93 .
 l
A R G U / I E /V TA TI O IV . 33 7

happ e n e d to b e i n hi s d is cou r s e h e b r ok e O ff at onc e s ay , ,

”
i n g : B r e th r e n t h e ho u r i s up
“
, L e t u s p r ay What . .

must hav e b e e n t h e fi n al i m p r e s s io n l e ft by t h e s e e d ifying

d iscou r s e s " T h e r e i s s uch a t hing t h e n as too g r e at , ,

br e vity i n a p e ro rat ion but a st u d e n t sho u l d aim to ,

accompli sh t hos e port ion s of t h e pos s ibl e wo r k of a p e r o

r at ion wh ich t h e con ditio n s of h is subj e ct s e e m t o d e man d
as b r i e fl y as h e can A cl e a r forcibl e fi na l i mp r e s sion
.
, ,

i s what h e i s t r ying t o l e av e and a l e ngthy p e ro r ation ,

i e
. . on e
,
contai ning m any n e w m att e rs fo r tho u ght o r
long involv e d stat e m e nt s of wh at has b e e n shown to b e
t ru e i s l iabl e t o d e f e at it s own e n d .

T h e fact th at t h e con d ition s u n d e r wh ich t h e sp e e ch i s

giv e n o r t h e pap e r r e a d m us t d e t e r m i n e t h e l e ngth of t h e
p e r o r at ion i s w e l l i ll ust r at e d by t h e e n d of O l iv e r C r om
w e l l s sp e e ch i n d i s solvi ng t h e F i rst Pr ot e cto rat e P a rl ia
’

m e nt .

I ha v e tro u b l e d y o u wi th a long s pe e c h ; and I b e l i e v e i t

m a y not ha v e t h e sa m e r e s e nt m e nt w i th all that i t hath w i th

so m e B u t b e c a u s e that i s u n k nown to m e I shall l e a v e i t to

.
,

God ; and c on c l u d e w i th th i s : That I th i n k m y s e lf b o u nd

—
,

as i n m y d u ty t o G o d and to t h e P e o pl e O f th e s e N at i ons for

,

th e i r safe t y and g ood i n e v e ry r e s p e c t I thi n k i t m y d u ty to ,

t e ll y o u that i t i s not for t h e p ro fi t O f th e s e N at i ons nor for ,

c o m m on and p u b l i c g ood f o r y o u to c ont i n u e h e r e any lon g e r

,
.

A n d th e r e for e I do d e c lar e u nto y o u That I do d i ssol v e th i s ,

Parl i a m e nt 1
.
”

I n it s e lf thi s s e e m s ab r upt but if a r e ad e r stud i e s t h e ,

sp e e ch it s e lf h e w i l l s e e t hat t h e p e r o rat ion is a fitt in g

,

c l os e t o it I t e m p hasi z e s by it s n e gl e ct O f any car e ful

.
,

s u mma r y of t h e a r g u m e nt s any applicat ion of t h e m to ,

1 P ll
o i t i ca O r a t i on s C a m
. l
e ot Se r ie s , p 39
. .
338 A R G U M E A’ TA TI OIV
’
.

t he aud i e nc e any e l abo r at e app e al to t h e e motion s C r o m f

, ,
’
w e ll s d e t e r m inat ion to car r y th i ngs wit h a high hand ,

l
an d h i s b e l i e f t hat h e was act i ng as a divin e ag e nt C e r .

l
t a i n y how e v e r t h e r e can b e n o do ubt t hat t h e l e ngth
, ,

and t h e involv e d s tyl e of t h e fol lo w i ng fina summ ary of

Tb e D ef e n c e of P oe sy
’
Si r P hi l ip Sid n e y s a r gum e nt , ,

d e f e at s t h e v e r y e n d fo r wh ich t h e p e r o r at ion e xist s to -

l e av e a cl e ar a n d fo r cibl e fi nal i mp r e s s ion o n t h e r e a d e r

SO that s i n c e t h e e v e r p ra i s e worthy p o e sy i s f u ll Of vi rt u e
br e e d i n g d e l i g htf u ln e ss and v o i d of no g i ft that o u g ht to b e
,

i n t h e nobl e na m e of l e arn i n g ; s i n c e t h e bla m e s la i d ag a i nst

i t a r e e i th e r fals e or fe e b l e ; s i n c e t h e c a u s e why i t i s not
e st e e m e d i n En g land i s t h e fa u lt of p o e t ap e s not p o e ts ; s i n c e -

, ,

lastly o u r ton g u e i s m ost fi t to honor p o e sy and to b e honor e d

, ,

by p o e sy ; I c on j u re y o u all that hav e had t h e e vi l l u c k to

r e ad th i s i n k wast i ng toy of m i n e e v e n i n t h e na m e of t h e N i n e
-

M u s e s no m or e to s c orn t h e sac r e d m yste r i e s Of p o e s y ; no

,

m or e to la u g h at t h e n a m e of p o e ts as tho u gh th e y we r e 11 ,

i nh e r i tors to fools ; no m or e to j e st at t h e r e ve r e nd t i tl e
‘
a r i m e r ; b u t to b e l i eve w i th A r i stotl e that th e y we r e t h e
’
, ,

an c i e nt tr e as u r e rs of t h e G r e c i ans d ivi n i ty ; to b e l i e ve wi th ’
,

B e m b u s that th e y we r e t h e fi rst b r i n g e rs i n of all c ivi l i ty to

,
-

b e l i e v e w i th Sc al i ge r that no p h i loso ph e r s p re c e pts c a n ’

, ,

l
soon e r m a k e y o u an hon e st m a n than t h e r e ad i ng of Vi rg i l ;
to b e l i e v e wi th C a u s e ru s t h e translator of Corn u t u s that i t
, , ,

p l e as e d t h e H e a v e nly D e i ty by H e s i od and Ho m e r u nd e r t h e ,

v e i l of fabl e s to g iv e u s all k nowl e d g e lo g i c r h e t o ri

, , ,

O so p hy nat u ral a n d m oral an d qu i d n on ? to b e l i e v e

, ,

that th e r e a re m any m yst e r i e s c onta i n e d i n p o e try wh i c h ,

p pu r os e w e r e wr i tt e n dar k ly l e st by p rofan e w i ts,

i t Sho u ld
ab u s e d ; to b e l i e v e wi th L and i no th a t t h e y a r e so b e lo v e d
, ,

t h e g ods that whatso e v e r th e y wr i t e p ro c e e ds of a d ivi n e f u

,

lastl y to b e l i e v e th e m s e l v e s wh e n th e y t e ll yo u th e y wi ll
, ,

o u i m m ortal b th i r v rs s
y y e e e .
3 40 A R G U M E N TA TI OZV .

mind H e nc e abov e all a p e r orat i on mu st b e c l e ar

.
, , ,

l
in thought in con st r uct ion an d i n ph r as ing
, , .

5 E.eg a n c e T h e p e r f
. e ct p-

e r o rat ion d oubt l e s s

anoth e r q ual ity e l e ganc e —
What was said ( on p 2 . .

ho w e v e r of t h e inadvi sabi l ity of att e mpt s at a

,

e xc e pt rud im e ntary e l e ganc e i n s om e kind s of wo r k

Of cou rs e b e bo rn e in m ind
, I t I s c e r tainly in .
,

cas e s e nt i r e ly saf e to work on t h e p r incipl e that an

,

’
ab r upt c l os e to on e s work i s in e l e gan t an d th e r e for e ,

i nadvisabl e ; but as has b e e n s e e n t h e e nd ing

, ,

s p e e ch of C romw e l l i n d i ssolving t h e hous e s of P ar l i

b e tt e r accompli sh e d its pu r pos e by it s e xt r e m e a
n e ss That i s t h e r e m ay b e e xc e pt ion s to t hi s r ul
.
,

m a y how e v e r b e said w i th saf e ty that in

, ,

w r it e r shoul d avoid Sp r e ad e ag l e o r ato r y ” Em pty bom -

bast what e v e r i s un r e al c a n he v e r b e e l e gant W

, , .

too t h e fi nal summ a r y can b e on l y a l ast stat e m e nt

,

fo r m ul a O ft e n r e p e at e d i n t h e d e v e l op m e nt of t h e w
a r gum e nt an d g a In In g I n S Iz e e ach t im e that it a p p e a
,

a m e r e c hang e i n p h r as i ng n ot i n tb c o r d e r wil l oft , ,

giv e e as e to t h e fi nal fo r m ; Th e s e two rul e s ho l d i n ,

cas e s fo r What e v e r aid s s impl icity of styl e and a

,

w e a r isom e it e r ation of t h e sam e ph ras e s i s always p l e as ing .

TH E AIM OF A P ER O R A T I O N .

The u l t imat e ai m of a p e ro rat i on i s th e n to b rin g t h , ,

a r gum e nt t o a ful l and p e rf e ct clos e To t hi s e n d .

know l e dg e wh e n to sto p an e l e m e nt of t h e u n e x p e c t e
,

avoidanc e of stat e m e nts not in t h e a r gu m e nt it s e lf b r e vit ,

l
cl e arn e s s and e l e gan c e w i l l cont r i but e T h e p e r o r at i
, .

of t h e sp e e ch of D e m o sth e n e s sho w s t h e p e r f e ct b e n d i
of al l th e s e qua l iti e s :
 A R G U M E N TA TI O/V . 3 41

H e r e i s t h e p roof N o t wh e n m y e xtrad i t i on was d e

.

m a n de d not wh e n th e y so u g ht to arrai g n m e b e f or e t h e
,

A m ph i c tyon i c Co u n c i l not for all th e i r m e na c e s or th e i r O f fe rs

, ,

not wh e n th e y s e t th e s e vi lla i ns l ik e w i ld b e asts u p on m e ,

ha v e I e v e r b e e n u ntr u e to t h e loyalty I b e ar y o u Fro m t h e .

o u ts e t I c hos e t h e p at h of a stra i g htforward and r i g ht e o u s

,

stat e s m ansh i p to c h e r i sh t h e d ig n i t i e s t h e p r e rog at iv e s t h e

, , ,

g lor i e s O f m y c o u ntry : to e x alt th e m : to stand b

y th e i r c au se .

I do not go abo u t t h e m arke t p la c e rad i ant w i th j oy at m y -

c o u ntry s d i sast e rs hold i n g o u t m y hand and t e ll i n g m y g ood

’
,

n e ws to any o n e who I th i n k i s l ik e ly to r e p ort i t i n Ma c e don

,

I do not h e ar of m y c o u ntry s s u c c e ss e s w i th a sh u dd e r and a

g roan and
,
a h e ad b e nt to e arth l ik e t h e b a d m e n who
p u ll ,

A th e ns to p i e c e s as i f i n SO do i n g th e y we r e not t e ar i n g th e i r
, , ,

own r e p u tat i ons to shr e ds who t u rn th e i r fa c e s to for e i g n

,

la n ds and wh e n an al i e n has tr i u m ph e d b y t h e r u i n of t h e
, ,

G r e e k s g iv e th e i r p ra i s e s to that e x plo i t and v ow that vi g i lan c e

, ,

m u st b e u s e d to r e nd e r that tr i u m p h e t e rnal .

N e v e r Pow e rs of H e a v e n m a y any b row of t h e I m m o r

, ,

tals b e b e nt i n appro v al of that p raye r " Rath e r i f i t m a y b e , ,

br e ath e e v e n i nto th e s e m e n a b e tt e r m i nd and h e art ; b u t i f

so i t i s that to th e s e c a n c o m e no h e al i n g the n g rant that ,

th e s e and th e s e alon e m a y p e r i sh u tt e rly and e arly on land

, ,

and on t h e d e e p : and to u s t h e r e m nant s e nd t h e swi ft e st , ,

d e l iv e ran c e fro m t h e t e rrors g ath e r e d abo v e o u r h e ads s e nd ,

u s t h e sal v at i on that stands fast r t u all y

’
e
p p e .

T w o thousand y e ars hav e chall e ng e d a t rad ition wh ich

l iv e s an d wil l always l i v e wh e r e v e r th e r e i s l e ft a s e n s e
, ,

fo r t h e grand e st m us ic whi c h an e x q uis it e l anguag e cou ld

yi e l d t o a subl i m e e nth u si as m t hat wh e n D e m osth e n e s —
,

c e as e d t hos e w ho had com e f r om a l l pa r t s of Gr e e c e to

,

h e ar that d ay t h e e pitaph of t h e f r e e dom which t h e y

, ,

had l ost and a d e f e nc e of t h e honou r which t h e y cou l d

,

still l e av e to th e i r ch i ld r e n ha d l ist e n e d to t h e m a s t e r ,
3 42 A R G UM E N TA TI OIV .

p i e c e of t h e O d wo rld slo ratory p e rhap

1
s t o ’

”
the s up r e m e
achi e v e m e nt of hum an e l oqu e nc e .

SU M M A R Y .

I n a fo r e n s ic th e r e a r e th e n th r e e pa r t s co rr e spon d ing
, , ,

to t h e int roduct ion t h e bri e f p r op e r and t h e concl u s ion

, ,

of a b r i e f : nam e ly t h e int rod u ct ion t h e a r gum e nt it s e l f

, , ,

and t h e p e r o rat i on Each has a twofol d w o r k that i t m ay

.

do : i n conviction ( 2 ) in p e r suasion T h e w o r k of a
, .

l
fo r e n s ic in convict ion i s to b e accompli sh e d th r ough a
w e ll m a d e b r i e f good analys is ca r e fu s e l e ct ion of e v i
-

, ,

d e nc e and r e ga r d fo r t h e sugg e st ion s about han dl ing

,

e vid e nc e What a fo r e n sic m ay accompl i sh in p e r sua s ion

.
,

al so th is chapt e r shou l d h av e m a d e cl e a r Study i n t h e

, .

d e tai l s by wh ich t h e se p e r suas iv e r e s u l t s m ay b e attain e d

b e l ongs how e v e r t o t h e n e xt chapt e r on P e r sua s ion
, , , .

1 A tt i c O r a t or s , vo l
. I I , pp 4 1 6 4 1 8 , R C
.
—
. . J e bb .
3 44 A R G U /WE N TA TI ON .

anoth e r s a r g u m e nt s and y e t lon g fo r m e d hab its an d pr e ju

’

,
-

l
dic e s tho u gh w e ak e n e d fo r a m om e nt by t h e cog e n cy of
,
’

t h e s e cond m an s arg u m e nts will r e ass e rt t h e m s e v ,

wh e n t h e arg u e r i s gon e and r e n d e r hi s wo rds r e sul

,

A gain st p r e j u d i c e an d l ong ac q u i r e d habits t h e -

of convict ion oft e n fi nd th e m s e lv e s fut il e and ,

l
only in t h e u s e of p e rsuas ion Tb e m e t b od s of c .

tb en , i m t o p r od u c e on y a g r e e m e n t , i n t b e r e a d e r
a
q

lf
w i t b t b c w r i t e r or spe a b e r ; t b e m e t b o d s of p e rs u a s i on at

to r od u c e a c t i o n a s a t s u cb a r eem e n t
p r es u o
g .

TH E F I EL D OF P ER SU A SI O N .

'

Wh e n a m an t ri e s t o rous e h i s f e ll ow m e n to action -

m a y b e of c ou rs e t o a S ingl e act o r t o a s e r i e s of act

, ,

e v e n t o form ing a habit Ev i d e ntly i t Shou ld b e m u

.

'

e asi e r t o p e r suad e a m a n t o a singl e act than to a

of act s I t i s e asi e r to g e t t h e d r u nkard to fo r e go

.

part i cul a r glas s of l i q uor than to l e ad h i m t o r e n oun c e

gl as s e s O f l i q uo r SO w e l l r e cogn i z e d i s t his that t h
.

who hav e charg e of t h e moral s of t h e p e opl e t ry fi r st t

p roduc e on l y t h e s i ngl e b e n e fi c i al a c tio n and th e n b , ,

oft r e p e at e d a ppe al s a n d arg u m e nt s st r iv e to m a i n t a i

l
-

th e m i n t h e right p at h I t i s a so e as i e r t o
.

p e o pl e to cont i nu e c ond u c t to whi c h th e y hav

a c cu sto m e d t o m aintai n habit s al r e ady fo r m e d than it
, ,

to p e rsuad e th e m to e nti r e ly n e w act s and e ith e r i s e a s ,

than to d is s u ad e th e m t o giv e u p ol d habits Y e t .

th r e e of th e s e a r e wo rk that b e l ongs t o P e rsuas i on .

woul d s e e m th e n t hat s i n c e p e rs u as i on is so i m p o rtant

, ,

m att e r i n A rg u m e ntat i on and has wo rk to d o th at vari ,

d e c id e dly i n d i f fi culty th e r e sh oul d b e so m e rul e s

,
 A R G U M E N TA TI OIV . 3 45

g u id e a stud e nt Y
. e t though ,
t h e rul e s of C onviction
w il l hol d good wh e r e v e r rat io n al b e i n gs a r e m e t m e n ,

di f f e r so wid e l y on t h e e mot ional an d t h e e th ica l s i d e s O f

t h e i r natu r e s —
tho s e wit h which P e r s uas io n con c e r n s
i t self—
th at as t h e r e ad e r wil l s e e i t i s i mpos s ib l e to
, ,

g iv e ha rd and fast r u l e s fo r p e r suas io n I f h ow e v e r

. a , ,

stud e nt cons i d e rs from what sou rc e s p e rs uasiv e e ff e ct s

m a y b e d e r i v e d h e wi l l b e ab l e t o gat h e r s om e s u g g e s
,

t ion s fo r h i s guid anc e T h e l a s t chapt e r has t old h i m

.

wh e n h e n e e d s p e r suasion I f h e knows wh e nc e h e can

.

g ain p e rsuasion h
, e can th e n stu d y how mu ch t o u s e an d
h o w to e m ploy what h e u s e s t h e t w o m o s t d i f ficul t
—

matt e rs i n P e r suasion .

TH E SO U R C ES OF P ER SU A SI O N .

Th e m e ans by whi ch a w r it e r o r sp e ak e r aim s to p r o ‘

u c e act io n i n h i s audi e n c e i s t o d e fi n e b r oadly b y

— —

in g sympathy fo r him s e l f o r hi s s ub j e ct u s u ally fo r ,

l
Th i s gy m p agi y g a y b e d e riv e d f r om fou r so u r c e s
r e o f t h e su bj e ct i fS
-

e f t h e rh e to r ical t r e at m e nt

t h e appl icatio n of t h e subj e ct t o the aud i e nc e

i on ; an d p e rsonal q ua l it i e s of t h e sp e ak e r o r

P ER SU A SI O N A R I SI NG FR O M T H E N A TU R E OF TH E SU BJ EC T .

A p opul ar to p ic , O f c o u rs e , fro m i ts v e ry n at u r e win s

l
m
y p a t h y at t h e o u t s e t fo r a writ e r o r sp e ak e r Th is .

u a rit
y m ay c o m e from e it h e r of two s ou r c e s b e cau s e

aud i e n c e is n ot p r e j ud ic e d e ith e r way in r e ga rd to it

i s e ag e r to know al m ost anythin g about it o r b e caus e ,

sub j e ct O f f e rs at t h e outs e t a p r e su mpt ion I n it s o wn

3 46 A R G U M E N TA TI O IV .

favo r Wh e n a man t r e at s a popu l a r s ubj e ct e ve ry b o

.
,

is wil l ing to l ist e n r e ady t o ai d him wit h i nt e r e s t a

,

applaus e A m an w ho kn ows hi s subj e ct and h as

.

e nt e r t aining and in st r uctiv e ad dr e ss to d e l iv e r on

topic ta l ks o r writ e s u nd e r t h e e asi e s t con d it ions W

, ,
.

a l ong acc e pt e d th e o r y i s attack e d h e w ho d e f e n d s it

-

a pr e sumpt io n in hi s favo r fro m t h e v e ry fact that t

th e o ry has so l ong stood unassai l e d o r succ e ssfu l again st ,

’
att acks T h e aud i e n c e sha r e s i n t h e sp e ak e r s o r wr it e
.

b e l i e f what e ve r i t m ay b e and th e y wil l b e tho r ough l y

, ,

sympathy with his att e mpt t o ov e r th ro w thos

him . T h e posit i on of a ll t ho s e m e n w ho at
tim e s h av e d e f e n d e d l ong acc e pt e d Vi e ws again s t
-

h e r e t ics in r e l ig i on an d s ci e nc e i ll ust r at e s t h e pe r ,

va l u e of a sub j e c t that giv e s at t h e out s e t a p r e s u m pt i o

i n favo r of t h e sp e ak e r o r wr it e r .

P E R S U A SI O N A R I SI NG FR O M TH E R H ET O R I CA L T R EAT M EN T
TH E SU B J EC T .

Ev e n t h e r h e to r ica l t r e at m e nt that a wr it e r giv e s

wo r k m ay hav e p e r s uas iv e va l u e fo r it may win o r r e ,

sympathy What has al r e ady b e e n s ai d ( p 2 74 ) of t

. .

d ang e r th e r e som e t im e s i s i n s tati ng at t h e b e ginning

an argum e nt t h e th e si s t o b e p r ov e d t r u e and ( p 2 76) , .

aiming i n all cas e s at e l e gan c e Shows thi s T h e r e a d , .

knows t hat u n d e r c e rtain condition s e ith e r of t h e s e

r e p e l sympathy fo r t h e wr it e r o r fo r hi s subj e ct .

rul e how e v e r what e v e r giv e s c l e a r n e s s and fo r c e to

, ,

m e nt at ion n ot on l y p r odu c e s i n t h e h e a r e r o r
r e adin e ss to acc e pt t h e id e as thu s c l e a rl y an d
stat e d bu t a ls o w in s s ympathy fo r t h e a r gu e r by
,
3 48 A R G U M E N TA TI OJV .

p r oc e s s of p r oof h e f e e l s wil l b e fo r t h e m a motiv

act ion ; o r h e m ay sti r th e i r e mot ion s so st r on gl y
,

som e thing h e s ays about t h e to p i c that t h e y w i l l s e e k

fo r t h e i r e mot ion in act ion an d follow w i ll i ngly h i s
d ing D e mosth e n e s and B e e ch e r did t h e fi rst
. Hy
e id e s and I s a e u s t h e s e cond Evid e ntly th e n h e .
, ,

wish e s to b e p e rsuas iv e mu st kn ow what mot iv e s fo r co

d uct e xist am ong human b e ings .

TH E V A R I ET Y IN M O T I V ES . T H EI R G R A D ES .

Th is i s how e v e r no e asy matt e r fo r t h e i r n am e

, , ,

l e gion T h e ill u st rat ion s al r e ady giv e n app e al e d to t

.

fo ll owing mot iv e s : lov e of c o u nt ry ; e as i e r l abo r i n 0

cas e than i n anoth e r ; d e s i r e fo r a good ma r k e t fo r m ,

factu r e s ; l ov e of fai r pl ay e t c Lov e of and p r id e , .

,

’ ’
on e s s e lf on e s fa m ily c ity stat e count r y ; so c ial
, ; , ,

pol it ica l amb it ion ; avaric e ang e r hat r e d f e ar cha r ita , , , ,

n e s s ; i nt e r e st in e d ucation l it e ratu r e o r t h e fin e ,

a d m i rat ion of cou r ag e p e rs e v e ranc e cool n e s s ,

t , ,
—

a r e all possibl e m otiv e s c au s e s fo r act ion Tb c , , .

l
r ea s on , i b e n , w by t b c s tu d
y f
o m ot i ves i n m a nb i n d i s
cu t i s tb e i r num be r
. A s e c on d r e a s on ba s a
pp ea r e d

as tb e t es t a bove w a s na m ed —
tba t m o t i ve s a re n ot a

tbc sa m e ra n b .

Suppos e that a man is i nd uc e d to buy a lot of land ,

b e cau s e h e h as any r e al u s e fo r it b u t b e cau s e h e kn ,

that a man h e d isl ik e s st rongly wish e s to buy it H e .

ha r dly car e to say m u ch about that mot iv e Su p pos e .

t h e oth e r han d that h e b u ys it b e c a u s e t h e land

, ,

wr e t ch e d part of t h e city has b e e n long u s e d by poo r ,

th e n a s a pla g r ound and h e kno w s that if h e d o e

y , ,
 l
A R G U / I E /VTA TI O /V
. 3 49

buy it t h e l an d w i ll b e s o ld t o a man w ho by plac ing

, ,

bu il d ings on it w i ll d e p r iv e t h e ch il dr e n of t h e i r p l ay
,

grou nd Su ppos e that h e buys i t e v e n at s om e i n c o n

.

v e n i e n c e to hi m s e lf b e cau s e h e i s publ ic spirit e d an d fon d

,
-

of ch il d re n Will not his own opinio n of him s e lf an d

.
,

p art icu l ar l y t h e O p in ion of h i m am ong his f e llow citi z e n s -

va r y d e cid e dly und e r t h e di f f e r i ng ci rcu mstanc e s T hat

i s t h e r e a r e grad e s in t h e motiv e s which l e a d to action
, ,

f r o m thos e whi ch r e ga r d si mply t h e goo d of t h e in d i

vi d ual th r o u gh t ho s e wh ich r e gar d t h e good O f som e c l ass
, ,

t o t hos e wh ich r e ga r d t h e good of hum an ity That asc e n d .

i ng sca l e i s r e cogni z e d i n al l C h r i st ian n at ion s C e r tain l y .

,

th e n a s tud e nt of P e r suasio n m u st know not on l y what

,

mot iv e s fo r c o nduct e xist but al so how th e y a r e g r a d e d

, .

I t i s not l ik e ly that any r e ad e r of t hi s book will sp e ak to

an aud i e nc e t hat will not grad e m ot iv e s o n t h e r ough

l
s cal e giv e n abov e t hough poss ib l y such e xist but u n f o r
, ,

t u n a t e y am ong Ch ristian p e op l e s t h e g r ading of mot iv e s

with i n t h e b r oad d ivi sion s gi v e n va r i e s g r e at l y What .

s e e m s v e r y i m po rtant t o o n e may s e e m fa r l e s s s o t o a n
oth e r Ev e n i n t h e sam e cou nt ry t h e g r ading m ay va r y
. .

F o r i n stanc e l ov e of t h e art s of l it e r at u r e of s ci e nc e i s
, , , ,

much g r e at e r in som e c it i e s t han in oth e r s A n y m an .

who has l iv e d i n t h e n e w e r W e st kn ows t hat i n som e

r e gion s t h e gr e at e st s i n i s st e al ing ho r s e s I n m any .

pla c e s t h e d e s i r e to gain m on e y do m inat e s e v e r y ot h e r

mot i v e C on s e q u e ntly a st u d e nt of P e r s uasion m ust
.
,

know not only what i n g e n e r al a r e t h e motiv e s that in

h u man b e i ngs u nd e r l i e action and what a r e t h e b r oad
gradings in t h e m r e cogni z e d by all C h ri st ian n at ion s but ,

l
l
al so what grad i ng i s O p e r at iv e in t h e pa r ticu l a r aud i e n c e
h e i s ad dr e ss ing A . thi s m ak e s P e r suasion a con sta n t
350 A R G U/ I E N TA TI O/V l .

l
study of part icu l a r cas e s inst e ad O f as in C onviction a , , ,

study O f rul e s t hat hold good fo r al l rat iona b e ings It .

must S how too why it i s i m possibl e t o giv e g e n e rally

, ,

appl icabl e rul e s fo r P e rs uas ion B r e a d tb of exp e r i e n c e

l
.
,

l
s t u dy e rs i s te n t ra c t i ce t b es e tb c es s en t i a
c on s t a n t , p p ; a re s

to f
s u cc e s s u p i n m od i
e r s u a s on
e rn t i.m e s hav e Fe w m en .

und e rstood p e r suasion b e tt e r than did Lo rd Er skin e .

T r ain e d fi rst i n t h e navy lat e r i n t h e a r my h e b e c am e a , ,

l awy e r who m ad e al l mann e r of ac q uaintan c e s at a s si z e s

in al l parts O f Engl and an d Wa l e s G ainin g thus a wid e .

l
l
r ang e of e x p e ri e nc e h e studi e d h i s f e llow m e n e n t h u
,
-

s ia st i c a and m inut e ly an d con stan tly a pl i d t h

y p e ,e

r e sul ts of his st udy O n e has only to r e ad a s p e e ch of

.

hi s to s e e that h i s e y e w as a l ways o n t h e fac e s of his

aud i e nc e H e r e an d th e r e f r om a c han g e in wording a
.
, ,

r e it e r at ion a s ud d e n d i f f e r e nt m e tho d of attack o n e

, ,

l e a r n s t hat Erskin e saw d oubt o r u n c e rtainty on t h e fac e

of so m e j u ryman and was u nwill ing to m ov e on until all
,

his h e ar e rs w e r e i n a cco r d wit h him .

H e nry Ward B e e ch e r al so was v e ry skillf u l i n p e r , ,

H e h a d m e t I n h is wid e e xp e ri e n ce al l so r t s
i ’
' '

su a sion .

an d cond ition s of m e n had l e arn e d t o r e ad th e i r ,

and figu r e s as i ndic e s O f th e i r m e ntal and m o ral p o w

.

an i m po r tant fa c ulty f or t h e m a n who wish e s to

l
s uas iv e T h i s wid e e x p e ri e n c e gav e h im a d e e p
.

of t h e c au s e s of acti on good an d bad i n hi s f e , ,

Wh e n too h e had a d i f fi cul t a u d i e n c e to m e e t

, , ,

b e fo r e h e s p ok e c ar e f u l i n q u i ri e s about its na
t r i e d to fi t h i s tr e at m e nt of h i s sub j e ct to t h e a
qu e st ion A s a r e s u l t wh e n h e had a d i f fi cul t
.
,

to m e e t h e handl e d i t t ri u m phantly as in t h e
, ,

sp e e ch .
35 2 A R G U fl/ E /V TA TI O/V .

m ay cons id e r bas e C e rtain m ot iv e s th e r e a r e a l so wh i c h

.
, ,

al l C h r istian m e n r e g ar d as high an d a r e glad to ha v e

as t h e cau s e s of th e i r act s r e l i giou s f e e l i ng ch a r ity
—
, ,

’
d e votio n to on e s count ry e t c ; but t h e g r ad i ng of t h e
, .

i nnum e r abl e mot ive s wh i c h a r e not i n stantly r e cogni z e d

as O f t h e fi r st ord e r vari e s not only i n d i ff e r e nt c o u n tr i e s ,

d iff e r e nt stat e s but e v e n in t h e sam e aud i e n c e

, One .

m an may f e e l that c ha r ity b e gin s at hom e and th at , ,

t h e r e fo r e t h e advan c e m e nt of h i s chi l d r e n is a v e ry high

,

motiv e ; t h e m an n e xt hi m m ay f e e l that ca r e of t h e poo r

of a c ity is an e v e n g r e at e r duty O n e man m a y e xalt .

h is d uty to hi s s tat e o r city abov e h i s duty to h is co un t r y ,

an d h i s n e ighbo r may f e e l that t h e cou nt r y is m o r e i m

l
po r tant than al l e l s e Sin c e th e n m e n yi e ld mo r e w il l
.
, ,

i n g y to high than to l ow m otiv e s an d si n c e u n a n I m I t y of ,

l
action i s mo r e e asi l y gain e d wh e n t h e high e st motiv e s a r e
a ddr e s s e d thi s c o r ol a r y t o t h e r u l e giv e n at t h e h e ad
,

l
l
of t h e s e ction may b e fo r mulat e d 2 Tb c a rg e r t b e . .

a u d i e n c e, tb e b i gb e r t b c m ot i ves t o w bi cb an a pp ea m ay
be m a d e .

A TH I RD SU GG EST I O N .

Wh e n a man wh o r e cogni z e s t h e t r uth of th e s e two

sugg e s tions i s con sid e r ing what m otiv e s h e c a n b e st
ap p e a l to i n t h e au d i e n c e h e i s to m e e t h e wil l ask ,
°

What i s t h e g e n e r a l habit of m ind of t h e aud i e nc e i s ,

it l ib e r al o r cons e r vat iv e r e l igiou s o r fr e e th inking e t c ?

,
-

, .

H e m ust of cou r s e in s e e king mot i v e s to wh ich h e can

, , ;

app e al avoid shocking h is h e ar e r s by what m a y s e e m to

,

th e m fli pp a n c y of t on e o r borin g t h e m by w hat to th e i r
,

l i b e ral m in d s s e e m s stupidly u np r og r e ss iv e B e e ch e r .
,

k n ow m g that i n En gl ishm e n t h e l ov e O f fai r play i s a

 A R G U M E JV TA TI ON : 353

h abit of m ind app e a l e d to t h is lov e i n t h e O p e n ing of hi s

,

Liv e r pool sp e e ch ( p I n lik e m an n e r J u n iu s i n h is

.
,

Fi rs t L e t t e r ( p stat e s at t h e b e gin ning t h e fra m e of

.

m ind towa rd t h e gov e r n ing pow e r s h abitual with m ost

En g l ish m e n an d t h e n p r oc e e d s by d e tail aft e r d e tail to
, , ,

S how how t hat f r am e of min d has b e e n i n sult e d and “

l
A s p e ak e r m ust t h e n ( 3 ) d e c i d e w b a t a r e t b c
”
abu s e d .
, ,
‘

usua b a bi t s f
o m ind o f bis a u d i e n ce .

A FO U R T H SU GG EST I O N .

I t I S not how e v e r e n ough to kno w that high m ot iv e s

, ,

m ay b e st b e app e al e d to an d to un d e r stan d what i s t h e

,

habitual fram e of m in d of t h e aud i e n c e I t i s n e c e ssa ry .

,

al so to d e c i d e what sp e cifi c m ot iv e s a r e t o b e u s e d
, .

l
Th i s m e an s that (4 ) a sp e a b e r m u s t d e t e r m i n e w b a t a r e
tbc s
p ec i a i n t e r es ts f
o b is a u d i e n ce a nd i n w b a t w ay b i s
s u b ec t
j ca n be c on n e c t e dT hi s w i tb t b em
sugg e stion i n ,

r e ga r d t o p e r suasion i s t h e mo st wid e l y u nd e r stood fo r ,

a l most e v e r y m a n knows th at a ch i e f m e an s to p e rs u as ion

i s t o Show t h e l ist e n e r t hat t h e topic touch e s s om e int e r e st

l
of h is so vital that m e r e r e cogn it io n of t h e con n e c t i o n at
on c e l e ad s to act ion D e m osth e n e s i n t h e Fi r s t O y n tb i a c
.

(p 3 )
. 2 0 point e d out t o h i s h e ar e rs t hat th e i r idl e n e ss and
s e l f i nd ulg e nc e woul d m e an ul t i m at e ly a st r u ggl e fo r t h e
-

v e ry sal vation of t h e cou nt ry B e e c h e r (p 3 2 1 ) p o int e d . .

out t o hi s Liv e r p ool au d i e n c e that fr e e dom fo r sl av e s

wo u l d m e an a b e tt e r m ark e t fo r t h e i r goo d s I n the .

fol lo w ing e xt ract from t h e sam e s p e e ch h e t ri e s to Show

that hi s aud i e n c e w e r e r e ally r e spon sibl e fo r t h e e vil th e y
con d e m n e d
“
Th e r e i s anoth e r fa c t that I wi sh to all u d e to not for t h e
sake O f r e proa c h or b la m e b u t b y w a y of c la i m i ng yo u r m or e
,
354 A R G U M E N TA TI O/V .

l e n i e nt c ons i d e rat i on and that i s that sla v e ry was e nta i l e d

—
,

u p on u s b yo u r a c t i on A g a i nst t h e e arn e st p rot e sts of t h e

y .

c olon i sts t h e th e n g o v e rn m e nt O f G r e at B r i ta i n I w i ll c o n —

c e d e not k now i n g what we r e t h e m i s c h i e fs i g norantly b u t i n —

,

p o i nt of fa c t for
,
c e d sla v e traf fi c on t h e u nw i ll i n
g c olon i sts .

[ G r e at u p roar and c onf u s i on T .h e d i st u rban c e ha vi n

g
sub side d I was go i ng to as k y o u s u ppos e a c h i ld i s born ,

w i th h e r e d i tary d i s e as e ; s u p pos e th i s d i s e as e w a s e nta i l e d

u p on h i m b y p ar e nts who had c ontra c t e d i t by th e i f own
'

m i s c ond u c t wo u ld i t b e fa i r that thos e p ar e nts that h a d b r o u g h t

,

i nto t h e world t h e d i s e as e d c h i ld sho u ld ra i l at t h e c h i ld b e c a u s e

,

i t was d i s e as e d ? [ N O , no " W o u ld not t h e c h i l d ha v e a

‘

r i g ht to t u rn ro u nd and say Fath e r i t was yo u r fa u lt that I

‘
,

had i t and y o u o u g ht to b e p l e as e d to b e p at i e nt w i th m y
,

d e fi c i e n c i e s [A ppla u s e and h i ss e s
.
’
M u c h d i st u rban c e ]
.

I do not as k that y o u sho u ld j u st ify slav e ry i n u s b e c a u s e i t ,

l
was wron g i n y o u two h u ndr e d ye ars ago ; b u t ha vi ng i g n o
ra n t b e e n t h e m e ans O f fixi n g i t u p on u s now that w e a r e
y ,

str u g g l i ng w i th m ortal str u g g l e s to fr e e o u rs e l v e s fro m it we ,

hav e a r i g ht to yo u r tol e ran c e yo u r p at i e n c e and c har i tabl e

, ,

1
c onstr u c t i ons
”
.

In the xt r act f r om t h e sp e e ch o n R e m ov i ng
fo l l owin g e

t b c Tr oops f r om B os t on C hatham sought t o p e rsua d e by

,

point i ng out to hi s au d i e nc e an un d e ni ab l e int e r e s t of

th e i rs i n t h e cas e
Th i s r e s i stan c e to yo u r arb i trary syst e m of ta x at i on m i g ht
ha v e b e e n for e s e e n I t was O b vi o u s fro m t h e nat u r e of th i n g s
.
,

and of m an ki nd ; and abo v e all fro m t h e W h i gg i sh s p i r i t

, ,

flo u r i sh i ng i n that c o u ntry T h e s p i r i t wh i c h now r e s i sts yo u r

.

ta x at i on i n A m e r i c a i s t h e sa m e wh i c h for m e rly o pp os e d loans ,

b e n e v ol e n c e s and sh i p m on e y i n En g land
,
-

t h e sa m e s p i r i t

wh i c h c all e d all Eng land on i ts l e g s and b y t h e B i ll of R i g hts ,

’

1 Speci m f
en s o A rgu m e n t a t i o n ( M o d e rn ) , pp . 1 75, 1
76 .
3 56 A R G U M E N TA TI O/V .

thi s m e thod of win n i ng t h e att e nt io n of an audi e n c e

som e what u nwil l i ng t o h e a r him b e cau s e th e y d r e ad e d h is
f e arl e s s stat e m e nt of hom e t ruths I n h is Sp e e ch e s h e .

O ft e n m ad e stat e m e nt s so p a r adoxical t hat a r e ad e r is at

onc e al e rt to s e e how anyth ing that sou nd s so absu rd o r

i mpossib l e could hav e b e e n t r u e .

“
F i rst I s a y y o u m u st not d e s pond A th e n i ans u nd e r yo u r
, , , ,

p r e s e nt c i r c u m stan c e s wr e t c h e d as
,
th e y a re for t hat wh i c h i s
worst i n th e m as r e g ards t h e p ast i s b e st for t h e f u t u r e W h a t ,
.

do I m e an ? That yo u r a ffa i rs a re a m i ss m e n O f A th e ns , ,

b e c a u s e y o u do noth i ng wh i c h i s n e e df u l ; i f notw i thst a nd i n g ,

o u p e rfor m e d y o u r d u t i e s i t w e r e t h e sa m e th e r e wo u ld b e
y , ,

no ho p e O f a m e nd m e nt 1
.
”

J un i u s al so m ad e u s e of th is m e thod Wh e n i n h i s
'

.
,

F i r s t L e t t e r aft e r a t e r ribl e a rr aign m e nt of e ach of t h e

,

ch i e f O ffic e rs of t h e G ov e rn m e nt but only by t h e na m e of ,

hi s offi c e h e th rows o ff as h e c lo s e s al l i nd i r e ct n e ss an d
, , , ,

nam e s e ach culp r it h is da r ing startl e s a r e ad e r an d sta m ps

,

’
hi s id e as in d e l ibly on t h e r e ad e r s m ind
If by the i m m e d i at e i nt e r pos i t i on of Pro vi d e n c e i t we r e ,

( ) p
b e oss i b l e for u S to e s c a p e a c r i s i s so f u ll O f t e rror and
.

d e s p a i r p ost e r i ty w i ll not b e l i e v e t h e h i story of t h e p r e s ent

,

t i m e s Th e y wi ll e i th e r c on c l u d e that o u r d i str e ss e s we r e
.

i m ag i nary or that w e had t h e good fort u n e t o b e g o v e rn e d by

,

m e n of a c knowl e d g e d i nt e g r i ty and w i sdo m T h e y wi ll n o t .

b e l i e v e i t p oss i b l e that th e i r an c e stors c o u ld ha v e s u r viv e d or ,

r e c o v e re d fro m so d e s p e rat e a c ond i t i o n wh i l e a D u k e O f ,

G rafton was Pr i m e M i n i st e r a L ord N orth Cha n c e llor of t h e

,

Ex c h e q u e r a W e y m o u th and a H i lls b oro u g h Se c r e t ari e s of

,

Stat e a G ra n b y Co m m and e r i n Ch i e f a n d a Mans fi e ld c h i e f

l
- -

, ,

c r I m I n a j u dge O f t h e ki n do m
g
2 ”
.

1 De m o s th en e s, O y l n t b i a cs a n d P bi l
pp
i i cs , p 6 1 . . Ke nn ed y .

2
Sp e c i me n s f
o A rg u m e n ta t i on ( M o d e r n ) , pp 5 8 , 5 9 . .
 TH E SEC O N D C H I E F M EA N S OF P E R SU A S I O N .

To Show an au d i e n c e how it co m po rt s wit h th e i r i nt e r

e st s to do c e rtain acts is not how e v e r t h e only m e ans of
, ,

p e r s uas i on T h
. e P u r itan d ivin e of t h e e arly col on ia l
days n ot onl y Show e d hi s aud i e n c e how it con c e rn e d th e i r
int e r e st s to b e u p right m e mb e r s of soci e ty b u t by p i c ,

tu r e s O f t h e p e rsonal t o r tu r e t h e y woul d h e r e aft e r e n d u r e

if t h e y w e r e not u p r ight t e r rifi e d any r e f ract o ry p e rson s
,

into O b e d i e n c e To day t h e l awy e r t r yi n g to con v inc e a

.
-

j u r y th at som e an a r ch i st s shoul d b e pun i sh e d fo r th r ow

i ng bombs n ot on l y poi nt s ou t how i t t ouch e s t h e i r i nt e r
,

e sts as c i t i z e n s as fath e rs th at s uch out rag e s Shou l d

, ,

c e as e but pai nt s vividly fo r t h e m t h e s c e n e of ho r ro r

,

c a u s e d by t h e bomb th rowing Each m a n t r i e s to st i r

-
.

hi s aud i e nc e to e m otion S O st ron g that i t wi ll s e e k r e l i e f

in action an d S inc e t h e act s u gg e st e d by t h e sp e ak e r i s
, ,

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p lac e d m ost vivid l y b e fo r e t h e h e ar e rs r e l i e f i n that par ,

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t i c u a r act ion A r o u s i ng t b c e m o t i o n s t b c p a s s i on s ex c i t a
.
, ,

t i on a s it is ca ed, i s , tben , a s t r on
g m ea n s of p e rs u a s i o n .

Two M EA N S OF A R O U SI NG EM O T I O N .

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, ,

e ith e r by dw e ll i ng o n m att e rs lik e ly to aro u s e t h e m i n h i s

au d i e n c e o r by showing t h e e m ot i on s hi ms e l f thu s m ak ,

i ng his audi e nc e from sy m p athy shar e t h e e m otion s with

him T h e il l u st ration s j ust gi v e n S how t h e fi r st m e th od
. .

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ill u st r at e s t h e s e cond So do e s t h e Fi r s t Or a t i on Ag a i n s t
.

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.
,

that hi s au d i e nc e sha r e d th e m w
t o do h i s bidding .
358 A R G U M E N TA TI O IV .

TH E D A NG ER OF SH O WI N G ST R O NG EM O T I O N .

Fo r p e rson s of an e mot iona l t e mp e r am e nt e xh ibition

of e m ot ion s e e m s doubtl e s s t h e e as i e s t m e tho d of p e r
s u a d i n g oth e r s but i t i s v e ry dang e r ous T h e e xp r e s
, .

s ion of st r ong e motion unl e s s t h e h e a r e r s a r e in fu ll sym ,

pathy with it has e sp e cial l y fo r a cu l t ivat e d au d i e nc e

, , ,

som e th ing a l itt l e r e p e l l e nt in it : it i s too un cont r o ll e d .

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, ,

aud i e n c e w it h him in his aban d on m e nt to his f e e l i n gs h e ,

r un s t h e r i sk of r e p e ll ing i n st e a d of att r acting M o r e .

ov e r f r e qu e nt d e p e nd e nc e o n t hi s m e thod of p e r suasion
,

w e ak e n s it s e ff e ct A n au d i e nc e s e e ing that t h e sp e ak e r
.
,

s e e m s to f e e l r e ad il y any e m otion b e gi n s to d oubt t h e ,

g e n uin e n e ss of t h e f e e l in g shown an d t o w on d e r w h e t h e r ,

it is at b e st m o r e than p e r hap s u ncon sciou s acting of a high

o rd e r I f it d e cid e s that t h e d ispl ay of e mot ion is r e a ll y
.

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but act in g t h e man s po w e r i n p e rs ua s ion is gon e A n
, .

au d i e n c e m ay ad mi r e h im as an acto r ; it w i ll n ot d o
h i s b i d ding J u s t h e r e a s tu d e nt shou ld not e this d i f fe r
.

e nc e b e tw e e n t h e a r t of t h e o r a t or a n d t h e a r t of t h e .

acto r Th e succ e s s of t h e acto r i s comp l e t e if hi s au d i

.

e n ce feel s : T hi s i s t h e p e r f e ct Simu l at ion of ang e r

“
,

”
g r i e f m i rth mi s e ry
, Fo r t h e o r ato r that j u d gm e nt i s
, .

t h e d oom of hi s p e r suas iv e w o r k H is au d i e n c e mu s t not .

f e e l : Th i s i s t h e p e rf e ct s e mb l an c e of ang e r g r i e f o r
“
, ,

m i r th it m u st not fo r an i n st an t con si d e r w h e th e r it is
o r n ot I n st e ad of that it m ust b e sw e pt out of it s s e lf
.
,

cont ro l i nto pa r ticipat ion in t h e ang e r g r i e f mi r th o r , , ,

l
mi s e r y and tak e to act ion a s a con s e qu e nc e
, Tb e ora t o .

ba s a s
p ec a i a ct in m ind as tb e en d o f b i s p e r s u a s i on tb

a c t or ba s n ot .
3 60 A R G U M E /V TA TI O /V .

t b a t m ay a r ou s e i n zb e a u d i ence
f ee l i ng s b os t i l
e to tb e en d
t b c sp e a b e r b a s i n v i e w A n y a pp e al to t h e e m ot i on s has
.
,

as was s e e n abov e a st rong e l e m e nt of t h e d ra m at i c

,

i n it A n y stud e nt of t h e stag e knows that two O f t h e

.

chi e f e ss e ntial s of d r a m at ic work a r e to stat e id e as i n t h

bri e f e s t fo rm that w i ll c onv e y t h e n e c e s sary m e an i ng a
to giv e a ll poss ibl e vividn e s s to t h e p h ras ing A .

pow e rfu l aid to b r e vity is s e l e ct ion That i s a d ra m .

,

d o e s not giv e a l l t h e d e tail s of t h e l if e O f h i s c hara c

but t e l l s h is sto ry by sh owin g only t h e mo r e p r o m in
and e s s e nt ia l f e atu r e s i n th e i r l iv e s SO too a s p e a .
, ,

o r a w r it e r wh o s e e ks to b e p e r suasiv e should i n m ak ,

any d i r e ct app e al to t h e e m ot i ons giv e only t h e e s s e n t ,

l
l
and st r iking f e at u r e s of t hat wh ich m ov e s h im o r i s w h e ,

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p ictu r e d ,t o mo v e h i s a u d i e nc e A n e x c e l l e n t.i u s t r a t o
’
of thi s sugg e st ion i s C a a p i n e s a p p e al i n Ta m bu r a i n e
hi s k e e p e r t o fle e w i th h i m
l t tho u s ee a h u n d r e d ki n g s a n d m or e
l
l
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T hen sha ,

U p o n t h ei r k e e s a b i d m e w e l c o m e h o m e
n , .

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l
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l
,

A t h o u s a n d g a ll e y s m a n n e d w i t h C h ri s t i a n s a v e s
, ,

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, ,

A n d b ri n g a r m a d o e s f r o m t h e c o a s t s o f S p a i n ,

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T h e G r e c i a n vi rg i s s h a ll a tt e n d o n t h e e
n ,

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W i th n a k e d n e g r o e s s h a ll t h y c o a c h b e d r a wn ,

A n d a s t h o u r i d s t i n t ri u m p h t h r o u g h t h e s t r e e t s
'

, ,

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-
l
W i t h T u rk e y c a rp e t s S h a l b e c o v e r e d ,

A n d c l o t h o f a rr a s h u n g a b o u t t h e w a ll s ,

Fi t O b je c t s f o r t h y p r i n c e l y e y e t o p i e r c e
A hu n dre d b a s s c o c s, l
t h d i n c ri m s o n s i k
o
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l ,
 A R G UM E N TA TI O/V . 3 61

Sh a ll ri d e b e f o re t h e e on b ar b a r i a n s tee d s

l
A n d , w h e n t h o u g o e s t , a g o d e n c a n opy
r
En c h a s d w i t h p e c i o u s s t o n e s , w h i c h s h i n e b ri g h t
l
l
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as

A s tha t f a i r ve il th a tv e r s a t h e w o rl d
co ,

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, ,

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l
l
’ °

A n d m ore t h a n t h i s f o a o t t e ll
1 ”
,
r I c a n n .

A M ET H O D OF G A I N I NG B R EV I T Y AN D V I V I D N ESS .

B oth br e vity an d vivid n e s s a re som e t im e s gain e d by

c aving a d e s cripti on in co m pl e t e o r givi ng only j u st
zn o u g h d e tail s t o s e t t h e i m aginat ion s of t h e au d i e nc e

.0 wo rk . Thi s i s v e ry e f fe ct iv e if a sp e ak e r o r w rit e r
5 s u r e that hi s aud i e nc e wi l l compl e t e t h e d e sc r ipt ion ,

i ll i n t h e d e tai l s j ust as h e d e si r e s
, Un l e s s h e can b e .

m m of th is ,
it i s natu rally a r isky m e tho d C l e a rl y it .

saf e r fo r t h e sp e ak e r who can wat ch t h e fac e s of h is

,

d i e n c e and s e e wh e th e r th e y Sh o w a r e cogn ition of t h e

s ignifi canc e of t h e i ncom p l e t e d e script ion t h e f e w ,

tail s t han it i s fo r t h e writ e r who n e v e r s e e s h is au d i

, ,

ce. A v e ry s u c c e s sf u l u s e of thi s m e tho d i s sho w n

t h e p e r oration of Lo rd Erskin e s sp e e ch in b e ha l f of
’

G e o r g e G o rdon qu ot e d p 3 3 1
, Er skin e d id n ot. .

op any a p p e al s t o t h e e m ot ion s of hi s h e a r e rs but ,

sugg e st e d t o th e i r imaginat ion s what i n t h e ca s e

don might r e ad i l y b e d e v e lop e d i nto s uch app e a l s .

l
e w f r om t h e l ook of his h e a r e rs that t h e y w e r e

nt
y in sympathy wit h h im fo r th e i r imagi n at ion s
fi l l out h i s sugg e stion s T h e advantag e s of th i s
thod w e r e point e d out on p 3 3 1 . .

1 l
Tb e O d D r a m a t i s t s , M a r l o we , p 46
. . A . D yc e . Ro u t l edge .
3 62 I E /V TA TI O/ V
A R G U /V .

TH E VA L U E IN P E R SU A S I O N OF C O N C R ET EN ESS .

l
l
Tb e g r e a t es t a i d to v i v i d n es s i n p e rs u a s i on i s c o n cr e t e n

o
f s ta tem en t . A that was
said on p 3 0 1 of t h e g .

l
valu e i n e vi d e n c e of s uch con cr e t e n e s s appl i e s
w e l l h e r e A n e cdot e s e xam p l e s analogi e s i u s t r a t
.
, , ,
l
of al l kin d s a r e i ndisp e nsab l e i n e xcitat ion This
, .

c r e t e n e s s of stat e m e nt i s a m a r k e d charact e ri st i c of
”
a ddr e s s e s of t h e gr e at r e viva l ist s of t h e last t w e
“

y e ar s A n y o n e who has e v e r h e a r d M r M oody s p

. .

knows how much of h i s pow e r l i e s in t h e e motion c a n

by h i s V ivid sto ri e s d r amat ic i l lust r ation s O f his m e a n i
,

O n e of t h e m ost e f f e ct iv e attacks of J ohn B Gough .

t h e d r ink habit was his compa r ison of it with t w o

idly fl oating i n a boat fa r abov e t h e fal l s of N ia

l
Wh e n som e o n e cal l s f r om t h e Sho r e to r e m ind th e m t
t h e rapi d s and t h e cat a r act i e b e l ow th e m th e y pay ,

att e ntion .Th e y a r e too su r e of th e i r saf e p osit io n

h e e d any such c r i e s T h e cu rr e nt how e v e r though t h
.
, ,

d o not kn ow it i s b e a r ing th e m st e a d ily to w ard t h e fal

,

Soon an oth e r c r y com e s f r om t h e bank : Look o u t ,

out t h e r apid s a r e b e l ow you

,
T h e two m e n b .
,

with chat an d l aught e r l ook up on l y t o mak e som e ,

i ng r e p l y and d r ift on N ow t h e c r y com e s m o r e sh

, .

f r om t h e sho r e an d t h e m e n s e e ing t h e anxi e ty of

,

w ho h ai l s th e m pull a l itt l e on th e i r oars but not ,

t h e i r f u l l st r e ngth fo r th e y a r e su r e t hat th e y can

,

back if th e y wi sh O nc e mo r e com e s t h e cry thi s

.
,

i n ton e s of g r e at t e rr o r T h e m e n s ta r t l e d l ook a.
, ,

t h e m : t h e y s e e t hat th e y hav e d r ift e d th e y p r e ss ,

t h e oa r s but al l i n vain
,
T h e boat sp e e d s on . .

st rugg l e m adly wast ing half th e i r st r e ngth i n t h e

, ‘
3 64 A R G U M E N TA TI O /V .

l
N ot e h o w ski ll fu ll y D e m o s t h e n e s avo i d e d thi s
l
act ion .

difl fic u t y i n t h e foll owing e xt r act f r om t h e Fi r s t P b i ipp i c ‘

H e wish e d t o m ak e hi s audi e nc e f e e l t hat P hilip o w e d hi s

s ucc e s s not so m uch t o hi s own g e niu s as to th e i r
i ndol e nc e I n o rd e r t o m ak e thi s c l e a r h e mu s t 5
.
,

how st e p by st e p P hi l ip had gai n e d h i s pow e r and

, , ,

p r opo r tion s to wh ich i t h ad g r o w n B u t h e mu st b .

his gua r d con stant l y l e st in s i s t e nc e on thi s g r o w ing g

n e ss an d va s t pow e r shou ld s o t e r r ify t h e A th e nian s
th e y shoul d s ay R e m on st r anc e i s u s e l e ss Let u s m .

t h e b e st t e r m s w e can sinc e w e hav e th r o w n a w ay

chanc e s
“
F i rst I say yo u m u st not d e s pond Ath e n i ans u nd e r yo
, , ,

p r e s e nt c i r c u m stan c e s wr e t c h e d
,
as th e y a r e for that wh i c h ,

worst i n th e m as r e g ards t h e p ast i s b e st for t h e f u t u r e

, .

do I m e an That yo u r a f fa i rs a re a m i ss m e n of ,

b e c a u s e y o u do noth i n g wh i c h i s n e e df u l ; i f n o t w i t h s t a n d i ,

y o u p e rfor m e d yo u r d u t i e s i t w e r e t h e sa m e th e r e wo u ld b e
, ,

ho p e of a m e nd m e nt .

Cons i d e r n e x t what y o u know by r e port and m e n of e x

, ,

r i e n c e r e m e m b e r ; how v ast a ow e r t h e L a c e da e m on i ans

p
not long ago y e t how nob ly and b e c o m i n g ly y o u c ons u lt e d
,

d i g n i ty of A th e ns and u nd e rt ook t h e war aga i nst th e m for

,

r ig hts of G r e e c e W y do I e nt i on th i s
. h m ?

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, , ,

b e f e ar e d noth i ng i f y o u a r e n e gl i g e nt g o e s as
, , ,

Ta k e for ex am pl e s t h e str e ng th of t h e L a c e da e m on i ans t

wh i c h y o u o v e r c a m e b y att e nt i on to yo u r d u t i e s and ,

i nsol e n c e of th i s m a n now b y w h i c h thro u g h n e g l e c t of

,

i nt e r e sts w e a r e c onfo u nd e d B u t i f any a mong y o u A t h e n i

.
,

d e e m Ph i l i p hard to b e c on q u e r e d loo ki n g at t h e m ag n i
,

h i s e xi st i n g p owe r and t h e loss b y u s of all o u r 5

,

th e y r e ason r i g htly b u t sho u ld r e fl e c t that on c e w e

, ,
 l
A R G U / I E A TA TI OA ’ ’
. 3 65

an d Pot i da e a a n d M e thon e an d all t h e r e g i on ro u nd abo u t as

o u r own and m any of t h e nat i ons now l e a u e d w i th h i m w e r e
, g
i nd e p e nd e nt an d fr e e and p r e fe rr e d o u r fr i e ndsh i p to h i s Had
, .

Ph i l i p th e n t a k e n i t i nto h i s h e ad that i t was d i ffi c u lt to c o n ,

t e nd wi th A th e ns wh e n s h e had SO m any fortr e ss e s to i nfe st

,

h i s c o u ntry and h e was d e st i t u t e of al l i e s noth i ng that h e has

, ,

a c c o m p l i sh e d wo u l d h e ha v e u nd e rta k e n and n e v e r wo u ld h e ,

ha v e a c q u i r e d so larg e a do m i n i on B u t h e saw w e ll A th e n i ans .

, ,

that all th e s e p la c e s a r e t h e o p e n p r i z e s O f war that t h e p oss e s ,

s i ons O f t h e a b s e nt nat u rally b e lon g to t h e p r e s e nt thos e of t h e ,

r e m i ss to th e m that wi ll v e nt u r e and to i l A c t i n g on s u c h p r i n
l
.

c i p e h e has won e v e ryth i n g and k e e p s i t

,
e i th e r by wa y of ,

c on q u e st or b fr i e ndly atta c h m e nt and all i an c e ; for all m e n

y ,

w i ll s i d e wi th and r e s p e c t thos e who m th e y s e e p r e p ar e d and ,

wi ll i n g to m a k e p ro p e r e x e rt i on If y o u A th e n i ans wi ll ado p t .
, ,

th i s p r i n c i p l e n o w tho u g h y o u d i d n o t b e for e and e v e ry m a n

, , ,

wh e r e h e c a n and o u g ht to g iv e h i s s e r vi c e to t h e stat e b e ,

r e ad y to g iv e i t wi tho u t ex c u s e t h e we alth y to c ontr i b u t e t h e , ,

abl e b od i ed to e nl i st ; i n a word p la i nly i f y o u wi ll b e c o m e

-

, ,

yo u r own m ast e rs and c e a s e e a c h e x pe c t i n g to do noth i ng

'

h i m s e lf wh i l e h i s n e i g hbor do e s e v e ryth i n g for h i m y o u shall

, ,

th e n wi th h e a v e n s pe r m i ss i on r e c o v e r yo u r own and g e t b a c k
’
,

what has b e e n fr i tt e r e d away and c hast i s e Ph i l i p Do not

, .

i m ag i n e that h i s e m p i r e i s e v e rlast i ng ly s e c u r e d to h i m as a
,

g o d
. Th e r e a r e who hat e and f e ar and e n vy h i m A th e n i ans , ,

e v e n a m on g thos e who s e e m m ost fr i e ndly ; and all f e e l i n g s that

a r e i n oth e r m e n b e lon g w e m a y a ss u m e to h i s c onf e d e r a t e s

l
l
, , .

B u t now th e y a r e a c owe d havi n g no r e f u g e thro u g h yo u r

,

tard i n e ss and i ndol e n c e wh i c h I say y o u m u st ab andon forth

,

wi th For y o u s e e A t h e n i a ns t h e c as e to what p i t c h of arro

.
, , ,

g an c e t h e m a n has ad v an c e d who l e a v e s y o u not e v e n t h e

,

c ho i c e O f a c t i on or i na c t i on b u t thr e at e ns and u s e s th e y say

(,
)

l
o u trag e o u s lang u ag e and u nab l e to r e st i n p oss e ss i on of h i s
, ,

c o n q u e sts c ont i n u ally w i d e ns th e i r c i r c l e a n d wh i e w e dall y

, , , .

and d e lay thro w s h i s n e t all a ro u nd u s Wh e n th e n A th e n i ans

,
.
, ,
3 66 A R G UM E N TA TI O/V .

wh e n w i ll y e a c t as b e c o m e s y o u ? I n what e v e nt ? I n that of
n e c e ss i ty I s u pp os e A n d how sho u ld w e r e gard t h e e v e nts
.

happ e n i ng now ? M e th i nks to fr e e m e n t h e stron g e st n e c e ss i ty

,

i s t h e d i s g ra c e of th e i r c ond i t i on O r t e ll m e do y e l ik e wal k .
,

i n g abo u t and as ki ng o n e anoth e r I s th e r e any n ews W h y ,

c o u ld th e r e b e g r e at e r n e ws than a m a n Of M a c e don i a s u bd u i n g

A th e n i ans and d i r e c t i n g t h e a ff a i rs of G r e e c e
,
I s Ph i l i p d e ad ?

N o b u t h e i s sic k
,
A n d what m att e rs i t to y o u ?
. Sho u ld any
th i n g b e fall th i s m a n y o u w i ll soon c r e at e anoth e r Ph i l i p i f
, ,

o u att e nd to b u s i n e ss th u s F o r e v e n h e has b e e n e x alt e d

y .

1
not so m u c h b y h i s own str en g th as b y o u r n egl i ge n c e ,
.
”

TH E O R D ER IN P ER SU A SI O N .

The xact n at u r e O f t h e ta s k a sp e ak e r o r writ e r s e ts

e

him s e lf will of cou rs e a f f e ct t h e o r d e r of h i s p e r suasiv e

, ,

wo r k Wh e n a m an w ish e s s imply to p e r sua d e p e opl e to

.

c onti nu e i n a cou rs e of action o r t o ca rr y out a pu r pos e ,

al r e ady fo r m e d h e m ay a rr ang e h is p e rs u as iv e work in a

,

c l im actic ord e r fo r e v e n a v e r y s l ight am ount of p e r s u a

,

s io n w il l p r obably m ov e h is aud i e nc e in t h e r igh t d i r e c

t ion an d h e wil l l e av e t h e m s t i rr e d to im m e d iat e act ion
,

by h is fi n a l e f fo r t I f ho w e v e r h e w i s h e s t o u r g e m e n
.
, ,

to giv e up d oing som e t hin g t o w hich th e y hav e b e com e

accu stom e d o r a purpos e a lr e a d y w e ll e s tab l i s h e d i n th e i r
,

m ind s h e m ust natu ral ly as in t h e ca s e of r e fut ing l ong

, ,

e stabl ish e d i d e as b r in g fo r wa r d hi s st r ong e s t m at e rial

,

fi r st Wh e n h e ha s st i rr e d h i s a u di e n c e by hi s fi r st
.

st r ong app e al h e can m ai nt a i n h is e ff e ct with oth e r

app e a l s e ach of wh ich would not hav e b e e n s t r ong e nough
, ,

if giv e n alon e at t h e o u t s e t t o rou s e t h e audi e n c e T h e , .

rul e s fo r o rd e r i n p e r suas io n a r e p ract i c ally th e n thos e , ,

giv e n fo r o r d e r i n r e f u tat i on ( p .

1 De m o s th e n es, O y l n tb i a c s a n l
d P b i ipp i c s , pp 6 1 63 .
—
. Ke n n e d y .
3 68 A R G U M E /VTA TI O/V .

thought of th e s e e uphui st ic s e nt e nc e s wh ich hav e b e e n fi l e d

,

and po l i sh e d into confo r m ity t o a styl e s o a r t ificia l that it

s e e m s al most i mpos sibl e that t h e t hought cou ld hav e
b e e n at al l im po r tant to t h e w r it e r T h e vocabula ry of
.

sp e ak e r shou ld b e r ich but hi s ph r a s e s s imp l e

, H .

sho u ld fi nd t h e e xp r e s s ion t hat i s fo r c ib l e b e cau s e it

c l e a r an d p ictu r e squ e not b e cau s e it is m e r e l y u nu s ua l
,

fanta s t ic A void anythin g that s u gg e s t s physica l o r int e

.

l e ctua l po s i ng .

M uch i s s ai d nowa d ay s of p e rs ona l magn e t i s m i

sp e ak e r s o r acto rs D oubt l e s s t h e r e i s an i nbo r n q ua l it
.

i n som e m e n w hich t h e m om e nt th e y app e a r on t h e s ta

,

o r t h e p l atfo r m e s tab l i s h e s a bon d of s ym pathy b e t w e

,

th e m an d th e i r au d i e nc e s but it wou ld b e d i f fi cu l t to
,

d e t e r m i n e ho w m u ch of thi s i s i nbo r n an d ho w m uch

com e s f r o m t h e s e l f r e l ian c e of t h e sp e ak e r t h e co nfi d e nc e
-

’
of t h e au d i e n c e cau s e d by a sp e ak e r s tho r ough know l e dg e
,

of his s ubj e ct and of t h e a r t s of conviction an d p e r s

hi s e vi d e nt tho r ough ab s o r ption i n hi s subj e ct ,

r e putat ion fo r a s inc e r e t r e at m e nt of what e v e r h e tou

C e r tai nly unl e s s t h e appa r e nt b e l i e f of a man in t h e
,

of h i s cau s e i s g e nu in e h e can not oft e n app e a l to his a u

e n c e wit h an ai r of comp l e t e e xp e ctanc e of t h e succ e ss

h is p l e a Y e t h e who cal l s h e s itatingly on hi s h e a r e rs w h

.
,

s e e m s to f e e l that th e y m ay not r e spon d w il l n e v e r tak ,

th e m with him Ev e n t h e man who i s ab l e to a ss um

.

t hi s ai r wh e n h e has not t h e f e e lin g i s l ik e l y to b

d e t e ct e d in h is f r aud A n e xp e ri e nc e of L o rd Er skin e
.
’

illu st r at e s th e s e s tat e m e nt s I n his d e f e n s e of

.

’
G e o rg e G o r d on h e q uot e d hi s c l i e nt s wo r d s to t h e
T h e m u l t it u d e p r e t e nd t o b e p e rp e t r ating th e s
u nd e r t h e autho rity of t h e Pr ot e stant p e t ition ; I
 A R G U zWE /VTA TI O /V . 3 69

you r maj e sty t h e y a r e not t h e Pr ot e stant A s sociation an d ,

I sha ll b e g l a d to b e of any s e rvi c e in s upp r e ss i ng th e m ,

an d t h e n car r i e d out of h im s e l f by t h e st r e ngth of hi s

,

f e e l ing s h e c r i e d : I s ay by God that man i s a r u ffia n

,
“
, ,

who s ha ll aft e r thi s p r e s u m e to buil d upon s uch hon e st ,

”
art l e s s conduct as an e vid e nc e O f gu i l t
, A ccord ing to .

Pr of e s so r G ood r ich “
T h e e ff e ct p r o d uc e d on t h e j u r y an d
,

sp e ctat o r s by thi s su dd e n bu r st of f e e l ing i s r e p r e s e nt e d ,

by e y e w it n e s s e s t o hav e b e e n such as t o ba f fl e al l pow e rs

-

of d e scription I t was whol l y u np r e m e d itat e d t h e instan

.
,

t a n e o u s r e s ul t of t hat sympathy which e xi s t s b e t w e e n a

s u cc e s sfu l sp e ak e r and h i s aud i e nc e I n utt e ring th is .

ap pe a l to hi s M ak e r M r Er skin e s ton e was o n e of a w e

, .
’

and d e e p r e v e r e nc e with out t h e s l i ght e st ap p r oach towa r d

,

t h e p r ofan e u s e of t h e wo r d s but giving th e m a ll t h e ,

sol e m nity of a j udicial oath T h e m agic of h is e y e g e s .

,

t u r e an d count e nanc e b e am in g w i th e mot ion co m pl e t e d

, ,

t h e imp r e s sion and ma d e it i rr e s ist ib l e

, I t w as a thin g .

wh ich a m an c ou l d do but onc e i n his l if e M r Er skin e . .

att e mpt e d it agai n i n t h e H ous e of C o m mon s and utt e r ly ,

1
”
fail e d . T hat s e co n d att e mpt was a fai l u r e b e caus e it
was not whol ly t h e r e sult of t h e e mot ion of t h e m om e nt ,

abso l ut e ly si nc e r e bu t was a p r e m e ditat e d d r amat ic e ff e ct

, .

T h e au d i e n c e f e l t this an d t h e d e s i r e d e f f e ct was lost

, .

A st ud e nt shoul d r e m e mb e r a l so h ow i m po rtant in , ,

p e r suasion i s a m an s r e putat i on T hough th e r e b e no

’
.

chang e of party n o pr e viou s l y e xp r es s e d V i e ws that con

,

t r a d i c t t ho s e d e v e lop e d by t h e sp e ak e r and so th r ow ,

d oubt on hi s s in c e r ity t h e m a n m ay b e n ot e d as a ,

h u mo r ist U nl e ss h i s subj e ct i s s u c h that h e can p e r

.

sua d e th r ough l aught e r hi s work wil l b e h ar d The .

1 Sp e ci m e n s qf A r g u m e n ta t i on ( M o d e rn ) , p . 1 43 , a n d n ot e .
3 70 A R GU AI E /VTA TI O/V .

aud i e nc e i s a c custom e d to laugh with or at h i m an d W I 11 fi n d

'

it d iff i c u lt t o b e l i e v e t hat h e i s r e ally in e arn e st i n s e ri ous

work Syd n e y Sm it h us e d to c o m plai n t hat his a u d i e nc e
.

s m i l e d at p art s of his s e rmon s as witty wh e r e nothi ng

w as farth e r from h i s t ho u ghts than t o p rovid e amus e m e nt .

O n e has only to st u dy t h e int r od uct ion s t h e p e r o ration s ,

of t h e gr e at Sp e e ch e s f r o m D e mosth e n e s to We bst e r to ,

see how e a r n e stly how i ns i s t e ntly t h e o r ato rs h av e

,

i m p r e ss e d on th e i r aud i e nc e s th e i r s inc e r ity i n th e i r

work o n e has but t o stu d y t h e w r e ck e d ca r e e rs among
o r ato rs t o r e a l i z e that s inc e r ity i s t h e ch i e f e ss e nt ia l i n
p e rs uasion Without it al l e l s e m ay go fo r naught
. .

SU M M A R Y .

I n P e rsuasion th e n a m an shoul d avoi d anything that

, ,

m e an s o r sugg e st s s e lf con sciousn e s s H e should f e e l

-
.

t h e sub j e ct so i nt e n s e ly that t h e d e si r e to sha r e with his

aud i e nc e hi s id e a s an d hi s f e e l ings i n r e ga rd t o it dom i

nat e s e v e ry oth e r i d e a H e shou l d r e ga r d h im s e l f s i mply
.

as an i n st r u m e nt fo r t r an s m itting t h e i m p o r tant i d e a to
t h e a u di e n c e i n q u e st ion y e t a t h inking in st r um e nt that
,

tak e s advantag e of e v e r ythi n g i n it s favo r s kil lful ly do e s ,

a w ay with what is n ot an d ch ang e s it s m e tho d s as t h e

,

n e e d s of t h e m om e nt d e mand Su ch absorption i n a .

sub j e c t i s poss ibl e only fo r t h e sp e ak e r o r w r it e r w ho

S inc e r e ly b e l i e v e s what h e i s saying .

TH E V A LU E OF TA C T IN P ER SU A SI O N “

Tact i s anoth e r g r e at r e q uis it e t he ab il ity to do o r to

say t h e r igh t th ing at t h e r ight m o m e nt o r p e r ha p s
, ,

b e tt e r to a v o i d doing o r saying
, t h e wrong th ing It .
3 72 A R G U M E N TA TI O/V .

to plan hi s wo rk and u nl e s s h e has p r e vious l y ca r e fully

,

tra i n e d h ims e lf i n m e thods of conviction h e may do

p oorly . B u t t h e l aws h e should r e ga r d a r e t h e sam e .

Wh e n how e v e r an att e m pt i s mad e to e xp l ain by w hat

, ,

m e an s an aud i e nc e m ay b e p e rsua d e d it i s n e c e ssa r y t o ,

ad d r e s s t h e sp e ak e r r ath e r than t h e wr it e r Thi s i s t r u e .

‘

b e cau s e a man in o r d e r t o p e r s uad e to t h e b e st a d vantag e

, ,

must b e fac e t o fac e w ith h is au d i e nc e T h e m an w ho .

p r int s h i s a r gum e nt add r e s s e s an au d i e nc e h e n e v e r s e e s ,

an d cannot th e r e fo r e apply to it thos e sugg e st ion s as

, ,

t o P e r suas i on which r e qu i r e t hat t h e au d i e nc e and t h e

a r gu e r shoul d s e e e ach oth e r N o m an who is t o sp e ak
.

to an aud i e nc e can giv e his fi na l p e rsua s iv e touch e s to

h is Sp e e ch unt il h e i s fac e t o fac e wit h hi s au d i e nc e
and s e e s what i s it s mood toward h im an d h is subj e ct ,

wh e t h e r it i s j u st t h e au d i e nc e h e e xp e ct e d t o fi n d I f .

t h e condit ion s att e nding hi s s p e e ch a r e not j u st tho s e h e

e xp e ct e d h e mu st ch ang e t h e p e r su as iv e m e tho ds which

,

h e ha d p l an n e d to u s e I f b e fo r e any au d i e n c e h e cl ings
.
, ,

to t h e p e rs uas iv e m e t ho d s h e ha d p r e pa r e d h e may l os e
ad m i r abl e O p portu n it i e s wh ich so m e u n e xp e ct e d action on
th e i r pa r t may o ff e r T h e con d it ion s s u rr ound ing a w r it e r
.
,

hi s compa r at iv e l e is u r e fo r d e v e l opin g h is w o r k hi s O ppo r ,

t u n i t i e s fo r pl an ni ng car e fu l ly and r e ad j ust i ng his work ,

a r e t ho s e fa v o rabl e fo r t h e st u dy of c o nvincingn e s s but t h e ,

cond it ion s of t h e Sp e ak e r fac e to fac e wit h hi s audi e nc e

, ,

a r e t h e b e st fo r pe rs uasiv e work This v e r y fact i s t h e

.

j ust ifi cation of t h e p l an of t hi s book B y stu d y i n wr itt e n

.

wo r k of t h e r u l e s of Convi c t ion a b e gin n e r i n A rg u m e n

t a t i o n gain s mo s t qu ickly t h e pow e r t o convinc e hi s f e ll o w

m e n an d h e i s th e r e fo r e advi s e d t o writ e fi r st with on l y

, , ,

convinci ngn e s s i n Vi e w Ev e n as h e gain s thi s h e l e a r n s

.
 A R G U M E N TA TI O JV . 3 73

he p e r suasiv e n e s s t hat m ay com e f r om t h e n atu r e of t h e

s u b j e ct i t s e lf an d f r om a good rh e t o r ica l t r e at m e nt O f it
, .

Wh e n h e has mast e r e d th e s e m att e rs h e can t r y h i s han d

a t w r i t i n g a r gu m e nt s o n t h e sa m e sub j e ct fitt e d fo r two
,

wid e ly d i f f e ring a u d i e n c e s whos e charact e ri st i cs b e hi m

,

s e lf knows accu rat e ly O r has had ca r e fully e xp l ain e d to

hi m . Su c h wo rk wil l giv e h im a g r owing skil l i n t h e
app l icat i on O f t h e sugg e st ion s al r e ady giv e n as t o t h e
thi r d and fourt h S ou r c e s O f P e rsuasion T h e s e p i e c e s of
.

A r gu m e ntat ion h e shou l d , if pos sib l e d e l iv e r to t h e

,

aud i e nc e s fo r which th e y a r e pl an n e d that h e m ay s e e t h e

,

s ucc e s s o r fail u r e of h is p e r suasiv e wo r k an d may l e arn ,

t o u s e tho s e sugg e st ion s fo r p e r suas iv e n e s s wh ich can b e

ap p l i e d on ly wh e n t h e s p e ak e r i s fac e t o fac e with h i s
aud i e nc e. C e rtain l y only by con sta nt s p e a k i n g b e f o r e
,

aud i e n c e s of v e r y d i ff e r e nt kind s and ca r e f u l con s i d e ra

,

t ion of t h e succ e s s e s an d t h e failu r e s m ad e can a st ud e nt ,

b e com e a m ast e r of P e r su as ion . H e will how e v e r sav e , ,

hi m s e lf many mo rt ifyi ng e xp e ri e nc e s m any fail u r e s if by

, ,

t h e m e thod sugg e st e d by writ ing out hi s argum e nt s h e

, ,

l e arn s t o hand l e C onvict ion w e ll an d co m e s t o u n d e r

,

stand t h e r udi m e nt s O f P e r suas io n .

 C H A P T ER V I I I .

SO M E FI N A L SU G G E ST I O N S .

B EG I N N ER in A rgu m e ntat i on who has ca r e fu ll y

r e ad an d appl i e d t h e sugg e st ion s g i v e n i n th is book
shoul d u nd e rstand cl e arly what C o nviction and P e rs u as i on
a re. H e sho u l d too wh e n h e h as a q u e sti on t o d i s c u ss
, ,
.

kn ow ( I ) what t h e q u e st i on m e an s ( 2 ) what h e b e l i e v e s
about it and why ( 3 ) how h e i s going t o stat e h is c as e
,

so a s t o (a ) c onvin c e and ( b) p e rsuad e C ha p t e r I I sho u l d

. .

hav e t a u ght h i m C hapt e rs I I I and I V and V s hould

. . .

hav e h e lp e d hi m to und e rstand C hapt e rs I I I V an d .

, .

V I sho u l d hav e s e tt l e d ( 3 ) (a ) fo r h im ; and C ha pt e rs

.

V I and V I I shoul d hav e mad e ( 3 ) ( b) cl e ar t o h i m

. . H e .

sh ould s e e why it i s a v e r y a r b it r a ry p roc e e ding wh e n

rh e to r i c ian s s e parat e C onvict ion an d P e rs u as ion i n t r e at
ing A r gum e nt ation sinc e what l e ad s to o n e m a y i n so m e
, ,

c as e s as was point e d out o n pp 3 4 5 6 l e ad to t h e oth e r

, .
—
, .

H e should und e r stand why though t h e rul e s t hat p r od u c e

,

c onvin c ingn e s s may b e l e arn e d i n a Sho rt ti m e study of ,

P e rs u as ion i s a l if e work
-
F r o m t h e chapt e r on Evid e nc e
.

h e Sho u l d hav e l e arn e d t h e r e l ation of L og i c to A r g u m e n

t a t io n fro m t h e s a m e chapt e r t h e i m p o rtanc e of e v id e n
in all su c h wo rk from C ha p t e rs I I I and V I t h e work . .
,

l
R h e t ori c in A rgu m e ntation a n d from t h e last two

t e rs t h e work of P e rs u asi on I f h e d o e s un d e r stand a

.

thi s h e is abl e to do good wo rk i n A rg u m e ntat ion that wil

,

st e ad ily grow b e tt e r .
3 76 l
A R G U / / E ZVTA TI O I V .

f a i nly only wh e n a m a n has s o tho r ough l y l e a r n e d h i s ar

,

t hat h e s e e m s to wo r k i n stinct iv e ly in t h e r igh t way ,

h e b e sai d to b e mast e r of it N on e of t h e gr e at o ra
.

has gai n e d his mast e r y w itho ut i nfinit e p ains T .

b e gi nn e r in A rgum e ntat ion to whom h is st rugg l e w it

,

t h e r u d im e nta r y l aws and t h e sugg e s t ion s fo r P e rs ua s io

and C onviction s e e m s d ry an d u nn e c e s s a r y Shou ld pond e ,

th e s e w o r ds of D e mosth e n e s
It s e e m s to m e far m or e nat u ral that a m a n e ng ag e d
c o m p os i n g p ol i t i c al d i s c o u rs e s u n p e r i sh a b l e m e m or i als of
,

p ow e r,
sho u ld n e g l e c t not e v e n t h e s m all e st d e ta i l than t ,

t h e g e n e rat i on O f p a i nt e rs and s c u l ptors who a r e dar k ly 3 ,

i n g forth th e i r m an u al ta c t and to i l i n c orr u pt i b l e m at e r i

sho u ld e x ha u st t h e r e fi n e m e nts of th e i r art on t h e v e i ns on t
l
,

1
fe ath e rs on t h e down of t h e i p and t h e l ik e n i c e t i e s
, ,
.
”

1 A tt i c O r a t or s , vo l . I, p . lxxv . J ebb .
 A P P EN D IX .

Th e followi n g br i e fs m a y b e u s e f u l for c r i t i c i s m st ud e nts ,

he n a c lass i s st u dyi n g B r i e f Drawi n g and Ey den flb

-
‘ ‘ /

SH O U L D
B r zef

C A P IT A L P U N I SH M E N T
1 .

kl
B E A B O L I SH E D ?

I N T R O DU CT I O N .

1 . By ap i tal p u n i sh m e nt i s m e ant p u n i sh m e nt by d e ath

c ,

l
b y any m e thod for m u rd e r,
.

I I B y m u rd e r i s m e ant t h e wi llf u l and m a i c i o u s d e str u c t i on

.

O f h u m an l i f e .

B R I EF P R O P ER .

1
Cap i tal p u n i sh m e nt sho u ld not b e abol i sh e d for ,

A . It m a k e s t h e c on vi c t i on O f t h e i nno c e nt l e ss l i k e ly ,

for
1 W h e n d e ath i s t h e p e nalty i t l e ads to t h e m ost
.

e x a c t and c r i t i c al e x am i nat i on of e vi d e n c e .

2 .It g iv e s to t h e a c c u s e d t h e fu ll b e n e fi t O f e ve r y
do u b t
3 .It la y s th e stro n g e st hold on t h e c ons c i e n c e and
s y m p athy of both c o u rt and w i tn e ss e s .

E T h e arg u m e nt that c a p i tal p u n i sh m e nt sho u ld b e

.

abol i sh e d on a c c o u nt O f t h e fall i b i l i ty of h u m an
c o u rts i s i n c on s i st e nt for ,

1 N ew E n g l
a n d er ,
vo l
. I, p . 28 .
3 78 A P P EN DI X .

1 . A llaws
l ad m i n i ste r e d by fall i bl e h u
a re

c o u rts and b y th i s r e ason i ng i t wo u ld follow t

,

all laws o u g ht to b e abol i sh e d .

C T h e arg u m e nt that c a p i tal p u n i sh m e nt sho u ld

.

abol i sh e d i s u nr e asonabl e for

l
l
,

1 A s e v e r e p e nalt i e s s u c h as l i fe i m p r i son m e nt
.
, ,

wi tho u t a r e m e dy for
l
l
,

( )a E v e n tho u g h t h e c r i m i nal i s
p ardon e d fin a
t h e b e st ye ars of h i s l i fe hav e b e e n w ast e d .

2 It i s not t h e O b j e c t of c o u rts of j u st i c e to i n fli
.

r e m e d i abl e p e nalt i e s .

D T h e l iv e s of tho u sands a re p r e s e rve d by t h e e x e c

.

t i on of a f e w for 1
,

I B y t h e d e str u c t i on of l e ad e rs of vi ol e nt m obs
.
,

d i s c o u rag e s t h e t e nd e n c y to i nst i gat e s u c h m ob

2 It s u pp r e ss e s t h e i ns u rr e c t i on of anarc h i sts
. .

E T h e stat e m e nt that c ap i tal p u n i sh m e nt i s t

.

p n i sh i n g of o n e m u rd e r by t h e c o m m i ss i on
u

l
anoth e r i s u ntr u e for ,

I P u n i sh m e nt b y d e ath i s not att e nd e d by m a i c i o

.

and r e v e nge f u l d e s i g ns for ,

( )a To say that i t i s i s to d e ny all law ,

and
for m s O f j u st i c e .

E Pla c e s wh e r e t h e law of c ap i tal p u n i sh m e nt do

not e xi st b e c o m e a r e fu ge for m u rd e r e rs for ,

I Cr i m i nals d e s i re t h e l e ast poss i bl e p u n i sh

.

for th e i r c r i m e s as i s shown by t h e c ar e th e y
,

to e s c ap e d e t e c t i on so wo u ld natu rally ,

c om m it c ri m e s i n a la c wh e r e t h l ast e
p e e e p n

i s i nfl i c t e d .

2 A u th e nt i c i nstan c e s e xi st of m u rd e r e rs d e l i b e ra
.

d e c o yi ng th e i r vi c t i m s i nto j u r i sd i c t i ons wh e r e t
d e ath p e nalty do e s not p re v a i l .
2

l l
l
1 N ew E n g a n d er , v o I, p :

. . 28 .

2 F or u m , v o 1 1 1 , p 3 8 1
. . .
3 80 A P P EN D IX

I t i s a saf e g u ard ag a i nst t h e m u rd e r O f t h o se i

2 .

p u bl i c O f fi c e by
( )
a Pol i t i c al as p i rants or th e i r a c c o m p l i c e s .

( )
b A nar c h i sts .

()c M e n l ik e B ooth G u i t e a u and t h e

,
m u rd e r e r
,

Cart e r Harr i son .

K G o v e rn m e nt has a r i g ht to ma i nta i n i ts own e x i s t e n c

.

and a u thor i ty b y t h e b e st m e ans e v e n a t t h ,

'

e x p e ns e of l i f e for
1
,

I It i s a p art O f t h e so c i al c o m pac t i n wh i c h t h
.

stat e or i g i nat e d for ,

( )
a A so c i al c o m p a c t n e c e ssar i ly i m p l i e s a
r e nd e r to so c i e ty of all t h e r i g hts and p owe
wh i c h a re i nd i s p e nsabl e to i ts own p r e s e rva t i o
L It i s t h e m ost e ff e c t iv e p re v e nt iv e of c r i m e for
.
,

I It p rod u c e s m or e horror and dr e ad of t h e c r i m

.

O f m u rd e r than an y oth e r for m of p u n i sh m e nt .

A m an s l i f e i s h i s m ost i m p ort a nt p oss e ss i on

’
.

3 Conf . e
‘

ss i ons of c on vi c t e d c r i m i nals Show that t h e

wo u ld not ha v e c o m m i tt e d t h e c r i m e had t h e
tho u g ht that th e y wo u ld s u ff e r d e ath 2
.

111 W h e r e i t has b e e n abol i sh e d m u rd e r has i n c r e as e

.

for
I Th i s has b e e n p ro v e d b y stat i st i c s to b e t h e c as e i
.

( )
a Rhod e Island .

( )
b Ma i n e .

()c B e lg i um .

2 Th i s i s shown by t h e fa c t that i n so m e p lac e

.

wh e r e i t had b e e n abol i sh e d i t has b e e n r e stor e d

as i n
( )
a T u s c any .

( )
b M i c h i g an .

( )
c Parts of S w i t z e rland .

1
N w E ng
e l
an de r , vo l
. I I I p 5 62, . .
2 I bi d .
, vo l
. I, p . 28 .
 AP P E NDI X . 381

C O N C L U SI O N .

Si n c e ap i tal p u n i sh m ent i s t h e b e st s e c u r i ty aga i nst t h e

c

c on vi c t i on of t h e i nno c e nt ; s i n c e by i t tho u sands of l iv e s a r e

p r e s e r v e d ; s i n c e p la c e s wh e r e i t do e s not e xi st b e c o m e a
r e f u g e for m u rd e r e rs ; s i n c e l i fe i m pr i son m e nt i s an i nad e q u at e
s u bst i t u t e for i t ; s i n c e i t i s t h e b e st m e ans for p rot e c t i ng t h e
G o v e rn m e nt ; s i n c e f u rth e r m or e i t i s t h e m ost e f fe c t u al d e t e r
r e nt fro m c r i m e and s i n c e wh e r e i t has b e e n abol i sh e d m u rd e r
,

has i n c r e as e d c a p i tal p u n i sh m e nt sho u ld not b e abol i sh e d

,
.

B r i ef II .

SH O U L D CA P I TA L P U N I SH M E N T BE A B O L I SH ED p

I N T R O DU CT I O N .

1 I n for m e r t i m e s a long c at e g ory O f c r i m e s was p u n i sh e d

.

by t h e i nfl i c t i on O f d e ath u s u all y b y han g i n g on t h e gu i lty

, , .

A s t i m e we nt on o n e aft e r anoth e r of th e s e c r i m e s w e r e
,

e x p u nge d fro m t h e n a t i onal c od e t i ll at p r e s e nt m u rd e r i s

, ,

e n e rall y s p e a ki n g t h e only c r i m u n i sh e d w i th loss of l i f e

g , e p .

T h e q u e st i on now ar i s e s “
Wh y not abol i sh c ap i tal p u n i sh m e nt
,

for m u rd e r
I I Ca p i tal p u n i sh m e nt i s p u n i s h m e nt i n v ol vi ng t h e for
.

f e i t u r e of l i f e i nfl i c t e d on a p e rson for a c r i m e b y t h e a u thor

, ,

i ty to wh i c h t h e O ff e nd e r I s s u b j e c t .

I I I Thr e e th e or i e s c on c e rn i n g th e d e s i gn O f pu n i sh m e nt
.

a r e h e ld .

A R e for m at i on of t h e c r i m i nal
. .

B R e tr i b u t i on
. .

C Pr e ve nt i on
. .

B R I EF P R O P ER .

1 . Ca p i tal p u n i sh m e nt sho u ld b e ab ol i sh e d ,
f or
A I t has don e i rr e v o c abl e wrong for
.
,
3 82 AP P EN D I X .

In e q u al i ty and u nfa i rn e ss e xi st i n t h e ad m i n i stra

’

t i on O f j u st i c e for,

( )
a I n so m e p la c e s c r i m i nals a r e m uch b e tt e r

han g e d than i n oth e rs for ,

I
’
Ha n g i ng i n t h e c o u ntr y i s don e b y am at e u rs .

e sa m e u n i sh m e nt i s i n fl i c te d on v ry
( )
b T h p e e

e rson who c o m m i ts m u r de r for

p ,

N O allowan c e i s m ad e for t h e ki nd of m u rd e r
’
1

e
p p r e trat e d .

c e rta i n c lass O f c r i m i nals i s m or e e as i ly

( )c A p u t
to d e ath than oth e rs for ,

I
’
It i s hard to han g a p e rson who holds a h i gh
so c i al p os i t i on i n t h e c o m m u n i ty .

2
’
It i s m or e d i ffi c u lt to p u t to d e ath a p e rson
of we alth than a p e rson of l i ttl e or no m e ans .

( )
d A m an han g e d i n o ne p art O f t h e c o u ntry
e s c a p e s i n anoth e r for ,

C e rta i n parts of t h e c o u ntry ha v e ab ol i sh e d

'

t h e d e ath p e nalty .

T h e farth e r w e st y o u g o t h e hard e r i t i s to
'
2

c ond e m n .

e) M u rd e r e rs han d at rta i n t i s who

( a re g e c e m e

wo u ld not b e hang e d at oth e rs for ,

1
’
M u c h d e p e nds on t h e g o v e rnor for ,

( )
a If h e i s a soft w e ak c on c e i t e d
, ,
h e artl e ss
,

m a n h i s j u d g m e nt i s a p t to b e p art i al .

2
’
Wh e n t h e m u rd e r i s g e n e ral and p e o p l e a re
alar m e d for th e i r safe ty t h e c r i m i nal wi ll ,

ha v e f e w c han c e s to e s c ap e b u t ,

3
’
If so m e t i m e has e l a
p s e d b e tw e e n t h e c r i m e

and t h e c on vi c t i on and t h e c o m m u n i ty i s
u n c ons c i o u s of i ns e c u r i ty h e w i ll h a v e m any

ho p e s of e s c ap i n g t h e s e v e r e p e n a lty .

4 It i s alway s m or e d i ffic u lt to c on vi c t aft e r an

’

e x e c u t i o n t han b e for e for ,

3 84 AP P EN DI X .

e re o p i n i on c annot d e fi n e law and d u ty i n

( )
b A m

t h e c as e of l i fe and d e ath

l
1

()
c Th e y c annot r e ly on t h e
p r i n c i p e s of r e tal i a
t i on for
,

’
1 T h e p r i n c i p l e of r e tal i at i on i s f or b i dd e n and
2
d i s c l ai m e d .

( )
d Th e y c annot r e ly on t h e
p r i n c i p l e of r e v e n g e ,

l
for
1
’
A l p u r pos e of r e v e n g e i s i nd i g nantly d i s
own e d .

( )
e Th e y c annot r e ly on t h e p r i n c i p l e of s e lf
d e f e ns e for ,

T h e r i g ht of tak i ng l i f e d e p e nds on t h e
'
I

e m e rg e n c y .

2
’
It has not l e ss e n e d t h e n u m b e r of m u rd e rs .

4 . T h e ass e rt i on that c ap i tal p u n i sh m e nt i s sa n c

t i o n e d b y d ivi n e a u thor i ty c annot b e s u p p ort e d for ,

( )
a Passa g e s i n t h e B i b l e wh i c h s e e m to u p hold
th i s th e ory a r e c a pabl e O f d i f fe r e nt i nt e r pr e ta
t i ons for
l
l
,

T h e word s b a i n G e n e s i s n i nth c h a pt
’
1 ,

s ix th v e rs e on wh i c h t h e whol e s c r i p t u
,

arg u m e nt d e p e nds c a n b y p e rm i s s i ,

H e b r e w and En g l i sh lang u ag e b e c h
l
l
to w i and so e x p r e ss Si m ply t h e
l
r e tr i b u t iv e aw of God s p ro vi d e n c ’ 3

T h e H e b r e w f u t u r e do e s not a l w ays st
’
2

for t h e i m p e r a t iv e .

e Mosa i c c od e was m ad e for t h e H e b r e w

( )
b T h
and i s not b i nd i n g on oth e r nat i ons .

()
c Th e r e a r e oth e r p assag e s of e q u al i m p o r t a n c

that ass e rt t h e c ontrary .

l M a t t h e w 5 :3 9
l
2
1 N or t b A m er i ca n R ev i ew , vo . 62 , p 48
. . .

3
N or t b Am e r i ca n R ev i ew , vo . 6 2 , p 44
. .

4 Ge n e s i s
9 : 1 4 , Ex o d u s
 AP P EN D I X
. 3 85

()d I t i s c ontrary to t h e whol e s p i r i t of Chr i st i an

i ty for ,

T h e s u p r e m e r u l e i s to r e t u rn g ood for e vi l
’
I .

e e x a m p l e of Chr i st do e s not ad v o c at e i t for

( )
e T h ,

H e s p ar e d m any who we r e g u i lty of m u rd e r

’ 1
1 .

(f ) T h e J e w i sh p e nalt i e s and r e tal i at i ons wh i c h

c o m p r i s e d or i g i nally t h e v e ry law of l i f e for

l ife hav e b e e n r e p e al e d by Chr i st

,
.

B . Ca pi tal p u n i shm e nt fa i ls to s u pport any o n e of t h e

thr e e th e or i e s c on c e rn i ng t h e d e s i gn of p u n i sh m e nt ,

l
for
1. Tho u gh i t has b e e n ass e rt e d th a t t h e o n ly e g i t i
m at e d e s i g n O f p u n i sh m e nt sho u ld b e to r e for m

t h e c r i m i nal y e t , ,

a .Ca p i tal p u n i sh m e nt do e s not r e for m t h e c r i m i

nal for
,

1
’
D e ath c u ts h i m o f f fro m all fu rth e r o p port u n i
t i e s to l iv e a b e tt e r l i fe .

2 . Tho u g h i t had b e e n ass e rt e d that t h e d e s i g n of

p u n i sh m e nt S ho u ld b e to r e tr i b u t e t h e g u i lty p e r

son for t h e c r i m e y e t ,

a Cap i tal p un i sh m e nt do e s not p u n i sh t h e c r i m i

.

nal as h e d e s e r v e s for ,

T h e m ost d e s p e rat e and hard e n e d c r i m i nal i s

i ns e ns i t iv e to t h e s u ff e r i ng h e has to e nd u r e
a n d to t h e i no m i ny for
g ,

e do e s not c ar e for h i s l i f e
( )
a H .

3 . Tho u h i t has b e e n ass e rt e d that t h e d e s i n of

g g
u n i sh m e nt sho u ld b e to rot e t so i e ty fro m
p p c c

oth e r c r i m e s y e t ,

a .Cap i tal p u n i sh m e nt f a i ls to p rot e c t so c i e ty ,

b e c au s e
’
1 It do e s not p r e v e nt m u rd e r for ,

1
G e n es i s 4 :I
5,Ex o d us 2 12 .
3 86 AP P EN DI X .

( a
) A ltho u g h i t i s sa i d that t h e f e ar of t h e g a l
lows p r e v e nts c r i m e y e t
l
,

T h e d e s p e rat e m u rd e r e r do e s not c a
”
I

c u lat e t h e s e v e r e p e nalty of h i s Cr i m e ,

and
2 If h e d i d c al c u lat e t h e r e s u lt h e c annot ,

b e b l i nd to t h e fa c t that j u rors a r e e x c e p
l
l
t i o n a y d i ffic u lt to c on vi n c e i n c as e s of

l
m u rd e r wh e n t h e e vi d e n c e i s c i r c u m
sta n tia .

( b) Tho u g h t h e O b j e c t i on has b e e n ra i s e d that

m u rd e rs a r e c o m m i tt e d i n s e c r e t for f e ar of ,

d e ath y e t ,

I M u rd e rs a r e c o m m i tte d i n s e c r e t i n
'

p la c e s wh e r e t h e d e ath p e nalty has b e e n

ab ol i sh e d .

c) T h e s i ht O f e x e c u t i ons has not b n a

( g e e

warn i n g for ,

I It i s d e m oral i z i n g i n nat u r e f o r
’
,

( )
a It i s bar b aro us .

( )
b Th e r e i s always m or e or l e ss s a v ag e

e x u ltat i on
1
.

()
c Fa c ts p ro v e that a lar g e n u m be r

of c r i m i n a ls c ond e m n e d for c ap i tal

O ffe ns e s ha v e att e nd e d e x e c u t i ons
2
.

2 I t has b e e n ab ol i sh e d wi th ad v antag e
’

to so c i e ty for ,

a I n c e rta i n p arts of c o u ntr i e s wh e r e

.

t h e d e ath p e nalt y has b e e n ab ol i sh e d ,

wi th o n e e x c e pt i on a Swi ss c anto n , ,

3
m u rd e rs hav e not i n c r e as e d and ,

b I n so m e i nstan c e s
. m u rd e rs hav e
b e e n k nown to d e c r e as e
1
‘

Wes t m i n s t er l l
l l
1 R e vi ew , vo . 8 1, p 41 2
. .
2
I bi d , v o 8 1 , p 4 1 2
. . . .

11 I bi d I 8
‘
1 N r tb
A m e r i ca n Re v i ew , v o 62 , pp 66, 67
.
, vo .
9 , p 4
.

3 . o . . .
3 88 A P P EN DI X .

( )
1 Sa m e a im : T h e g r e at e st g ood l
of c o l e g e and
st u d e nts .

( )
2 I n c r e as e of m u t u al c on fi d e n c e for ,

( )
a
’
W i tho u t u n i ty b e twe e n f a c u lty and st u d e nts

th e r e i s la c k O f c on fi d e n c e Se e stat e of .

c on fi d e n c e b e twe e n fa c u lty and st u d e nts at

L as e ll e Se m i nar y .

( )
b
’
Tr u st of st u d e nts by fa c u lty u nd e rl i e s t h i s
C
g o v e rn m e nt .

e st u d e nts a pp r e c i at e t h e tr u st
’
( )
c T h .

( )
d
'
S t u d e nts and fa c u lty wo u ld c ons u lt e a c h

oth e r on i m portant m att e rs .

b It i s t h e o n ly j u st m e thod of g o v e rn m e nt s i n c e
l
l
.
,

I . A w o u ld shar e i n g o v e rn m e nt and l eg i slat i on

w i tho u t r e pr e s e ntat i on i s tyranny s e e
( )a A tt i t u d e of En l i sh towards th i s
g .

( )
b A tt i t u d e of A m e r i c a ns towards i t .

B e n e fi t t h e st u d e nts .

a . In s p i t e of t h e O b j e c ti on that r e lax ati o n of arb i trary

r e stra i nt of st u d e nts wo u l d t e nd to c a u s e t h e st u d e nts
to a c t i n an u n b e c o m i n g or i m pr u d e nt m a nn e r
. .

1 . Su c h an o b j e c t i on wo u ld b e g rant e d i n a f e w
c as e s b u t not for t h e m ost p art Si n c e
, ,

a ) Su c h a t i on wo u ld r stra i n d i
( b b
‘

e e e n
c y
c r e as e d s e lf r e s p e c t of st u d e nts
-

( b ) S u c h a c t i on wo u ld b e c h e c k e d by s e nt i m e nt

of fa c u lt y a n d st u d e nts .

b B y i n c r e as i n g th e i r s e lf r e l i a n c e a n d p r u d e n c e
.
-

I . Se lf r e l i an c e a n d p r u d e n c e m ost n e c e ssary to
-

wo m e n i n all s ph e r e s of l i fe ,

A s b u s i n e ss wo m e n ,

A s m oth e rs .

2 . Se lf r e l i an c e a n d p r u d e n c e i n c r e as e d b y p e r m i tt i ng
-

t h e p ra c t i c e o f t h e m i n t h e tra i n i n g s c hool of l i fe;

.
—

t h e c oll e g e .
 AP P EN DI X . 3 89

Si n c e i t has b e n e fi t e d those that ha v e att e m pte d i t .

I . Contrast .

L as e ll e Se m i nar y and B ryn Mawr

‘

2 . T e nd e n c y towa rd th i s m e thod i n W e ll e sl e y a
s u c c e ss .

Co m p a r e fi rst y e a rs O f c oll e g e w i th p r e s e nt t i m e .

C . C O N C L U SI O N .

Si n c e s e lf g o v e rn m e nt wo u ld -

b enefit the i nst i t u t i on of

We ll e sl e y Coll e g e and i ts st u d e nts ,
it sho u ld be ado pt e d .

B r i ef I V .

Is TH E PR IN CI P L E OF P RO H I B I T I O N RIG HT ?

I NT R O DU CT I O N .

I .

th s i d Bo
e s ag r e e that

a U s e of al c ohol i c l iq u ors to an e x c e ss i s a c u rs e
. .

I I T h e Pr i n c i pl e of Proh i b i t i on o n e sol u t i on O f t h e l iq u or
.
,

q u e st i on i s t o e nt i r e l y s u p p r e ss t h e traffic i n al c ohol i c l i q u ors

,

as a b e v e rag e b y F e d e ral and Stat e l e g i slat i on .

I I I B y r i g ht i s m e a n t that wh i c h i s i n a c c ordan c e wi th t h e
.

f u ndam e ntal laws of so c i e ty and O f t h e land .

B R I EF P R O P ER .

I . The Pr i n c i pl e of Proh i b i t i on i s r ig ht for ,

A . It i s i n a c c ordan c e wi th so c i al laws for ,

1 . T h e c h u r c h e s wh i c h r e p r e s e nt t h e p r i n c i p l e s of Chr i s
,

t i an l i b e rty e ndors e i t for

, ,

a .
“
I t has no d e fe ns i b l e r i g ht to e xi st 1
.
”

“
T h e saloon l i c e ns e i s a c u rs e 2
”
b . .

1 i is t M i s s i o n So c i e t y,
l
Am Ba pt H 8 90
l
er c a n om e 1 .

2 Rep o r t Of Ge n e ra A ss e m b y of P re s b t e r y ia n C h u rc h , 1 8 92 .
3 90 A P P EN D I X .

c .
“
L iq u or
traf fi c c annot b e l e g al i z e d wi tho u t sin .

2 . T h e stat e m e nt that Proh i b i t i on wo u ld i nte rfe r e w i

p e rsonal l i b e rty i s a we a k e x c u s e for not ado

“ ”

t h e p r i n c i p l e for ,

l
a It c o u ld b e b ro u ght a g a i nst e ve ry law and i nd iv
.
,

ua appe t i te m u st y i e ld to t h e d e m ands of p u bl i c g o
i n r e g ard to t h e sal e of l i q u or as i n oth e r c as e s
r e str i c te d or s u p p r e ss e d t ra ffic s .

b It c o u ld b e bro u g ht ag a i nst t h e e xi st e n c e of so c i e
.

for
( )
I T h e m or e u nl i m i t e d t h e p e rsonal l i b e rty ,

n e ar e r m e n c o m e to t h e c ond i t i on of t h e A
c h i st and t h e savag e .

3 . It do e s not p ro pos e to r e for m m oral c ond u c t .

4 . It i s to p roh i b i t a traf fi c wh i c h i s i nj u r i o u s to oth e r

b e s i d e s t h e c ons u m e r for ,

a . It i s i n j u r i o u s to t h e c o u ntry fi nan c i ally for ,

e c ost of t h e traffi c not c ons i d e r i n g t h e i nd

( )
I T h ,

r e c t c ost of i s e i g ht t i m e s g re
than t h e i n c o m e for ,

h e d i r e c t c ost i s
( )
a T

( )
b In c o m e fro m all tax e s and l i c e ns e s p a i d by t h

l iq u or tra ffic to t h e nat i on and t h e stat e s i

b It i s i n j u r i o u s to t h e c o u ntry for
.
,

( )
I It p rod u c e s that wh i c h i s d e tr i m e ntal to i ts g e

e ral we lf a r e for ,

( )
a T h e stat i st i c s O f e v e ry stat e Show a gr e at

a m o u nt of c r i m e and m i s e ry attr i b u tabl e

u s e of ard e nt Sp i r i ts O b ta i n e d at th e i r

l iq u or saloons than to a n y oth e r so u r c e .

( )
b For w e
“
c annot sh ut o u t of V i e w t h e

w i th i n t h e k nowl e dg e of all that t h e p ,

G e l f M t h d i t Epi c p a l C h c h 1 8 9 2
l
1 Co fe
en ra c n re n e O e o s s o ur ,

2 Fe r n a d E con om i cs f r ob i bi t i on
’
s o P .
3 92 A P P E IVD I X
.

a . A l
l th e S tat e s ha v e p ass e d so m e laws r e l at iv e to th i s
trad e .

T h e Su pr e m e Co u rt of t h e U n i t e d Stat e s has d e c lar e d

t h e f u ll p ow e r O f t h e Stat e to r e g u lat e , r e str a i n and,

p roh i b i t t h e tra ffic for ,

a .If a Stat e d e e m s t h e r e ta i l and i nt e rnal tra ffi c of

ard e nt s p i r i ts i n j u r i o u s to i ts c i t i z e ns and c al c u lat e d
to p rod u c e i dl e n e ss vi c e or d e b a u c h e ry I s e e noth
, , ,

i n g i n t h e Const i t u t i on of t h e U n i t e d Stat e s to p re
v e nt i t fro m r e g u lat i n g a n d r e str a i n i ng t h e tra ffic or ,

fro m p roh i b i t i n g i t altog e th e r .

C O N C L U SI O N .

Si n c e t h e
Pr i n c i pl e of Proh i b i t i on i s s u pport e d by t h e laws
of so c i e ty a n d b y t h e laws as u ph e ld by t h e U S Su p r e m e . .

Co u rt I m a i nta i n that i t i s r i g ht
,
.

H AVE T II E N EW ENG L A N D
P U R I T A N S B EE N T O O SE
V ERE L Y C EN SU R E D F O R T H E I R T R E A T M E N T O F TH E

Q U A K E RS A N D SO C A L L E D W I T C H E S ? -

I N T R O D U CT I O N .

I . Ex planat i on of t e r m s .

a. T h e P u r i tans w e r e d i ss e nt e rs fro m t h e Ch u r c h O f En g
land ; t h e ad vo c at e s i n t h e t i m e of Q u e e n El i z ab e th of
, ,

a Si m p l e r for m of fa i th and worsh i p than that wh i c h was

e stab l i sh e d b y law Thos e of th e i r n u m b e r who so u g ht
.

fr e e do m fro m r e l i g i o u s r e stra i nt b y m aki n g th e i r ho m e i n

N e w En g land we r e e s p e c i ally stri c t and s c r u p u lo u s i n
th e i r r e l i g i o u s l i f e Th e y we r e m e n who dre a m e d dr e a m s
1
.

1 L o dge
’
s S b or t H i s t o ry f
o tbc A m e r i ca n Co l l
on i es , vo . I , p 43 5
. .
 A P P EN D I X . 3 93

and saw vi s i ons and p ond e r e d on th e m as c o m m u n i c a

,

t i ons fro m t h e A l m i g hty E v e ry e x traord i nary e v e nt was

.

as c r i b e d to H i s i nt e r v e nt i on Man i fe stat i ons of Satan .

we r e e x p e c t e d and fo u nd ; th e y b e l i e v e d i n t h e no i s e s of
t h e a i r and s i g ns i n t h e h e a v e n s .

b T h e Q u a k e rs w e r e a r e l i g i o u s s e c t w hos e fo u nd e r was
.

b orn i n E n g land i n 1 6 2 4 T h e V i ol e nt e nth u s i as m of

.

th e s e p r e a c h e rs g a v e th e m th i s nam e Th e i r e x c i t e m e nt .

was so g r e at that m any of th e m c r i e d o u t fro m th e i r wi n

dows at t h e m ag i strat e s and m i n i st e rs and m o c k e d t h e ,

c ivi l and r e l i g i o u s i nst i t u t i ons of t h e c o u ntry Th e y

1
.

r i oto u sl y i nt e rr u p t e d p u bl i c worsh i p and wo m e n c la i m , ,

i n g d ivi n e or i g i n for th e i r abs u rd c ap r i c e s s m e ar e d th e i r ,

fa c e s and we nt na k e d thro u g h t h e str e e ts .

c .W i t c h e s ( s o c all e d ) we r e thos e r e g ard e d as p oss e ss i n g

-

s u p e rnat u ral or m ag i c al p owe r b y c o m p a c t wi th e vi l

S p i r i ts W i tc h c raft at t h e c los e of t h e s e v e nt e e nth c e n
.

t u r y a pp e al e d to a stron g and g e n e rally a c c e pt e d s u p e r s t i

t i on ; i t was r e c o g n i z e d b y law a n d t h e b e st e vi d e n c e s ,

atta i nab l e u nd e r t h e c i r c u m stan c e s we r e i ntrod u c e d .

II . H i story O f t h e q u e st i on .

a E v e r s i n c e t h e days of t h e P u r i tans th e r e has b e e n

.
,

m u c h ad v e rs e c r i t i c i s m of th e i r tr e at m e nt of t h e Q u ak e rs

a n d SO c all e d w i t c h e s b e c a u s e
—

I Th e i r l a ws h a v e b e e n c ons i d e r e d u nnat u ral c r u e l and

.
,

i nh u m a n for ,

u a k e rs w e r e
( )
a Q p roh i b i t e d t h e c o u ntry on p a i n of ,

d e ath .

b W i t c h e s s o c a ll e d w e r e tr i e d c ond e m n e d and p u n i sh e d
.
,
-

, , , .

I I I T h e q u e st i on c ons i d e rs wh e th e r th i s c r i t i c i s m has b e e n
.

too s e v e r e .

1 B a n c ro f t
’
s H i s t ory of t b c U n i te d S t a tes , Vo l . I p 4 54
, . .
3 94 A P P EN D I X .

B R I EF P R O P ER .

The N ew England P u r i tans have b e e n c e ns u r e d too

s e v e r e ly for th e i r tr e at m e nt of t h e Q u ak e rs and s o
c all e d w i t c h e s for

l
l
,

a . A c o m m u n i t i e s a r e l i abl e to s u c h e rrors for ,

1 . I t was t h e c as e i n Eng land for ,

( )
a In Ess e x and Su ff ol k
1
2 0 0 w e r e i nd i c at e d as

a f fl i c t e d and o n e half of th e m e x e c u te d -

2 . I t was t h e cas e i n t h e N e w York N e gro Plot fi fty

ye ars lat e r .

b . T h e laws of t h e c o u ntry f u rn i sh e d an e xa m pl e for th e i r

a c t i on for ,

1 . B an i sh m e nt on p a i n of d e ath was c o m m on i n Engl i sh

l e gi slat i on for ,

( )
a Th i s was an a c t of El i z ab e th i n r e ard to d i s
g

l
s e nt e rs .

( )
b J ohn Q u i b u r ne i n 1 6 2
5 was so b
, a n i s h e d b y ,
.

Parl i am e nt .

c . Th e i r r i g ht to th e i r t e rr i tory was absol u t e for ,

1 . Th e y had p a i d d e arly for t h e p r ivi l e ge of e n j oyi ng

fre e do m of i n c l i nat i on i n r e l i g i o u s m atte rs for ,

( )
a Th e y had for that p u r p os e s u ff e r e d e xi l e
, , .

2 . Th e i r c h a rte r g a v e th e m e x p r e ss p owe r to e x pu ls e “

all s u c h p e rsons as sho u ld at any t i m e a tt e m pt or , ,

e nt e r p r i s e d e tr i m e nt or any annoyan c e to th e i r
p lantat i on or i ts i nha b i tants 2
.

l
d . It was nat u ral that wi t c h c raft and t h e i nt e r v e nt i on of
Satan sho u l d s e e m to th e m t e rr i b l e b u t nat u ral a fi i e ,

t i ons for ,

1 . Th e y we r e s u rro u nd e d by g loo m i n nat u r e .

l
l
1 N or t b Am er i c a n R ev i ew , vo . 1 08 , p 3 43
. .

2 l y
P a f re
’
s H i s t ory f
o tb e U n i t e d S t a t es , vo . 1 , pp 3 8 7 , 3 8 8
. .
3 96 A P P E I VD I X

C O N C L U SI O N .

Si nc e all c o m m u n i t i e s a r e l i ab l e to s u c h e rrors s i n c e Eng ,

land f u rn i sh e d th e m w i th e x a m p l e s s i n c e what th e y d i d was ,

p e rfe c tly lawf u l Si n c e th e i r b e l i e f i n w i t c h e s and t h e i n t e r ve n

,

t i on of Satan was nat u ral Si n c e th e y a c t e d as th ey b e l i e v e d

, , ,

for th e i r s e lf p r e s e r v at i on s i n c e th e y we r e as a r u l e ki nd and
-

, , ,

sym p ath e t i c and s i n c e th e y softe n e d th e i r harsh m e as u r e s

,

wh e n th e y fe lt th e m s e l v e s stron g e no u g h to do so I c on c l u d e ,

that t h e N e w En g land P u r i tans ha v e b e e n c e ns u r e d too s e v e r e

ly for th e i r tr e at m e nt O f t h e Q u a k e rs and s o c all e d wi t c h e s .

WA S C O RN EI L L E G U I L T Y OF P L A G IA R I SM IN W RI T I NG
”
“
LE CID ?

Pro pos i t i on H e was gu i lty Of p lag i ar i s m .

A a nd B . I N T R O D U CT I O N AN D N A R RA T I O N .

'

A l m ost i m m e d i at e ly aft e r t h e p u bl i c at i o n of t h e C i d Sc u d e r i ,

a c c u s e d Corn e i ll e O f p lag i a r i s m .

Plag i ar i s m d e fi n e d : T h e a c t o i a p pro p r i at i ng t h e i d e as or -

lan g u ag e of anoth e r and p ass i n g th e m for on e s own l i t e rary ’

ll
, ,

th e ft . Wa p o e ( W or c e st e r s D i c t i onary) ’
.

C . P RO O F .

( ) a Plot of Corn e i ll e s C i d i s p ra c t i c ally

’
t h e sa m e as that of
De Castro s C i d
’
.

I In s i t u at i ons
. .

2 In c hara c t e rs
. .

( )
b N o t only a r e t h e p lots p ra c t i c ally al ik e b u t t h e sa m e ,

s i m i lar i ty o c c u rs i n t h e lan g u ag e of t h e two p lays .

’
1 Th e r e a re p assag e s wh e r e t h e tho u g hts a re De Castro s
.

tho u g hts e x p r e ss e d i n Sl i g htly alt e r e d for m ( e xa m pl e)

 AP P B N D] X .
397

2Th e r e a re p assage s that a re v e ry c los e translat i ons

.

( e x a m p l e s ) .

3 Th . e r e a r e p assag e s that a r e word for word translat i ons - -

e x a m pl e s )
( .

()c If Corn e i ll e had a c knowl e d g e d th e s e p assage s h e w o u ld ,

rha s ha v b n fr e e fro m t h e c harg e of p lag i ar i s m

l
p e p e
,
e e ,

b u t h i s fi rst e d i t i on O f t h e C i d c onta i n s no a c k n o w e dg
m e nt to D e Castro .

a ) H e w e nt f u rth e r and sa i d h e was i nd e bt e d to no o n e

’

( .

e ) W h e n o n e of h i s e n e m i e s showe d t h e p la c e s of r e s e m
(
b lan c e i n t h e two C i ds th e n and only th e n d i d Cor , , ,

n e i ll e p u b l i c ly ad m i t that h e had borrowe d fro m De

Castro .

D R E FU T A T I O N . .

( )
a I t m a
y b e c ont e nd e d that Corn e i ll e s C i d d i ff e rs i n ’

d e ta i l fro m that O f De Castro .

l
I G rant i n g th i s c ont e nt i on for t h e m o m e nt t h e fac t st i ll
.
,

r e m a i ns that Corn e i ll e b orrowe d wi tho u t a c k n o w e d g

m e nt : so th i s c ont e nt i on do e s not a f fe c t t h e q u e st i on at
‘

i ss u e .

2 B u t th i s c ont e nt i on m u st fal l to t h e g ro u nd for a n

.

oth e r r e ason na m e ly : Corn e i ll e had to c onfor m to t h e

, ‘

l
l
r u l e O f t h e thr e e u n i t i e s .

A t h e c han g e s h e m ad e we r e m ad e so that t h e C i d sho u ld

not O f fe n d aga i nst
I . T h e u n i ty of t i m e ,

2 . T h e u n i ty of p l a c e ,

3 . T h e u n i t y of a c t i on ,

and t h e c hang e s we r e m ad e only i n SO far as to c onfor m to

th e s e r u l e s .

( )
a It m a
y b e f u rth e r m a i nta i n e d that t h e Ro m an c e Of th e
“

C i d was c o m m on p ro pe rty
”
.

( b ) Th i s c ont e nt i on also do e s not

,
a f fe c t ,
t h e q u e st i on at

i ss u e as Corn e i ll e h i m s e lf i n t h e p r e fac e to h i s lat e r

, ,

e vi d e n c e says that h e c o p i e d fro m De Castro

, .
3 98 A P P EN DI X .

E . C O N C L U SI O N .

( ) a p fro
Su m m i n g m D and Cu .

Con c l u s i on p ro p e r Corn e i ll e was .

g u i lty Of p lag i ar i s m .

W A S L IN COL N P L A N O F R E C O N ST R U C T I O N SU P E RI O R
’
S To

T H E C O NG R E SS I O N A L P L A N ?

B R I EF FO R TH E A F FI R M A T I V E

l
.

E xp a na t ory .

L i n c oln s p lan was i n o u tl i n e as follows :

’

A n oath to s u pp ort t h e Const i t u t i on and t h e laws o f

’

I .

Con g re ss and p ro c lam at i ons of t h e Ex e c u t iv e p ro m u l g at e d

d u r i ng t h e war to b e ad m i n i st e r e d b y t h e m i l i tary a u t h o ri
t i e s to thos e wi ll i n g to tak e i t .

2 . T h e Stat e g o v e rn m e nt to b e r e e stabl i sh e d by p e rson s

tak i n g t h e oath and who sho u ld b e l e g al v ot e rs u nd e r t h e
,

Stat e const i t u t i on i n for c e b e for e s e c e ss i on : c e rta i n p e r

sons ( O ffic e rs of t h e Confe d e ra c y O ffi c e rs of t h e U S who , . .

l
had g on e o v e r to t h e Confe d e ra c y e t c ) b e i n g e x c e pt e d ; , .

t h e n u m b e rs O f thos e tak i n g p art i n t h e r e é s t a b i s h m e n t

'

b e i n g a t l e ast o n e t e nth t h e n u m b e r of p e rsons v ot i n g at t h e

-

r e g u lar e l e c t i ons i n 1 8 60 i n t h e r e s pe c t iv e Stat e s .

3 . T h e g o v e rn m e nts so r e c onstr u c t e d to b e r e c og n i z e d by
t h e N at i onal G o v e rn m e nt t h e ho u s e s of Con g r e ss b e i n g
,

l e ft to d e c i d e as to t h e ad m i ss i on of m e m b e rs fro m t h e r e
c onstr u c t e d Stat e s .

4 . W h e n loyal g o v e rn m e nts h a d b e e n m a i nta i n e d th e s e to ,

b e r e c o g n i z e d at on c e .

5 . S
( ggu e st i on m e re l y ) T h e nam e s . bo u ndar i e s s u b , ,

d ivi s i ons c onst i t u t i onal and g e n e ral c od e s of laws of t h e

,

s e v e ral State s to b e r e ta i n e d .

6 . T h e p lan not to b e c ons i d e r e d t h e only a c c e ptabl e o n e .

400 AP P EN D I X .

( )
a I n t h e m att e r O f c ontrol o v e r fran c h i s e ;

( )
b In r e g ard to t h e Fo u rt e e nth A m e nd m e nt .

3 . It ass u m e d t h e r i g ht to r e c onstr u c t or g u arant e e a

r e pu bl i c an for m of g o v e rn m e nt to b e i n t h e Ex e c u t iv e
”
,

wh i l e t h e oth e r p lac e d i t i n Con g r e ss Cons i d e rat i ons .

m a ki n g f o r L i n c oln s V i e w a r e
’

a ) That fro m t h e nat u r e O f th i n s E x t iv a t i on i s

( g e c u e c

n e c e ssary to c arry o u t t h e c la u s e ;
( )
b That i t i s also q u i c k e r and s u r e r .

4 . T h e Con g r e ss i onal p lan we nt far b eyond any p o w e rs

c on v e y e d i n t h e c la u s e to u arant e e a r e pu bl i c an for m
(
“ ”
g ,

e tc
)
.

I ) I n t h e m att e r of fran c h i s e ;
(
2 ) I n vi olat i n i nd ivi d al r i hts l i k tr i al b j ry
( g u g ,
e
y u ;

(3 ) In vi olat i n g t h e c onst i t u t i onal r i ght of t h e Stat e

to r e p r e s e ntat i on ;
( )
4 I n i nfr i n g i n g t h e Pr e s i d e nt s ’

p r e ro g at iv e of p ardon .

II . L i n c oln s p lan was p r e fe rabl e as r e g ards e x p e d i e n c y

’

I . It was q u i c ke r ;
2 . It was l e ss r i g i d and m i n u t e and h e n c e l e ss O pp r e ss iv e ;
,

3 . It a v o i d e d or wo u ld shorte n m i l i tar y r u l e ;
4 . It was p ra c t i c al ( as was shown by J ohnson s e x p e r i m e nt) ’

and i ts r e s u l t s so far as te ste d sat i sfa c tory ;

'
, ,

5 . I ts p u r pos e and s p i r i t we r e b road a n d p atr i ot i c thos e of ,

t h e oth e r p lan thoro u g hly p art i san and n arrow ;

6 . T h e r e s u lts of t h e Con g r e ss i onal p lan as a p p l i e d we r e

s u c h e nor m i t i e s of m i sr u l e as c o u ld s c ar c e ly hav e b e e n
e x c e e d e d by thos e of any oth e r p lan w h a t S oe v e r .

M A T ER I A L FO R B R I E FS .

Sp ee c h e sand e ssays fro m wh i c h b r i e fs m a y b e drawn b y

l
st u d e nts i n ord e r to tra i n th e m i n t h e br i e f for m and to Show
th e m t h e c ar e f u str u c t u r e that u nd e rl i e s all g ood A rg u m e nta
t i on m a y b e fo u nd i n Sp eci m en s of A rg u m en ta t i on ( Mod e rn ) .
 A P P B [VD ] X 401

H Holt 81 C O If i t s e e m s b e st that st u d e nts i nst e ad o f

. .
,

p ass i ng d i r e c tly fro m s u c h work to br i e fs of th e i r own on t h e

so m ewhat d i ffic u lt to pi c s th e y a r e to c ons i d e r sho u ld ha v e an ,

o pp ort u n i t y to draw b r i e fs of th e i r own fro m m at e r i al e asy to

handl e t h e followi ng wi ll b e u s e fu l
,
.

M A T ER I A L FO R A TRIAL B R I EF .

In last ye ars of t h e s ix te e nth c e nt u ry a m a n i n m i ddl e

the ,

l i f e p oor wi th no atte ndants a pp e ar e d i n V e n i c e ass e rt i n g

, , , ,

h i s c la i m to t h e thron e of Port u g al as Don Se bast i an i ts ,

for m e r ki n g So m e twe nt y ye ars b e for e yo u n g Don Se bast i an

.
, ,

th e n ki n g of Port u g al had c ross e d i nto A fr i c a w i th t h e flowe r

l
,

O f h i s c o u rt and ar m y for a c r u sad e a g a i nst t h e I n fi de s th e ,

Moors In t h e first b attl e h i s ar m y was ro u t e d w i th t e rr i b l e

.
,

loss an d i n t h e c onfu s i on h e d i sappe ar e d Th e r e we r e r u m ors

,
.

that h e had e s c a p e d and had b e e n s e e n i n h i d i ng at a m onas

t e r y i n Port u g al ; th e r e we r e also r u m ors that h e was d e ad .

A S t i m e p ass e d all e x c e p t a v e ry f e w i n Port u g al who st i ll

,

ho p e d b e l i e v e d that h e was d e ad Ph i l i p I I took Port u g al

, . .

u nd e r h i s c ontrol and i t was to wi n s u pp ort e rs aga i nst t h e

,

Sp an i sh ki n g that t h e c la i m ant work e d .

H e sa i d that h e fle d i n t h e ro u t and wand e r e d a b o u t w i th

h i s followe rs ; that b e c au s e of t h e o v e rwh e l m i ng nat u r e O f h i s
d e fe at i n th i s fi rst b attl e of w hat h e h a d b e l i e v e d to b e a holy
war h e fe lt a j u d g m e nt of Go d i n h i s d e f e at and was too
, ,

o v e r c om e too d i sg ra c e d to Show h i m s e lf to t h e p e op l e
, , .

Th e r e for e h e we nt to t h e Portu g u e s e m onast e r y i n h i d i n g

'

, ,

th i n ki n g lat e r to r e v e al h i m s e l f H i s s e ns e of d i sg ra c e i n
.

c r e as e d how e v e r and h e d e t e r m i n e d to do p e nan c e b fi ht i n

, , y g g
wi th h i s s m all band of followe rs ag a i nst t h e Payn i m i n t h e
East H e na m e d m any East e rn c o u ntr i e s i n wh i c h h e h a d
.

tra v e l e d and fo u g ht A ft e r m u c h s u c c e ssf u l fig ht i ng fi n d i ng

.
,

that h i s fe e l i n g that h i s d e fe at had b e e n a j u d g m e nt of G o d

g r e w u on h i m
p h e d e t e r m i,
n e d to b e c o m e a h e r m i t and d i s ,
402 A P P B IVD / X

m i ss e d all O f h i s followe rs To a f e llow h e r m i t h e tol d h i s

.
-

story and th i s m an s stron g app e als aro u s e d h i m to ass e rt h i s

,
’

r i g hts H e g ath e r e d so m e s e r v ants ab o u t h i m and s e t O ff

.
,

for V e n i c e to p r e ss h i s c la i m s O n t h e road h i s s e rvants .

ro b b e d h i m of e v e ryth i n g and d e s e rte d h i m .

H e u r g e d h i s c lai m s w i th g r e at p la u s i b i l i ty g a i n i n g m any ,

s u pport e rs In m e e t i n g t h e O pp os i t i on o ff e r e d h i m b y t h e
.

fr i e nds of Ph i l i p wh i c h a m o u nt e d to so m e th i n g not u nl ik e
,

p e rs e c u t i on h e showe d m u c h d i n i ty and m a nl i n e ss r e m a i n i ng
, g ,

thro u g ho u t e x a m i nat i ons and tortu r e u nswe r vi ng i n h i s stat e

m e nt that h e was t h e ki n g H e told s e v e ral stor i e s of t h e
.

ki n g s yo u th and of h i s yo u ng m anhood that showe d an i nt i

’

m at e k nowl e d g e of Don Se b ast i an s l i fe H e s p ok e Port u gu e s e

’
.

wi th an a c c e nt ga i n e d h e sa i d by Sp e ak i n g for twe nty ye ars

, , ,

t h e lan g u ag e s of t h e East Don Se b ast i an h a d had m ar k e d

.

p h y s i c al c hara c t e r i st i c s a l i
,
m p so m e wo u nds e t c T
,
h e l i m p , .

and t h e s c a r s t h e c la i m ant showe d So m e p e rsons who had

‘
.

k nown Don Se b ast i an m a i nl y howe v e r i g norant p e o pl e who

, , ,

had n o t k nown h i m we ll r e c og n i z e d t h e c la i m ant as t h e k ing

,

th e y h a d s e e n twe nty ye ars b e for e ( For fu rth e r part i c u lars .

,

s e e b i o g ra ph i c al d i c t i onar i e s ) .

F i rst d e te r m i n e what a re t h e e ss e nt i al i d e as to b e p ro v e d for

or ag a i nst t h e c la i m ant and th e n s u pp ort th e s e b y s u b h e ads -

drawn fro m t h e e vi d e n c e stat e d i n t h e ab o v e a c c o u nt Fro m .

th i s m at e r i a l dra w a b r i e f e i th e r i n s u pport O f or aga i nst t h e

c la i m s O f th i s m a n .
404 I N DE X .

d b om i n e m defin i ti o li
l
li
A rg u m en tu m a , n c o r re a t on in, 1 40 c ro wd e d

of, 2
59 ; goo d and fa a c o u s u se s head i ngs in , 1 4 2 —
14
5 ; s um m ar y

li
of 261 of
2
59 1 50
—
.
, , .

A ss e rt i on , wh a t i t is , 1 76 ; not
p ro o f Conc us on Of , 1
5 0 -
1
54 wh e n t o
yt h i g it
l
of 18 1— 2 ; w h a t i t p ro u se a n d wh e n t o om
an n 1 50 1
53 ;
—
, ,

d c e s ill t b y B e a c o n s fie d y
li
ra t e d sum m ar Of
u , us , 1
54 .

f o e sic 1 8 2 ic
l
18
r n 5 ; h o w th e a s s er Re a t on of to f o re n s 2 69— 70,
—
, ,

t i ve n e s s of the B e a c o n s fie d f o r e n
l
l
2 74 .

sic m a
y be re m o ve d , 18
5
—
1
92 Br i ef s q u o t ed, a s i u s t ra t o n s o f i
p ro p er s u pp o r t o f , 1 92 96
—
1 . A vo id a n ce of f or
’
an d
‘
b e ca u s e
’

i
A s s u m pt on, d i tis ng u i s h e d f ro m
p re i n th e i n t ro d u c t o n , i F, 10
3 .

m pt i
su on,
3 08 , f o o t n o t e . E xa m pl e s of go o d br i ef s , H , 1 1 1 ;
A v id a ce a n yt h i n g t h a t

li
o n of m a
y J 121 ;
, U, 1
5 4 ; V , 1
59 .

a ro u s e hos t i l i ty to en d in i
v e w, Ba d c o rr e a t o n in br i ef p ro p e r,

l
6
3 3 3 66 —
. O, 1
37 .

Do ub e m ar ki g n , E, 1 02 .

k d e fi it i ii
l
La c Of n on, B , 92 , re v s o n

B e a c o n s fie d f o r e n s ic ,q u o te d, 1 7— 8, Of, B 2, 9 3 ; C , 9 5 , re v s o n i i of ,

182 —
18 5 re v s o n ii of , 18
5
—
1 92 . C 1
, 97 .

o id e d ive i ion of c l i
l
B ec a u se , to be a v a s c o n n ec t Om ss o n c us on , T, 1 52 .

in br i ef i n t ro d c tio u n s, 1 03 , il us P hr a si g i d e a n s a s re a s o n s , K , 2
5;
t ra t e d by Br ief F, 1 03 ; va l u e f o L, 1 27 ; M, 1 29 .

as con n e c t iv e in br i e f p ro p e r , Pre j d i c i l i t d c t i s G 1 0 6
u a n ro u on , , .

1
3 1 2 Re f t t i
u a pl c d a t b g i
on i g f a e e nn n o
—
.

ief i b i ef H 1 1 1
li l
Br s , c h a pt e r on d ra w ng of , 83 r , ,
.

1 65 ; or igi n Of , 83 re a t on o f to R f ta ti o p ce d t
e u d f b i f n a a en o r e ,

y defin t on Of , ii
l l
s um m ar , 84 9 1 —
I, I I 7 .

8 5 ; t h re e d ivi i
s o n s of , 8 6 ; wo r k Re f u t t io n p a c ed
a in ~
m i dd e of

i ii ief J 1 2 1
li
the d v s ons Of , 9 1 —
1 65 . br , , .

I n t ro d u c t io n of, 8 6, 9 1 —
1 08 ; l e n g th St a t e m e n t O f conc us on , S, 1 51 .

l l im i 48
li
of, tes t o f , f o r, U nc a c t c a r ra n g e m e n t , R, 1
1
9 2 ; 92 ru es
—
.

97 ; r l i
c o re a t o n o f , 99 ; pr e u j d ic e U n c o r re a te d n t ro d u c t o n , i I) , 1 00 ,

in , 10
5 ; sum m ar y of , 1 08 . re v s o n O f i i , 1 00 .

Br i ef p ro
pe r Of , 1 08 —
1 50 ; t wo V a g u en ess , A, 85; re v s o n s ii of ,

k i n ds o f re f u t a t i on in, 1 09 —
1 1 1 ; A 1
, 87 8 -
A 2
, 89 9 1
-

fi rs t g re a t re q isit e
u Of , ph r a s i ng V a g u en ess of p h ra s n g i n i b r ef i
hea d in g s and s ub -
h ea d i ngs as p ro e
p ,r O, 1
37 .

r e as o n s , 1 2
5
—
1
34 va g u e n e s s O f V a g u e t ra n s t ii on s, P, 1 38 .

p h ra s i ng in , 1
35
—
1
38 ; second W ro n g c o n n e ct ve s , i N, 1 2
3 , re v i
q is i t
li
g re a t re u e Of, c o r re c t co r s i o n lo f , N 1, 1 33 .

ii i quo ted ic
l
be Br ef s s Of
re a t on 1
38 1 47 ; t ra n s t on top
—
, ,

t we e n d i i i
v s ons Of , 1 38
—
1 40 ; A re the A s t ro n o m ic a Co nd i
 I /VD E X . 405

ti o n s D e s c rib e d i C l s t h e y n ro l ’
or l
l
Wi t h e N e w R e s i Fo o t b l u l n a l
S ffi c ie t t t f o r th e i m p ve t h e G m e ? 1 3 2 3 e
l
u cc n o a oun ro a —
, r

C im c ti c C d i ti f th isio O f 1 3 3 4
ll
a on ons O e v n ,
—
.

G a c i a Ep c h ? 1 0 3 1 0 5 W l d t h e N w e g ia Sy t e m f
l
l l
o —
. ou or n s O

A r t h e I i sh j s tifi e d i U i g i g Li q o r b P c tic b e i
l
ll
e r u n s n s e n u e ra a n

I e g a M t h o d s O f R e si t a c e M as s a c h u se t t s ?

l l
s n 9 7 99
—
e .

t o E g is h R e ? 8 5
n e i i s u , r v s on i
B r e f s , s p e c m e n , a pp e n d , 3 77 400 i ix —
.

B ri e f , t r a a pp e n d , 40 1 i l ix
l
of , 8 7, 8 9 9 1 —
. , .

ly i iy i
l l
Car e s Es t m
’
a te of the 1 8th B re v t , i n t h e p e r o ra t o n , 3 3 6 ; e s
C en tu r y i s I n c o rre c t , 9 2 3 , —
re sen ti a i n a n y a pp e a t o t h e e m o
ii i 66 m eth o d Of in
l
O f 9 3 9 5 ; 1 48 t o n s,
9
35 3 ; a ga
—
v s on —
.

i i ng, 361
l
Di d th e Counc of C o n st a n ce .

m a nta i i n the Pr i c ip e
n tha t it
C .

y f o th e C h ch
l
wa s N e ce s s a r r ur

t o k e ep Fa i t h w i t h a H e t i c ? re C e n t ra i d e a, t o fin d l i
re a t o n Of , to
-

6 . o th e r ideas in th e c a se, 77 7 9
-
.

D o e s L a m b Ri g h t y e s t i m a t e t h e l C h o ice j
li
of su b ect,

l
375 .

A r ti fi c i a C o m e dy o f t h e L a s t C i iiv za t on , va u e defin i ti o n
g o f in
C en t u r y ”
8
?
3 9 1 —
. s t u den t s
’
f o re n s ic , 46 ; g o o d d e fin i
Do e s t he i a g a ra
G o rg e o f t h e N i
t o n of , 53 .

i f f d a S ffi c i e t I d x l io n
ll
R ve r a or u n n e C e a rn e s s , i n t h e p e r o ra t , 3 39
D ra t i ci

l
Of the O f P ost G
u on -
a a 40 .

i e i io i x l ief s
l
l i
t me ? 1 00 1 4 1 9
5 5 ,
—
r v s n C m a , u s ef u n e s s O f in b r 47 , 1

i
l
of , 1 00 -
1 . 1
50 ; u s t ra t ons Of , B 2, 93 ; R ,

I s th e E pu s o n Of th e x i J e ws f
l li
ro m 1 45 .

R u ss a i
Ju s t i fia b e ? 1 1 1— 1 1 7, Conc us on, i Of a b r ef , 8 6 7 ; —
1
50
itted
l l il
1
5 1 . 1
54 ; when it m ay be o m ,

l
q l
I s t h e G o t h e n b u rg P an f o r So v 1
5 1
0—
53 ; u s t ra t e d by S , 1
5 1

iq Q i i i yi ry
li
in g the L T, f
lM
u or u es t o n Fr a c t 1 5 2 ua ng, 1
53 ; sum m a

Ca b is
l 95 6
in a s s a ch u s e t t s ? Of re a t o n Of t o p re m
e 1
54 ; e,
—
.
,

Rem o va Of th e T r o o ps f ro m B o s 2 44 wh e n t o b e sta ted in an in

y qu o te
l l
ton i s N e cessa r , 1 2 1 — 1 2 4, 1
5 2 . t r o d u c t i o n , 2 74 —
2 76 do no t

ys t e m y
l
Sh o u d B o s t o n a do pt a S Of m ere , 96 7 2 -

E i d e c e 3 0 1 3 04
l
U n d e rg r o u n d or Of e va t e d C o n c re t e n e ss, i n ev n ,
—

T ra n s t ? i 1 59
—
1 65 . va u e f i p e s a s io
O
3 62 3 n r u n, -
.

W as it W is e f Ad a m s to s en d C on n e c t ive s i n b ri e f i t o d c t i

l
or , s n r u on ,

th e En vo y t s o Fra n c e i n 1 79 9
? c o rr ect a d i cor ect 1 03n il s n r , , u

l
l
1 06 t ra t e d b y F, 10
.
3 .

W as Swi f t M a rr i e d C o n n ec t i in br ief r
l
l
to St e a ? ve s co r ect
p ro p e r ,
i i
l
l ll
1 1 7 an d n c o rr e c t , 1 3 ,
2 u s t ra t e d by
Wi M a t th ew A rn o d i ve as a N and N 1
, 1 3 2 —
3 .

P oet ? 1 2 7— 8, 1 29 —
1 3 1 , 1 40 . C o n sis ten c y Of sta t e m en t, w th i o rd i
406 IN DE X .

nar y e x p e ri e n c e , 22 1 —
224 ; wea k f o re n s ic i n tro d u c t o n s , i 45 6 ,
-

2 72

i i
l
n ess O f th s t e s t, 2 2 4 ; w th k n o wn 2 74 .

f a cts Di
l
Of th e da n ger em m th e , m etho d of re f u
ca se, 2 24
5 a a
—

of th i s t est, 2 2 5 —
6 ; w th i i t se f , t i on,
3 0 6—

3 0 8 .

2 2 6— D i i io of i
l
7 . v s n s, a rg u m e n ta t on, t

C on vi c t io n , m eth od of , 1 il u s t ra f our g re a t , 1
30
-
1
32 ; Of br
i k
l l
l
t Of 2— t h e we a c o r re c t o rd e r of , 1
on p u re , 3 ; n e ss p ro p e r , 33
of p u re , 5 ; i n t e r re a ti o n w t h pe r i t ra n s t ii ons b e t we e n , 1 8
3 , i us

i k ic i
l i
s uas o n , 7; wo r Of f o re n s n t ra t e d by P , 1
38 .

l ti Do ub int i
il l
t ro d u c t i o n in , 2 7 1 — 2 79 ; re a ve e m a rk g, in n ro d u c t o n ,

p ro po r t i on in f o re n s ic i n t ro d u c 1 02 , u s t ra t e d by E, 1 02 ; in
i
t on of pe rs u a s i on and of , 2 2 ; i
b r e f p ro p e r , 1 47 .

wo r k of a rg u m e n t p r o pe r in,
i R

l
29
3 3 O f 19
p e ; w o rk
r o ra t o n i n ,
—

i li
3 2 5 3 2 9 ; m n g n g wi t h p e rs u a
—
E ega n ce , i n f o re n s ic i n t ro d u c t o n , i
i i
s o n i n p e ro r a t o n ,
33 4 ; a im of , 2 76 7 —
.

y i io
l l
3 4 4 ; t d f as ppo e d t
s u o , O s o Em i n p e rs u a s
ot on , n,
3 57 da nge r
t dy i 3 50 ; ti e i q u a i t ie s
l l
f p O f sh o w ng, 3 8 ; t h re e
s u o e rs u a s o n , re a v
5
p o po ti
r wi t h w i te a d s p
r on k r r n ea er essen t a i to ap
pe a s to, 3 5 9 3 66
—
.

f p a s io d f 3 7 1 3 73 Em p h a s i in i
l
o e rs u n an o ,
-
. s, a rg u m e n t a t o n , 310
ti f b ief i n t d c ti
l
l l
C o r re a on, O r ro u on,
315 .

99 i d e i i i l
l
,t t e d b y I)
us ra , an r v s on, Ev d e n c e p , a ce Of ru e s o f , in a rg u

1 00 ; t h re e co m m on e r r o rs of, m e n ta t i on , 1 y f
9; stud o ru es O f ,

se co n d m a i di isi o n of

li
1 45
—
1 47 . th e n v a rg u

C o rr e Of br i ef i 6 c h a pt e r

il
a t on p ro p e r, 1 40
-
1 42, m en ta t o n ,
3 7 1 ; on , 1

l us t ra t e d by Q , 1 40 . 2 68 ; n a t u re O f , 1 7 6 1 96 ; d e fin i —

C ro w d e d h e a d i in br i ef i
t o n Of , 1 80 ; n d s o f , 1 96 2 2 0 ; ki
l
n
gs p ro p e r,
—

1 4 2 —
145 . not i i
m te d as in c o u r ts, 1 97 -
8;
i ii
l
t h re e com m on d v s ons Of ,
1 98
2 06 i i and c i rc u m s t a n

l
; t est m on a

De fi n t ii i i i i i
i li i i
on, of a rg u m e n t a t o n , 1 t a , 1 99 ; d re c t a n d n d re c t , 1 99

th e se co n d s te
p in a rg u m e n t a t o n , i 202 f o u rt h po ss b e d v s o n O f
; a ,

40 n ecessa r y f or an u n d e rs t a n d 2 0 9 2 1 4 ; re a s o n wh y
—
u est o ned, q i
ii j i
li i
Of h re e g r o u n d s O f O b e c t o n

l
in g m ost p ro p o s t o n s , 4 1 ; 21
5 ; t

d f i fic u yt of fi i
n d n g s a t sf a c t o r , i y to, 2 16 ; wh y c a re f u s f t ng is

44 ; f o u r r e q u i me t in 46 4 9 y 6 q i
l
re n s n e c essa r 21 219 ; to uest on,
- -

, ,

of s ta t e sm a n ik e fi , ne a r ts and is to q u est on i a j u dg m e n t , 219

i il i i i
l
c v za t on , 5 0 —
54 ; d ff e r e n t 20 ; t e s ts of , 2 2 0— 2 38 , s ee Tes ts ;
i
l l
n ds O f

l
e t h o ds of wh a t t h re e k i n the m se
l
m , 5 4 59
—
; to ex , ves trust

i thy

l
63 6 6 ; i of ack and
ten t, u s t ra t o n s wo r 2
38 24 1 ; e x t e rn a
- —
,

i i i i
il
f
lk
Of , in b r ef n tro d u c t o n s, B , 92 , n t e rn a t ests of , 2 42 ; u se o

C , 95 ill u s t ra t i ons Of ac of , in m e t a ph o rs and s im es a s, 2 6

5 ;
408 IN DE X .

y i M as t e ry j
l
l
H ast p re p a r a t o n o f a n a rg u m e n t , of su b ec t , 3 7 8 1 —
.

t wo ru e s l to pre ve n t, 1 67 ; i us M e th o d s of con vi i ct o n , ai m of , 3 44 .

i M e th o ds p e rs a s i o
l
t ra t i o n of a, 1 67 1 71 ; a th rd of aim n, of
u
3 44
—
, .

re s u t of , 1 71 . M e th o ds of r ef t a t i o
u 30 5 n, —
3 09 .

ive i ef M o t ive s a iety of

l
I I e n c e, as w ro n g c on n e ct in b r , of me n, v r , in num
r il
l
u s t ra t e d by N , ber and g ra d e ,
p ro p e 132 3, 3 48 3 5 1 ; c h o o s e
- -

32
1 . i
t h e h g h e s t , 3 5 1 ; t h e a rg e r t h e

H u r tf u l a d m i ss o n s , 2 40 i . i
a u d en ce , th e h gh e r t h e , 3 5 2 i .

I N

l
.
.

I g n or a t i o E e n cb i , 2 2 65
59
—
.
N a rro w i ng th e q u es tio n , 1 08 .

q i
l
Ign o ri n g t h e 2 65
u est on , 2
59 N e g a t iv i y
—

test m on 2 39
.

e , .

Ind i id
v iy
ua t in a rg u m e n t a t o n , i N on c a u sa , p r o ca n s a , 251 -
2 .

l
1 72 1 75 I Von u i tu r , 2 4
-

5
.

se
q .

I n te rna tes ts of e vi d e n c e , 242 -

2 67,

see Tes t s .
O

l
.

I n t ro d u c t i on, Of a b ri ef , 86 —
1 08 ;
Obj ect io n s, fa l y ac of 2 62 -
2 64
l , .

e n gt h of , 91
-
2 ; tes t Of , 92 ;
a s O pp o s e d
O ra t o r , t o a c to r, 3 58
r i
.

i n p h a s n g o f , 9 2 99 ,
l l
l
va
g u en ess i io
-

O r d e r , p ro p o s t n
p ro o f , i n f o r e n
il ,

l
u s t ra t e d b 8 2, C , 9 ;

l
y A , 2, , 9 5 sic, 29
5
il i
.

l
r u e s f o r, 9 7 u s t ra t o n s O f c o r
i i f q e s t i o s t dy o f t h
l
Or g n O u n, u e
re a t ed and u n c o r re a t e d , l I) a nd
i r s t e p i n a a ys is 66 d a g
th d n
,

n er
ii pre j u d c e i n , 1 1 5, i ,

il
re v s o n , 1 00 ;
a v id d b t d y o f 69
o
y e s u
l , .

u s t ra t e d b y G , 1 0 6
O i g i n a l i ty i a g m en t a ti o
.

r 1 72 n r u n,
O f a f o re n s c , 2 7 1 2 93 ; w o r O f i k
l
-

1 75
i i il
.

co n v c t o n in,
9; 2 71 27 us
li ic in t r
-

O ut ne, u se Of , in f o re n s o
t ra t i o n s o f b a d a n d g o o d, 2 72
duct io n , 2 76
ki ds
.

2 74 t h re e n of p o o r , 2 74
wh e n cl i b e s t a te d
l
con us o n to
in, 2 74

l
2 76 ; u se O f an out i
l
ne
-

’
e ro r a t i o n , i m po t a ce 3 2 2 ; i ts r n

l ill
in , 2 76 2 76
in, j
,
; e eg a n ce ; p re
wo k i i c ti f 3 2 5 3 29 ;
u d i ci a i c
r n on v on o -

Of ,
,
, 2 7 7, u s t ra t o n
w k i pe s a si
l
Of 2
3 9 3 34 ;
2 78 ; sum m ar y Of , 2 79 ; p e rs u a
or n r u on ,
—

m i g in g f i ctio d pe
i in,
n O conv n an r

li
s on 2 79 -
292, s ee P er s a n
s i on io s Of
su as io i 33 4 ;n a i d nc f
n, vo a e o
; r e a t ve
p ro p o rt n
s ta t em e n ts not in a rg u m e n t
con vi c ti on a nd p e rs u a s i o n in ,
2 92 0
p ro p e r , 3 3 5 ; q u a l i t ies of a go od,
335 3 4 0
-

; a im of ,
3 40 ; su m m ar y
L

l
of
.

2
3 4 .

Log ic , re a t i o n of to a rg u m e n t a P e rs u a s io n, m e th od of , 1 ; ill u s t ra t o n i
i
t on, 1 3 -
1
5 . of p u re , 4 5 ; w e a k n e s s o f p u re , 3 ;
-
 I N DE X . 409

i n t e rre a t o n O f li i i 7; , w th i co n v ct on , P re m is e , re a l ti on to co n c li u s o n , 2 44 ;

a s t h e f o r t h g re a t d i i s i o n u n d u e a ssu m i 2 5 1 — 2 58

l
Of of
u v pt o n ,
.

a rg m e n t a t i o
u 3 2 ; r e a t ive p ro n, P r es u m p t io n , d is t i n g u sh e i d f r om

p t i o s i n f o ren s i c in t o d c t i o
or n r u n , a ssu m pt i on,
3 08 , f o o t n o t e .

o f c o n vi c t i o n a n d o f 2 9 2 ; c h a pt e ,
r P ro o f , ro u gh d ivis i o n of , 1 0 9; or i g in
o n
3 4 3 3 74 ; i m p o t a n c e o f 3 4 3 ; r a n d n a t u re o f 1 80
-

,
.
, ,

a im of 3 4 4 fi e l d , Of 3 44 5 ; ,
-

P rop o s t i i o n n o t t e rm 3 3 ; m e t h o d s
, ,

s o u rc es o f 3 4 5 3 48 f ro m of d e c i d in g w h e t h e r i t p h r a s e s
l
,
-
n a t u re

o f s ub ect ,
3 4 5 6 f ro m r h e t o ri c a
j q e s t i o n i n d isp t e 40 d e fi n i t i o n
u u
—
,

t r e a t m e n t o f s u b j e c t , 3 46 7 f r o m n e c e s s a ry f o r n d e s t a n di n g m os t

l
-
u r ,

a
pp i i ca t on of j
s u b e c t t o a u d en ce , i 41 .

3 4 7 8 ;
—
stud y of , as O pp o s e d to P ro vi g t r n u e Of a p a r t o n ly , 2 64 .

y i i P u rp o s e o f bo ok ,
l
s tu d of co n v c t on , t hi s
3 50 ; e ssen 27 .

ti a s of , 3 50 ; s u ggest o n s i f o r ga i n P rp o s e o f
u t es t s of e vi d e n ce , 2 67 .

cita ti

l
i n g , 3 5 1 3 57 b y e x -
on
3 57 ,

va u e o f c o n c r e t e n e ss i n ,
3 62 3 ; Q
l
- .

q ii k Q u a li fi ca t i o n l i
l
o rde r i n , 6 6 7 t i in
3 ; ua e s n s ea er
p c o n c u s o n s, 1 53
—
, ;
or i ic h b in g 3 67 3 70 ; e
wr t e r w h r ,
—
r in u se of e vi d e n c e , 3 5 1 -
1
3 7 ;
a t i e p o po t i o wi th w i te r a n d
.

v r r n r ru es l f or a vo i d an c e o f , 317 .

s p e a ke r O f c o vi c t i o n a n d o f 3 7 1 n ,

R
3 73
.

W k or of , in a rg u m e n t i t s el f , 319 Re a d i ng, a com m o n m e t h o d o f , 1 66 .

3 22 ; h o w t o b e ga i ed 3 2 2
n , . R ed u c t i o a d a bs u r d u m , 3 5
0 —
6 .

W k i i o 2 79 2 9 2 ; qu ote ly
l
o f , i n n t ro d u c t

l
or n ,
—
R e f e ren c e s , d o not on , 29
5
wh e n s u b ectj is te ch i ca 280
n ut on a wh e r e t h e y b e on g
, p p ges ,

28 2 wh e n s pe a k e r is u n k n o wn , 29
5 .

i io n
l
28 wh e n a u d en ce m ay R ef u t a t
3 4
-

ie b ief p
il
b ecom e h o st 2 8 4—
5 wh e n In t wo
r ro p e r, 1 09 1 2
5;
-
,

i a u d en ce is h ost 2 86 ki d s o f
l
l
e, . n , 1 0 9— 1 1 1 how to ar

W k f i n p ero ra t o n , 3 2 9 3 3 4 ; i i
l
or O ra n
ge, 1 1 1 u s t ra t e d by H
-

, , , ,

mi g i Of , w th c o n v ct on , i i i ki n g
li
n ng 1 1 1 ; I, 1 1 7; J , 1 21 ; m ar

334 Of bad c o rr e a t o n Of ,
, 12
5 ;
P e rs u a s i ve m e th o ds in ar
g u m en t a 14
5 .

i f or im po Ef f e c t ive
l
t on , 1 5 ; re a s o n rt a n ce m e th o ds of
3 0
5 3 09
-

of , 3 43 4 ;
—
3 44 a im of , . wh a t it a cc o m p i sh e s , 309
P et i t i o p r i n c ip i i , 2 4 9 2 5 8 —
. d e s t ru c t ive not c o n stru ct ive ,

P b oc , p r op t er b oc , 2 5 2 3
l
os t
309
-
.
.

P re j i i i
u d c e , f a r a n d u n f a r, 2 1
9
-
2 . Re sem b a n ces , a r u m en t
g f ro m , 2 06

P r e j u d i c e d b r i ef in t r o d u c t i o n s , IO
5; 21 4 .

i c in t o d c t io i
l
f o re n s 8
li
r u n s , 2 77 -
. Re s d u e s , m e t h o d of , 3 08
-

9 .

P r e i m i n a ry d e fi i t i o n of t e rm s , a d Rh e t o r ic
l
n , re a t o n O f t o a rg u m e n t a
va n t a g e s o f , 5 9 63
-
.
t io n, 26 ; p a ce Of in ar
g u m en ta
4 10 IN DE X .

i
t on , 1 6 u ses Of p e rs u as ive e ff e c t , Su rp r is e , an l
e e m en t of , in t he
ion
3 46 7
l
p e r o ra t 335
—
,
. .

Rh e to r ic a s t r u c t u re , t h e th i rd gre a t
T
d ivi s i o n o f a rg u m e n t a t o n , i .

2
3 .

l a ti i d e n ce
l
Tab u on of e v , 2 09— 2 1 4 .

S Ta ct, an e s s e n t ia of io n
p e rs u a s
.

i
lj
Sh if ti n g g ro u n d , i n e v d e n c e , 2 6 1 2 —
.
37 1
0—
.

i i
S f t n g o f e d e n c e , w h y n e c e ss a r , vi y T echn ic a sub ect, i n t ro d u c t i o n to ,
2 1 6— 2 1 9 . 280 -
2 84 .

i
l
S gn , a rg u m e n t f ro m , 2 03 —
4 . T e rm , wh y w e ca n n ot a rg u e a ,
33 ;
iy
Si n c e r t , a n e s s e n t a i of p e r s u a s o n ,
i wa y i n w h ich d a n g er of t re a t i ng

ii i
l
l l l
t e rm pro po s t o n
as a r se s , 6
3 ;
k i v i i y
il l
S i a n e ss e n t ia of 1 a d a n t a g e s o f pre m d e fin i
, pe r s u as o n,
3 7 . nar

i io n
il
of ,
So u rc e s 3 4 5 3 48
of p e rs u a s o n , t 59 6 3 , u s t ra t e d b y, B ,
- -
.

i
Sp e c a s s u e , fi n d n g o f , t h e f o u r t h i
l l
9 2 i C : 95 °

g r e a t s t e p i n a n a s s, 70 ; yi T est m o n i y , g iv e n u n de r com pu
m e th o d of fi n di n g , 74 . i
s on , 2 28 -

9; u n d es ig n e d , 2 8 9 ;
3
-

Sp e c ia n t e res t sli of i
a u d e n ce , n eces n eg a t ive , 2 39 .

s it
y of fin d ng i o ut,
3 53 3 5 5
—
. Tests of e vi d en c e , 2 20 -
238 .

St a t e s m a n l ik e, va u e d e fi n i t io n
g of Of s ta te m e n t, 2 20 -
2 27 ; con

in s t u den t s
’
f o re n s ic , 45 ; go od i
s s t en c y
y e p e ri w th i o rd n a r i x

defin t ii o n of , 50 . en ce 2 2 1 2 24 ; , weak e s f -
n s o

St a r t l e th e a u d en ce, i Of t e n h e pf u l l t h i s t e s t 2 2 4 ; c o n s i s t e cy wit h , n

t01
3 5 5 3 S7
‘
° k n o wn f a c t s O f t h e c a s e 2 2 4 5 ; ,
-

rt i i d a n g e r o f t h is t es t 2 2 5 6 ; c on
l
Su b h e a d s , n o t
-
s u pp o ng the r ,
-

i n g s 1 46
h ea d , . s i s t e n cy wi t h i tse f 2 2 6 7 ; ,
—

S m m a y r e l a t i o n o f t o b ri e f 8 4
u r , , , s u m m a ry 2 2 7 , .

86 ; f b i e f i t ro d c t i o
o r 1 08 ; n u n, O f c o n di tio n s n d e r wh i c h s t a t e u

b ri e f p o p e m en t i s m a d e 2 2 8 9 s m m a y
l
of Of
5
1 0 ; con
r r, u r
-

, ,

s io of a r a t ry
e u
5
1 4 ; n, p e p r o 2 29 .

e a d in g fi i
l
Of st t t Of O f w t n e ss , I/Vi t n es s
r 17 ;
5 , e s r 2 3 0— 2 3 7, s e e .

e vi d e c e y xt e rn a
l
2 27 ;n of s e co d t e s t
, n , Su m m a r Of the t h re e e ,

2 2 9 ; o f th e th ee e te n a l t e sts x t e rn a a n d i n t e n a l
l l
r x r , 2 37 -
8 ; e r ,

2 7 8 ; o f f a l a c i es b i i y i n t e n l 2 4 2 2 67 s e e F
l
3
—
f a m g t o u , 2 42 r a ,
-

, a

i q e s tio
l l
24
9 ; o f b e gg g t h e n u n, a c i es ; p u rp o s e of , 2 67 ; sum

2 8 ;
5 of i g n o ri g t h e q e s t i n n u o , m ar y of e x t e rn a and in t e rn a ,

2 64
5 ;
-

o f e t e r a l a n d i te n al x n n r 2 67 -
8 .

f o e sic i ve
l l
l
tests 2 67 8 ; , Of —
r n n Tb e r cf or e , as wr o n g c o n n e c ti in
t o d ct ion
r u 2 79 ; va e f i , u O , n b ri e f p r o p e r, 1 3 2 —
3 , i u s tr a t e d

e m ph a i s
3 1 2 ; o f p e ro a t i
l
s ,
r on, by N , 1 3 2 .

3 4 2 ; o f s i n c e i t y i n p e r s a s i o n r u , T h re e fin a s u gg e s t o n s , i 3 75 6
-
.

3 67 3 70
-
. T ra n s t i io n s , b e t we e n d i vi s i o ns of
 I N D EX OF A U T H O RS

A ca d e my Th e , , 2 39 . F l e t c h e r, J . B .
, and C a rp e n t e r , G R . .
,

A da m s J Q , . .
, f ro m L e c t u re s on f ro m I n t ro d u c t io n to Th em e

O ra t o y 2 98 W ri ti n g
l
r ,
.
, 26 .

B a g e h o t , f ro m T h e A g e of D i sc u s Ge n u n g , J ohn , f ro m P r a c t ica Rh e t
i i
l il
o r e, 2 2 1 , 2
s on , 3 2 .
33 .

W ive rp o W ke tc h e s
l
B e e c h e r, H . .
, f ro m L o G m e r, F . .
, f ro m S and

Es s a y i
l
Sp e e c h , 3 2 88 6, P ub C h a ra c t e r s , 8 1
5 7, 72 9 3 5
0 s on c
- — -

, , .

4 Go o d r i ch , Se lec t Br t ii sh q E o u e n ce,

vi d e n c e
l
B e s t , f ro m O n E
li
80 3 69
l
, 1 .

B ro o k s , P h i ip s , f ro m L e c t u res on G ra t t a n , H enr y , f ro m Dec a ra t o n

i i
ill
P re a c h ng, 1 71
-
2,
3 7 8
1 -
. of
I ri s h R g h t s , 4 5 -

G re e n , A K , f r o m T h e M M ys
l
B u rk e , Ed m u n d, f ro m sp e e c h on . .

i i a ti i l
i il
C on c on w th Am e ri can Co o t e r y , 2 40 .

i
n es, 94 5 1 —
, 3 0 6, 33 12 -
. Gu i zo t, H is to y r of C i i v za t o n , 53 .

xe c i l J s tice i
l
f ro m E
l
C a rp e n t e r, G R . .
, r ses in H a r an , u , f ro m B e h r ng Se a
Rh e t o r ic and En g i sh C om pos i Tr b u n a i , 77 8 ,
-
2 5 7, 3 3 3 1 5 1 -

io W e ik i
ll
l
t n , 1 7 . H em don and , f ro m L fe of

i in c ol
l l
l l
C r o m we , O ve r , f ro m spe e c h to L n, 73 4 , 8 0
- —
1 .

F i rs t P r o t e c t o ra t e P a r i a m en t , 337 . H i , A . S , f ro m P r
. i n c ip e s of Rh e t
Da y i
l
D
l
H N A rt Of s c o u rs e , o ric, 0 8 f o o tn o te
,
. .
, 3 47 .
3 , .

D e m o s t h e n e s , f ro m y i and G C V il
l
O n t h a cs H o m es, . . .
, f ro m an a rt c e

Ph i ipp i c s , 3 2 0— 1 , 3 9 3 0 , 3 5 6, 3 64
2 -
on t h e St e a m En gi n e , 5 8 .

3 66 . H o pe, A n th o n y , f ro m M a
n of M a r k ,

D i c e y, A V T h e V e rd ict
l
. .
, f ro m , 1 0, 2 60 .

y fi rs t
l li
of T h re e
‘

H f ro m
'
-
I . ux e , I . H .
,

D gbi y , Si r Ke ne m , f ro m d e d ica tio n L e c t u re s on Ev o u t on , 5 7, 1 99 ,

t o T rea t i se on Bod ie s ,3 9 1 . 2 80 —
8 .

y
D r den , J ohn , f ro m D ef e n s e Of J eb b , R C . .
, f ro m A t t ic O ra t o rs , 283,

D ra m a t ic P o es y , 2 90— I .
31 1 » 3 2 01 3 2 3 , 3 2 4 5 1 3 3 01 3 3 2
Ers k i n e, L o rd , f ro m D ef e n s e O f L o rd
G e o rg e G o r d o n , 48 , 74 5 , 3 3 1 - —
2, e vo n s , f r o m P r m e r o f L o g c 1 4 , 33 i i , .

ni s i
l l
3 68 9
-
. u u , f ro m L e t t e r t o P r n t e r o f
F ie di ng H en r y , f ro m T o m J on es , P ub i c A d ve rt iser , 28 6
5 ,
-

3 28,
42 44 3 56
-
. .
41 4 I N DE X OF A U TH ORS .

L ew is , G . C .
, f ro m B est Fo rm of l
P h e p s , A u s t n , f ro m T h eo of i ry
r i
l lW k l
l
Go ve n m en t , 1 68 9 -
. P re a c h n g , 2 98 , 3 59 .

Li n c o n, A .
, f ro m C o m p et e or s, i
Rob n so n , a m , f ro m Wi i
F o re n s c i
y
li i l y
284 O ra t o r 9, 1 0 , 2 33 — 4, 2
3 4 5, 23 5
—
.
,

ll J Ess a
l
Lo w e ,
. R .
, f ro m P o t ca s, 237 .

50 ; Fra n c is cus de V e ru am io, Ru s ki n, J ohn , f ro m M o d e rn P a i n t

174- 5 ; f r o m L t e r a r Es s a i y ys 3 1 8 , . e rs , 5 2 ; f ro m St o n e s of V en ic e ,

l y
M a c a u a , T h o m a s , f ro m R e vi e w o f
l
lj l
2
3 0 3 04
—
.

C ro k e r
’
s B o s we
’
s ob n s on , 1
94 , i ik
S d g w c , A f re d , f ro m P ro c e s s o f

il
-
2 . A rg u m e n t , 2 1 2 3 , 2 4, 2 2 4 5 , 2 2 6 - -
.

M a n s fi el d i y i
l lv
, L o rd , f ro m Def e n s e of S d n e , Si r P h p , f ro m D e f e n s e O f
y
l
A an E ans, 2— 3 . P o es
. 54 5 , 3 3 8 9
— -
.

Mar l r fr i W ea
l
o we , C h r is t o p h e , om Ta m Sm t h , A d a m , f ro m th of Na
t ion s 1 92 3

l
b ur ain e, 3 60 .
,
-
.

y li i St e v n s o
l
M on th R e g o u s M a g a zi n e , 2 7 2 . e R n, . L .
, f ro m Le t ter on

N e wm a n , C a rd n a , f ro m I d ea o f i a Fa t h e r D a m 56 7 ie n, -
.

Un i v e rs i ty , 28 -

9, 3 7 8 , 40 1
- -
. St o r y J , u d g e , f r o m L f e a n d L e t t e rs , i
No m r an , H en ry r , f o m I n t h e Fa r 81 —
2 .

y W W ro m
l
Ea s t , 2 39 . St o r , . .
, f A Ro m a n L a w ~

ll
ro m M o de rn J l m
l
O tto engu i, R .
, f A y er e in
usa e 2 2 1 2 23 3 27 8 r ,
—
,
—
.

Wi W h a t e y Wi l i a m f o m E e m e t s
i W il
za r d , 2 00— 2 0 2 , 2 3 1 -
2 .
, , r n

li yo g e ) f r o f L o gic 2 0
(t h e
l
3 2 4 2 2 48 2 59
P tt, am un r , om , , , , .

s pe e c h o n the Sl a ve T ra d e 3 1 5 ,
-
6; W h ea t ey H B f ro m L i t e ra ry
, . .
,

( the e ld er ) f ro m s pe e c h o n Rem o v Bl n d u 55 6 e rs , —
.

ing the T r o o ps f ro m B o ston , Wya t t Si r T h o m a s f ro m h i s D e

, ,

3 54 5
-
f e nse, 71 —
2, 1 8 1 — 2 .