1. Cells Keys EST Biology Dr.

Khaled Elshamanhory
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Cell Wall Plant Animal
Examples Bacteria Fungi / Plants / Animals Bacteria ✓ Cell wall ✓ 
Nucleus  ✓ Fungi Chitin Chloroplast ✓ 
Membrane-bound Plants Cellulose Centrioles  ✓
 ✓ Animals  Cytokinesis Plate Furrow
organelles
DNA Circular Linear All cells: plasma membrane/cytoplasm /DNA/ribosome.
Organelles key Plasma / Cell Membrane Passive transport
Nucleus Chromatin (DNA/genes/codes)/nucleolus
Mitochondria Respiration/ATP (energy)/O2 +glucose
Chloroplast Chlorophyll/photosynthesis
Centrioles Spindles pull chromosomes from centromere
Ribosomes Protein synthesis
Golgi complex Processing/package/shipping/export/secretion
Lysosomes Digestion/hydrolysis/ apoptosis/defense
Endoplasmic reticulum Network/ smooth (lipid)/rough(protein)
Microtubules Movement (cilia/flagella)/division (centrioles) Passive transport
Microfilaments Movement (pseudopodia) • No energy/with conc. gradient
Non-membranous Ribosome/chromosome/centrioles 1. Facilitated diffusion: polar channel protein
2. Simple diffusion: non-polar bilayer
Evolution of Eukaryotes/Endosymbiosis
Active transport
• Large eukaryote engulfed smaller prokaryote
• Energy/ATP
Cell Cycle 1. Protein pump/against conc. gradient
1.Interphase 2. Vesicle transport
• G1 (growth) - Endocytosis: phago (eat) - pino (drink)
- Exocytosis: secrete – excrete
• S (DNA replicate)
• G2 (organelles duplicate)
2.Mitosis: nuclear division
3.Cytokinesis: cytoplasmic division
Cancer: error in cell cycle Prefixes:
Apoptosis: programmed cells death c = 10-2 m = 10-3 µ = 10-6 n = 10-9

Mitosis Chromosome
• Separation of identical chromosomes 1. Prophase 2 sister chromatids
• 2 identical (2n) cells produced • Nucleus disappears Centromere
• Keep chromosomal number • Chromosomes appear Genes loci
• Somatic cells
Homologous chromosomes
• Asexual reproduction/growth
• Same genes / different alleles
Human chromosomal number
2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase
1. Somatic / autosomal / body cells
• Chromosomes align • Separation • 2nuclei • 2n / diploid / 46 chromosomes
• ♀: 44 + XX ♂: 44 + XY
2. Sex cells / gametes
• n / haploid / 23 chromosomes
• ♀: 22 + X ♂: 22 + X / 22 + Y
Dr. Khaled Elshamanhory 2- Biochemistry Keywords
Radioactive isotopes: (extra neutrons) / C14 (fossils dating)
Intermolecular bonds: hydrogen bond / Van Der Waals forces
Vitamins / coenzymes: polar (BC) - non polar (KEDA)
Polar / charged: water soluble / hydrophilic (salts, ions)
Nonpolar / not charged: fat soluble / hydrophobic (CO2 / O2 / lipids)
Water: cohesion / hydrogen bond and adhesion rise water in trees
pH
Acid (H+) < (7 neutral / water) < base (OH-) / pH = 4 (H+ = 10-4)
Blood 7.4 / stomach 2 / mouth 7 / intestine 8
Metabolism
1. Anabolism / build up / dehydration synthesis
Monomer + monomer → polymer + water (condensate)
2. Catabolism / breakdown / hydrolysis
Polymer + water → monomer + monomer
Carbohydrates / C + (2H:O)
1. Monosaccharides C6H12O6:
Glucose (main energy source), fructose, galactose (different atoms positions)
2. Disaccharides:
Maltose (2 glucoses) / sucrose (glucose + fructose) / lactose (glucose + galactose)
3. Polysaccharides
Starch (glucose storage in plants)
Cellulose (cell wall in plants)
Glycogen (glucose storage in animals)
Lipids / 3 fatty acid + glycerol
1. Fat (animal): saturated fatty acids (C-C) / long term energy storage (↑energy)
2. Oil (plant): unsaturated fatty acids (C=C)
3. Wax: cover plant leaves / cuticle / prevent water loss
4. Steroids: cholesterol holds cell membrane / high levels cause atherosclerosis
Proteins
Polymer of amino acids monomers linked by peptide bonds
Tertiary protein: 3D folding determines function
ESTII Biology
Enzymes (-ase)
Protein catalyst speed up chemical reaction
Lower activation energy (EA)
Induced fit model
Active site is specific to substrate
Denature / change 3D-shape
High temperature / chemicals
Aerobic cellular respiration
C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 (glucose oxidation) → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP
Hydrogen carriers: NAD+ and FAD carry hydrogen with its high energy electrons
Glycolysis in cytoplasm: glucose → pyruvates + ATP
Krebs cycle in mitochondrial matrix: → ATP + ↑↑CO2
Electron transport chain in inner mitochondrial membrane / crista
NAD+ and FAD release high energy electrons to cytochrome c
NADH2 molecule releases 3ATP ≈ 45 kj
H2 + 1/2 O2 → H2O + ↑↑ATP
Chemiosmosis / (H+) gradient / highest amount of ATP / ATP synthetase
Anaerobic respiration / Fermentation / no oxygen
1. Alcoholic fermentation (yeast / beer / baking): glucose → CO2 + ethanol + ATP
2. Acid fermentation (bacteria / yogurt): glucose → lactic acid + ATP
Cramp in in human muscles: low O2 during exercise / accumulating lactic acid
Photosynthesis
In chloroplast: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 (from water)
1. Light reaction in grana
Light energy + chlorophyll → chemical energy / ATP
Light energy + H2O → NADPH + ↑O2
2. Dark reaction / carbon fixation / Calvin cycle in stroma
CO2 + (H2 & ATP from light reaction) → 2G3P → glucose
CAM open stomata at night
C4 pathway have Kranz anatomy
Starch is detected by iodine →blue
Photosynthesis in aquatic plant is measured by oxygen bubbles
Highest photosynthetic colors are red and blue
Dr. Khaled Elshamanhory 3- Molecular Biology Ketwords ESTII Biology
DNA – Watson & Crick Model Protein synthesis Triplet Codon Chart
DNA is anti-parallel double helix carry genetic code Each 3 nucleotides are translated into 1 amino acid
DNA transmit traits through generations 1- Transcription (nucleus) Start codon AUG
Intron is a non-coding DNA sequence DNA → mRNA by RNA polymerase Stop codons UAG / UGA / UAA
Exon is a coding DNA sequence A C G T A C G T T
DNA 3` 5`
Gene is a DNA nucleotide sequence
mRNA 5` 3`
U G C A U G C A A
DNA monomer (nucleotide)
Phosphate group + deoxyribose sugar + nitrogenous base Processing / splicing: remove introns and join exons

Base pairs 2- Translation (ribosome in cytoplasm)

Adenine (A) / Guanine (G) by 2 H bonds mRNA → polypeptide (protein)
Thymine (T) / Cytosine (C) by 3 H bonds
Triplet codons A C G U A C G U U
DNA Semi-conservative Replication Anti-codons U G C A U G C A A
Helicase enzyme uncoils and separates the 2 strands tRNA tRNA tRNA
DNA polymerase joins a primer and adds nucleotides
Amino Amino Amino
acid acid acid
Old / parent / template strand
A C G T A C G T T Protein
3` 5`
5` 3`
T G C A T G C A A GMO Silent mutation: different codon same amino acid
New / daughter / complementary strand Insertion of organism gene into another organism DNA Missense mutation: error in amino acid sequence
Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sequence Nonsense mutation: no translation / stop codon
Heavy nitrogen experiment: old (N15) / new (N14) Producing complementary sticky ends Substitution / point mutation: UUU → AUU
Ligase enzyme attach complementary sticky ends Frame-shift mutation: add or delete nucleotide
DNA RNA Restriction enzyme cut palindrome Inversion mutation: ACT → TCA
Strand Double Single 5’---G AATTC---3’
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose 3’---CTTAA G---5’ Virus
Bases A/T/C/G A / C / G / U (uracil) Non cellular / nonliving organism
Cloning / nucleus transplantation
Location Nucleus Nucleus / cytoplasm Copy of an individual from a somatic cell Protein coat + genetic material (DNA or RNA)
Function Carry genes Protein synthesis Insert its genetic material into host cell to reproduce
PCR
Origin Inherited Manufactured Amplification of a specific DNA sequence
Bacterial culture
Gel electrophoresis / crime scene investigation
mRNA: carry triplet codon Antibiotics affect prokaryotes not eukaryotes
Cut a specific DNA segment by restriction enzyme
tRNA: carry amino acid and anticodon White area in Petri dish (antibiotic kill bacteria)
Smaller segments slip faster than large segments
rRNA + protein: ribosome Bacterial growth (bacteria resist antibiotic)
Dr. Khaled Elshamanhory 4- Genetics Keywords ESTII Biology
Dominant: capital letter of strong trait Recessive: small letter of strong trait 1 trait 2nd law
Homozygous: pure / AA / aa Heterozygous: impure / hybrid / carrier / Aa 2 traits, 4 phenotypes
Phenotype: shape Genotype (alleles): AA / aa / Aa
2 phenotypes (red / white) 3 phenotypes Tall / short –Yellow / green
Mendel laws R r 1st law (simple dominance) Red / pink / white F1: TTYY × ttyy → 100%
1st law: segregation / monohybrid cross (F2 3:1) R RR Rr F2: TtYy × TtYy→ 9:3:3:1
F1: RR × rr → 100% red Incomplete dominance
2nd law: independent assortment / dihybrid cross (F2 9:3:3:1)
r Rr rr F2: Rr × Rr → 3:1 (red / white) F1: RR × rr → 100% pink
F2: Rr × Rr: 1:2:1
Test-cross / determine Both are Both are
Gametes 2 × 2 × 2 2 × 1 × 2 1 × 1 × 1
dominant
AaBbCc = 8 AaBBCc = 4 AAbbCC= 1 (same ×1 / different ×2) Rr × rr: ½ / 50% recessive

Blood groups
Sex linked recessive inheritance Sex linked dominant inheritance
Antigens (A) IA and (B) IB are dominant over recessive (O) ‘i’
Hemophilia / color blindness Carrier female is affected
A: AA / AO B: BB / BO O: OO (universal donor)
Affect males more than females Boy inherits it from mother only
AB: AB (co-dominance / universal recipient)
Genes on X chromosome not Y Girl inherits it from mother or father
AO × BO gives all phenotypes / AB parent never have O child
Boy gets hemophilia from mother XAXa × XaY → 50% of children affected
Rh+ dominant over Rh- (Rh- mother needs immediate injection after first birth)
Girl gets hemophilia from both parents
Agglutination test: antibody clumps antigen Always % of males to females is 50%
XHXh × XhY → 50% of children affected
Anti A Anti B Anti Rh
Blood group A Agglutination 
Blood group B  Agglutination Karyotype / metaphase Family pedigree
Blood group AB Agglutination Agglutination Photographic presentation of 1 cell
Blood group O   Normal female
Normal male
Rh+ Agglutination
Rh- 
Affected male Affected female

Mutation / DNA error

Parents
Primary source of genetic variation, recessive, harmful, new allele

Chromosomal mutation Twin brothers

Children
Deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation
Nondisjunction
Down syndrome, trisomy: 45+ XX or 45 + XY If parents are
normal and have
Klinefelter syndrome: 44 + XXY Fetus
an affected child,
Super female: 44 + XX
both are carrier
Turner syndrome: 44 + X
Dr. Khaled Elshamanhory 5- Plants Keywords ESTII Biology
Leaf Vascular bundle Dicot stem Monocot root
Phloem (living) transport food
Xylem (non-living) transport water Epidermis
Cuticle (wax covers epidermis) wawaterwater/minerals Cambium
Prevent water loss Phloem
Palisade mesophyll
most photosynthesis Xylem
Spongy mesophyll Guard cells
Control opening &
Epidermis closure of stomata Pith

Stomata
Transpiration (water vapor) & gas exchange

Stigma Pollination: pollen grains to stigma Plant hormones

Anther Receive pollen grains
Pollen grain sac Fruits: seed dispersal (animal / wind) 1. Auxin: growth and tropism
Sticky (insect)
Filament Feathery (wind) Pollen grain double fertilization 2. Ethylene: fruit ripening
Style Ovule Fertilize egg → zygote 3. Gibberellin: seed germination
Gametophyte Fertilize 2 polar nuclei → endosperm food (3n) 4. Abscisic acid: seed dormancy
Future seed 5. Cytokinin: cell division
Tropism / plant response
1. Phototropism: light Meristematic / growth tissue
Flower 2. Gravi-geotropism: gravity Apical bud (length)
Ovary Lateral cambium (width)
Future fruit
♀ Pistil 3. Hydrotropism: water
Fertilization ♂ Stamen 4. Thigmotropism: touch

Plant kingdom
Angiosperms
Phyla Example Vascular t. Seeds Flowers 1. Stem – dicot
2. Leaf – dicot
Bryophyta Mosses    3. Flower – monocot
1 2 3 4 4. Flower – dicot
Pterophyta Ferns ✓   5. Stem – monocot
Gymnosperms Pines / cone ✓ ✓  6. Leaf – monocot
7. Seed – dicot
Angiosperms Flowering ✓ ✓ ✓ 8. Seed - monocot
5 6 7 8
 Dr. Khaled Elshamanhory 6- Physiology Keywords ESTII Biology
Circulation Digestive system Endocrine system
L. ventricle → aorta → body → vena cava → R. atrium → R. Peristalsis: movement of digestive system Anterior pituitary gland
ventricle → pulm. artery → lung → pulm. vein → L. atrium. Mouth: digest starch by amylase FSH: ♀ ovary (estrogen) / ♂ testis (testosterone)
Superior vena cava from upper body Stomach: digest protein by pepsin LH: ♀ ovulation / ♂ spermatogenesis
Pancreas Prolactin: mammary glands GH: growth hormone
Pulmonary artery to lung
Aorta to body Trypsin digests proteins into polypeptides Posterior pituitary gland / hypothalamus
Pulmonary veins Lipase digests lipids into fatty acids and glycerol ADH: ↓ urine volume ↑ urine conc. in nephron
R. atrium from lung
Amylase digests starch into maltose Oxytocin: uterine contraction during birth
from body
• L. atrium from lung Gall bladder Thyroid: thyroxin / iodine / metabolism
Store bile for breakdown of large lipids into globules Parathyroid: PTH / ↑ blood Ca++ level from bones
• R. ventricle to
• L. ventricle to aorta Large intestine / colon: absorb water Adrenal medulla: adrenaline / fear fight flight
pulmonary artery
Small intestine: absorb food by villi Adrenal cortex
Inferior vena cava from lower body Liver: secrete bile / store excess glucose as glycogen Cortisol: metabolism / anti-inflammatory
Valve: prevent backflow of blood Aldosterone: reabsorb salts from nephron
Salivary glands
• Pancreas (endocrine / exocrine)
Mouth
• Heart beat control by medulla oblongata Pharynx Insulin: ↓blood glucose / store as glycogen in liver
• Sympathetic ↑ heart rate / parasympathetic ↓ heart rate Glucagon: oppose insulin
• SA node on R. atrium / AV node on ventricles Esophagus
Diabetes: ↑ blood glucose / no insulin
Blood cells formation in bone marrow
Female reproductive system
RBCs: hemoglobin carries O2 Gall bladder Stomach
Menstrual cycle / 28 days
WBCs: immunity Pancreas
Liver FSH→ ovary→ estrogen (↑ uterine thickness)
Platelets: blood clotting
Large Small
LH (14) → ovary (ovulation / corpus luteum)
Immune system intestine intestine Corpus luteum → progesterone (keep uterine thickness)
Appendix
1st line of defense Rectum No fertilization / corpus luteum degenerates / menstruation
Inflammation / hot / red / swell / pain / histamine Anus Fertilization / fallopian tube / 14 / zygote
2nd line of defense
Nervous system Placenta
Phagocytes engulf bacteria / diapedeses
Nerve cell / neuron: sensory / motor Pass food / wastes / O2 / CO2 by diffusion / no nerve
3rd line of defense / lymphocytes
Myelin sheath: speed up electric impulse Embryo and mother blood do not mix
B-cells: attack bacteria by antibodies / memory cells
Nerve fiber thickness: speed up electric impulse Contraceptive pills
B-cells proliferate in lymph nodes
Nerve impulse / action potential: Na+/K+ channels Estrogen + progesterone to prevent uterine resorption
Killer T-cells: attack virus and cancer cells
Synapse: between nerves / acetyl choline Germ layer
Helper T-cell: activate B and killer T-cells
CNS: brain and spinal cord (reflex) Ectoderm / skin / nerve
T-cells are activated in thymus gland / ablation
Spinal nerves: dorsal sensory / ventral motor Mesoderm / viscera / muscle / bone
Active immunity / vaccine (lifelong): self-antibodies
Medulla oblongata: involuntary / autonomic Endoderm / internal organs
Passive immunity (short time): external antibodies
Dr. Khaled Elshamanhory 7- Taxonomy Keywords ESTII Biology

3 Domains Series of taxonomy Same species Homo sapiens

Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Eukaryota Kingdom-phylum-class-order-family-genus-species Interbreed and give fertile offspring 1st name is genus / 2nd name is species

Kingdom Eubacteria Kingdom Animalia / 9 phyla 7. Arthropods

Unicellular prokaryotes
Reproduce asexual by binary fission
Parasitic (sore-throat)
Photosynthetic (cyanobacteria)
Kingdom Archaebacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes
Have some genes from eukaryotes
Extremophiles
Harsh conditions
1. Porifera: sponge / no true tissue Largest / most diverge / most stable / segmented body / jointed legs / exoskeleton
2. Cnidarians: jellyfish / hydra / 2 cell layers / tentacles Incomplete metamorphosis / grasshopper: egg → nymph (small adult)
3. Flatworms: tapeworm / planaria (incomplete) Complete metamorphosis / moth: egg hatch → larva → pupa → adult
4. Roundworms: hookworm / filaria Classes Examples Legs
5. Segmented worms / annelids Crustaceans Shrimp / crab / lobster / crayfish 10
Earthworm / leech Insecta Roach / cricket 6
Ventral nerve cord / coelom / closed circulation Arachnida Spiders / scorpion / ticks 8
2 digestive system openings Myriapoda Centipedes / millipedes Many
6. Mollusks
No shell: octopus / squid
8. Echinoderms: starfish / urchins / sea cucumber / tube feet / regeneration
Shell: snails / oyster / mussels

Kingdom Protista 9. Chordata

Unicellular eukaryotes
Animal-like / protozoa
Malaria / paramecium (cilia)
ameba (pseudopods)
Trypanosoma (flagella)
Plant-like
Algae: phytoplankton / diatoms
Dorsal nerve cord / spinal cord / notochord / vertebral column / endoskeleton / closed circulation
Class Fish: gills / fins / soft eggs (sharks are boneless)
Class Amphibians: frog / salamander / soft eggs / metamorphosis (adult respire by lungs and skin / tadpole respire by gills)
Class Reptilia: snakes / crocodile / leathery amniotic (shell) egg / water tight skin
Class Aves: hawk / sparrow / no teeth / feathers / amniotic egg / parental care
Class Mammals: platypus (eggs) / kangaroo (marsupial / pouch / incomplete placenta) / complete placenta / parental care

Warm blooded / endotherms Heart chambers Excretory organs

Kingdom Fungi
Unicellular: yeast / budding
Multicellular
Mold / mushroom (decomposers)
Penicillium (antibiotic)
Parasitic (athlete’s foot)
Constant temperature (aves / mammals)
Cold blooded / ectotherms
Variable temperature (other organisms)
Symmetry
Radial (Cnidarians / Echinoderms)
Bilateral (others)
Fish (2) / amphibians (3)
Reptiles (4 mixed) / aves
Mammals (4 separated)
Excretion / water conversation
Fish / tadpole secrete ammonia (NH3)
Reptiles / aves secrete uric acid
Amphibians / mammals secrete urine
Flame cells: flatworm
Nephridia: annelids
Malpighian tubules: insects
Chordates: kidney / nephron
Paramecium
Expels excess water by contractile vacuole
Dr. Khaled Elshamanhory 8- Evolution Keywords ESTII Biology
Evidence of evolution Origin of earth
Fossils / bone: age by strata / C14 Oparin: no O2 in ancient atmosphere, life began in water / 1st organism is heterotrophic anaerobic bacteria
Vestigial structures: appendix / tail / hip bones (snakes / whales' legs) Urey and Miller: proved Oparin theory of chemical origin of life and produced organic matter
Intermediate link: duckbilled platypus (aves / mammals) Continental drift: Pangaea is separated into 7 continents / isolation / islands / speciation / divergence
Embryology: fish gills DNA: common ancestor
Theories of evolution
Comparative anatomy Lamarck criticism / wrong
Homologous structures / divergence / common ancestor / island Use and dis use/ acquired characters are inherited (giraffes stretch necks)
Same structure / different function
Whale swim Charles Darwin
Forelimb Natural selection/ key is variation / overpopulation / survival of the fittest
Primates grasp
Galapagos Islands / finches / adaptive radiation / ancestral species
Analogous structures / convergence / different ancestor
Different structure / same function Darwin criticism
Shark No genetics / fittest is strongest / individual level
Swim
Dolphin

Hardy – Weinberg Principle Punctuated equilibrium/ Eldridge Cladogram / phylogeny

Evolution is the change in allele frequency in a population over time Rapid abrupt change of life then stability DNA sequences
Allele frequency: p + q = 1 (p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1) The most related taxa are C and D
p2 is homozygous dominant, 2pq is heterozygous, and q2 is homozygous recessive Node is where divergence / split occurs
Gene pool: the total alleles in an area Fitness: the number of liable offspring
Assumptions of population genetics equilibrium / maintenance / no evolution
Large population size / random mating / no migration / no mutation / no natural selection
Evolution / population genetics change
Small size population / isolation / migration / mutation / natural selection
Small size population / bottle neck: founder effect / genetic drift (random loss of traits)
Mutation: main source of genetic variation / should be carried on gametes
Natural selection / survival of the fittest:
Bacterial resistance to antibiotics / insecticides and insects / pepper moth and pollution
Stabilizing selection Directional selection Disruptive / diversifying selection
Speciation / reproductive isolation Geologic era
Cannot interbreed Azoic era → Precambrian → Cambrian →
Number

Number


Number

Geographical (islands) Paleozoic → Mesozoic → Cenozoic →

  
Temporal (breeding season) Phanerozoic eon
Behavioral (birds' songs)
Trait Trait Trait
Dr. Khaled Elshamanhory 9- Ecology Keywoeds ESTII Biology
Population / same species in same place and time Community (biotic factors only)
Population size: birth / death / growth rate / sex ratio / age structure Autotrophs / producer: photosynthetic plants / algae and chemosynthetic bacteria / deep ocean
Limiting factors: density independent (climate) / dependent (disease / resource) Heterotrophs / consumers
Exponential growth rate / birth > death Logistic growth rate Herbivore (plant) / carnivore (animal) / omnivore (both) / scavenger (hyena and vulture)
Unlimited growth / human Limited growth / birth = death Decomposers / saprotrophs: bacteria / fungus (dead organisms) / recycle nutrients
Parasitism: (+ parasite /- host) / no kill Commensalism: benefit / no harm (+/0)
Mutualism / lichen: (+/+) Altruism: self-sacrifice
Competition / niche: (-/-) Predation: (+ predator / - prey) / kill
Camouflage: adaptation / same color Mimicry: resemblance / same marking
Symbiosis: continuous mutualism/ E. Coli digest cellulose in human colon

Food chain: producer → 1st consumer → 2nd → 3rd → decomposers

Ecological pyramid
Loss in number and biomass of individuals Hawks / 3rd

4 trophic levels
Ecosystem (biotic + abiotic factors)
Loss of heat energy through respiration by 10% Snakes / 2nd
Nitrogen cycle: decomposers → NH3 → plant → animal → death
N2 fixing bacteria (+) in legumes roots (+) fix N2 gas into nitrates or ammonia Succession Rabbits / 1st
Aerobic nitrifying bacteria: convert nitrates into ammonia Permanent organism replacement Carrots / producers
Anaerobic denitrifying bacteria: convert nitrogen compound into N2 Lichens are pioneer organisms

Biomes Behavior
Tropical rainforest: ↑ precipitation / ↑ diversity / ↑ vegetation Unlearned / innate behavior / fixed action pattern
Desert: dry / temperature fluctuation / cactus / ↓ productivity Reflexes / nervous Instinct / endocrine
Grasslands / savanna: rain and drought / main human food
Learned behavior
Deciduous forest: shed leaves / oak / maple / ↑↑ productivity
Habituation: loss of sensation Classical conditioning / Pavlov: dog bell and food
Taiga / coniferous forest: frozen winter / needle leaves pines
Operant conditioning / Skinner: rat and maze Imprinting / Konrad: duckling / gosling / mother
Tundra / coniferous / boreal: permafrost / no trees / no deep soil
Marine biome / salt: stable ecosystem / highest producer (planktons) Social behavior
Pheromones: smell from moth to find mate Activity: diurnal (day) / nocturnal (night)
Pollution
Global warming / greenhouse effect / melt of polar ice A Prey
Fossil fuel / cutting off trees / ↑CO2 / CH4 emit heat to Earth Predator A B C
Acid rains: sulfur ↓ soil pH
B
Ozone depletion: UVR / skin cancer
Eutrophication: ↑phosphate in lakes / sewage / ↑algal growth / O2 depletion
Bio-magnification (DDT / ppm): toxins accumulation in higher trophic levels Competition Predation Succession