ARC

PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE

2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT
ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE
2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT
 ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE
2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT

CONTENTS
1. DIRECTORS’ REPORT......................................................................... 2

2. HIGHLIGHTS...................................................................................... 4

3. STAFF LIST....................................................................................... 10

4. RESEARCH

4.1. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH............................................... 14

4.2. FACILITIES AND INFRASTRUCTURE........................................ 16

4.3. FIRST GENERATION: WAFER-BASED PROJECTS.................... 21

4.4. SECOND GENERATION: SILICON, ORGANIC AND OTHER

“EARTH ABUNDANT” THIN-FILMS......................................... 38

4.5. THIRD GENERATION: ADVANCED CONCEPTS........................61

4.6. PHOTONICS AND DEVICE CHARACTERISATION...................100

5. EDUCATION....................................................................................106

6. ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE....................................................120

7. FINANCIAL SUMMARY...................................................................122

8. PUBLICATIONS...............................................................................124

1
 ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE
2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT
1. DIRECTORS’
REPORT
Photovoltaics involves the direct conversion of light, normally sunlight, into electricity
when falling upon devices known as solar cells. Silicon is the most common material
used to make these photovoltaic cells, similarly to its key role in microelectronics.
The Australian Research Council (ARC) Photovoltaics
Centre of Excellence commenced at the University
of New South Wales (UNSW) on 13th June, 2003
with funding initially until 31st December 2007.
Upon review in 2005 and 2006, this funding was
extended until 31st December 2010. Criteria for
such extension included “progress of the Centre
towards becoming independent of the ARC Centres
of Excellence Scheme for funding”. With the rapid
growth of the photovoltaics industry since the
Centre’s commencement and the Centre’s strong
and seminal links to this industry, the Centre was
clearly in a much stronger position for independent
operation beyond 2010 than many others in its
funding cohort. Accordingly, while remaining under
the ARC Centres of Excellence umbrella beyond
2010 in recognition of the quality of its research,
the Centre will now be dependent upon industry-
related funding for research with near-term
outcomes and upon more academically-orientated
ARC and international schemes for its long-
term research.
The Centre‘s mission remains to advance silicon
photovoltaic research on three separate fronts, as
well as to apply these advances to the related field
of silicon photonics. The educational activities of the
former Key Centre for Photovoltaic Engineering are
also integrated into the Centre.
Over the period of funding, photovoltaics has
become the world’s most rapidly growing
energy source, with markets increasing at a
compounded rate of above 40%/year over this
period. The electricity generating capacity of new
photovoltaic product installed in 2006 exceeded
new nuclear power capacity for the first time, with
the gap widening every year since. In Germany,
photovoltaics has been the largest source of new
electricity generating capacity for each of the
last four years and became the second largest
such source across Europe in 2010, ahead of wind
generators and behind only gas turbines. Reducing
prices, at least partly traceable to past Centre
initiatives, means the technology is reaching “retail
grid parity”, where the cost of electricity generated
using photovoltaics can compete at the point of
2
use with normal retail electricity prices in many
parts of the world. This is expected to lead to a
period of self-sustaining growth with photovoltaics
positioned to become one of the world’s major
industries of the 21st century. Even in Sydney where
“cheap” electricity is supplied by power stations
built on coal fields, photovoltaics is coming close
to being competitive with retail electricity prices
without subsidies.
Most present photovoltaic sales are of “first-
generation” solar cells made from silicon wafers,
similar to the wafers used in microelectronics.
The Centre’s world-leadership with these “first-
generation” devices, with international records
for the highest-performing silicon cells in most
major categories (including the outright highest-
performing cells and modules) was recently
extended with the demonstration of the first 25%
efficient silicon solar cell. First-generation Centre
research addresses the dual challenges of reducing
cost and further improving efficiency. The rapid
growth of the industry is generating widespread
interest in ongoing innovations of the Centre’s
first generation technology with several distinct
technologies now in large-scale production and
additional licences signed during 2010.
Silicon is quite brittle so silicon wafers have to be
reasonably thick, a fraction of a millimetre, to be
sufficiently rugged for processing into solar cells
with reasonable yield. Without this mechanical
constraint, silicon would perform well even if very
thin, even 100 times thinner than present wafers.
Centre researchers have pioneered an approach
where very thin silicon layers are deposited directly
onto a sheet of glass with the glass providing
the required mechanical strength. This “second-
generation” approach gives enormous potential cost
savings. Not only are the costly processes involved
in making wafers no longer required, but also there
is an enormous saving in silicon material. Cells also
can be made more quickly over the entire area of
large glass sheets. The Centre is at the forefront
of international research with such “second-
generation”, silicon based approaches, with the
first commercial product from “spin-off”, CSG Solar,
several megawatt fields now operating in Europe.
During 2010, with support from an Australian
Research Council Linkage Grant, collaborative work
continued with CSG Solar aimed at further reducing
costs. The project is investigating electron-beam
evaporation of silicon onto the glass substrate, a
much quicker process than the plasma-enhanced,
chemical deposition processes used to date, and
also diode laser processing of the deposited films.
Steps to broaden “second generation” activities from
silicon to both silicon and carbon were boosted by
the appointment of a new academic staff member,
Dr Ashraf Uddin, commencing on-duty early in
2009, with this organic solar cell work supported
by an ARC Discovery Grant. The activities were
further broadened in 2010 by the award to Centre
Postdoctoral Fellow Dr Xiaojing Hao of an Australian
Solar Institute Fellowship to develop “earth
abundant” CZTS (copper-zinc-tin-sulphide) solar
cell technology. By combining these four relatively
benign and abundant elements in appropriate
proportions, a tetrahedrally co-ordinated
“synthetic silicon” compound can be produced with
some advantages over silicon, such as stronger
light absorption.
The “second generation” thin-films have a large
potential cost advantage over the silicon wafer-
based approach, due mainly to reduced material
costs. In large enough production volumes, even
these reduced material costs will dominate thin-
film costs. This has led to the Centre’s interest
in advanced “third-generation” thin-film solar
cells targeting significant increases in energy-
conversion efficiency. Higher conversion efficiency
means more power from a given investment in
materials, reducing overall power costs. The Centre’s
experimental program in this area is concentrating
on “all-silicon” tandem solar cells, where high
energy-bandgap cells are stacked on top of lower-
bandgap devices. The silicon bandgap is controlled
by quantum-confinement of carriers in small silicon
quantum-dots dispersed in an amorphous matrix of
silicon oxide, nitride or carbide. Cells based on “hot”
carriers are also of great interest since they offer the
potential for very high efficiency from simple device
structures. Although their implementation poses
daunting challenges, considerable progress on
addressing these was made during 2010.
The final Centre research strand involves silicon
photonics where the emphasis is upon using
Professor Stuart R. Wenham
Director
our experience with solar cells, using light to
produce electricity, to the reverse problem of
ARC
engineering silicon devices that use electricity to
produce light. The Centre holds the international PHOTOVOLTAICS
record for the light emission performance from CENTRE OF
bulk silicon, in both electroluminescent and EXCELLENCE
photoluminescent devices. Emphasis is now upon 2010/11
exploiting our expertise in silicon light emission to ANNUAL REPORT
develop new techniques for silicon wafer and cell
characterisation. A Centre “spin-off” company, BT
Imaging, consolidated its position as the premium
equipment supplier internationally using this
approach during 2010.
In addition to these four research strands, the
activities of the former Key Centre for Photovoltaic
Engineering have been integrated into the ARC
Centre of Excellence. The seventh year of students
from the Bachelor of Engineering (Photovoltaics
and Renewable Energy) program graduated
during 2010. This program has been enormously
successful, attracting some of the best and brightest
students entering the University and providing
the human resources to fuel the recent growth of
the industry. The fifth year of students have now
graduated from the Centre’s second undergraduate
program, leading to a Bachelor of Engineering
(Renewable Energy).
A significant relevant development during 2010
was the blossoming into full scale operation of the
Australian Solar Institute, of which the Centre is a
founding member given its key role in the Institute’s
establishment. During the year, the Institute
announced the outcome of its Round 1 and Round
2 call for applications with some notable successes
for the Centre. The difficulty for the Centre with this
project based funding is the uncertain long-term
future of the Institute.
We thank all those who contributed to the Centre’s
success during 2010. The present continues to
be a most exciting time for photovoltaics. More
are recognising the possibility of a future where
solar cells provide a significant part of the world’s
energy needs, without the environmental problems
and escalating costs associated with present
approaches. The impending transition to “grid
parity” is expected to make the coming decade
a time of rapid change for the industry, with an
accelerated pace of adoption of newer, lower cost
technologies pioneered by the Centre.
Professor Martin A. Green
Executive Research Director
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 ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE
2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT

Associate Professor Thorsten Trupke accepts

the Berthold Leibinger Innovationspreis in
Ditzingen, Germany.

2. HIGHLIGHTS now Suntech COO (Chief Operating Officer),

Suntech Becomes World No. 1 in 2010
UNSW Linked Companies Also Nos. 2, 4 and 5
Suntech, the first of the UNSW-linked photovoltaic companies to
commence production in China, officially opened its first production
line in September 2002. Suntech also had the distinction of being the
first privately-owned Chinese company to list on the New York Stock
Exchange (NYSE) when it did so in 2005. Already by 2004, Suntech had
moved into the ranks of the world’s “top ten” manufacturers and has
moved steadily up this list ever since. In 2010, Suntech claimed the
number 1 position in the rapidly expanding market with close to 1.6 GW
of photovoltaic product manufactured during the year.
Although based in China, Suntech has both a large portion of Australian
ownership and a management structure dominated by Australians. Dr
Zhengrong Shi, Suntech’s founder, Chairman and CEO (Chief Executive
Officer) is an Australian citizen. Other senior staff formerly involved
with UNSW and/or its “spin-off”, Pacific Solar, include David Hogg,
Stuart Wenham, part-time Suntech CTO (Chief
Technology Officer), Senior Vice Presidents Shijun
Cai and Guangchun Zhang, as well as Dr Jingjia Ji
who heads the company’s research division and
Dr Jingbing Zhu, head of quality control.
Despite Suntech’s outstanding success, the impact of the Centre and
its programs has been much more widespread. Number 2 on the list of
manufacturers with over 1.4 GW produced in 2010 was JA Solar, with
the initial cell production line for this company established by former
Centre researchers, Ted Szpitalak, Dr Bruce Beilby and Dr Ximing Dai.
JA Solar was the third major company Ted had helped establish in
manufacturing, the previous two being Suntech and Sunergy, with the
latter founded by former Centre researchers and students, Drs Jianhua
Zhao and Aihua Wang. Dr Dai was Deputy General Manager and CTO
of second-placed JA Solar at the time of the company’s initial listing on
NASDAQ in 2007.

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 ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE
2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT

Former student and postdoctoral
researcher Dr Zhengrong Shi on the
cover of Photon International as
founder and chief of the world’s
No. 1 solar company.
An electron beam induced current (EBIC) image of the
laser doped region of a LDSE solar cell superimposed
upon a scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of the
same region. The inset shows Dr Brett Hallam, a key
member of the team producing the new result.

Suntech Highlights new cell efficiency record

Number 4 on the list and another member of the
“gigawatt” club with 1.1 GW produced in 2010 was
Yingli Green Energy Holding. Dr Guoxiao Yao, who
was awarded his PhD from UNSW in 2005, was CTO
at the time of the company’s listing on the NYSE
in 2007. Yingli’s present CTO is Dr Dengyuan Song,
who also received his PhD from the Centre in 2005.
Number 5 on the list was Trina Solar with 1.1 GW
produced. Former PhD student, Dr Mohan
Narayanan, was CTO at the time of the company’s
listing on NASDAQ in 2006. Dr Narayanan is now
CTO of Hanwha Solar One (formerly Solarfun), with
0.5 GW of production in 2010. Another former PhD
student, Fei Yun was CTO of Solarfun at the time of
its initial listing on NASDAQ in 2006. Fei is now Vice-
President, Technology at LDK Solar, another major
player in the solar field.
UNSW-linked companies therefore form an amazing
4 of the top 5 in 2010. The remaining company
making the list of the top 5 was former “Number
One”, First Solar (USA, Malaysia, Germany).
Numerous other of the world’s major photovoltaic
companies have former Centre members in key
technical positions. The Centre estimates the
number as over 30, with the better known including
SunPower (USA, Philippines, Malaysia), Sunergy
(China), SolarWorld (Germany), Hyundai Solar
(Korea), Gintech (Taiwan), TopCell Solar (Taiwan),
CSG Solar (Australia, Germany), Shinsung (Korea),
Sulfurcell (Germany), LG Electronics (Korea),
Innovalight (USA), Chinalight Solar (China), E-Ton
Solar (Korea), LDK Solar (China), Topco (Taiwan),
MAGI Solar (China), Corum Solar (Taiwan), Apollon
Solar (France), Sunrise Global (Taiwan) and REC
Solar (Norway, Singapore).
Dr Zhengrong Shi recently nicely summarised
Australia’s impact in photovoltaics in his article “Can
Australia Save the World” (ATSE Focus, February
2011) when he observed that, in the past, the UK
had shown the way to use coal for energy, the
USA had shown how to harness atomic power but
Australia and China were showing the world how to
best use solar.
19.3% Laser Doped Solar Cell
A new solar cell efficiency record of 19.3%
has been independently confirmed by the
Fraunhofer Institute in Germany for a large area
(157 cm2) laser doped, selective emitter (LDSE)
cell fabricated by the Centre using cells largely
processed on a standard Centrotherm screen-
printing production line. The only process
variation apart from a lighter junction diffusion
was to replace the front surface screen-printed
metal with the Centre’s laser doping process to
simultaneously pattern the cell antireflection Associate Professor Thorsten Trupke
with co-awardee Dr Robert Bardos
coating and create localised doped regions for the on campus.
subsequent self-aligned process of light-induced
plating of Ni/Cu. Key members of the team from Photouminescence
awards
the Centre responsible for this result, Brett Hallam,
Stuart Wenham, Chee Mun Chong, Matt Edwards
and David Jordan, plan to present the new results at
the 37th IEEE Photovoltaics Specialists Conference in
Seattle in June 2011.
With further optimisation of the cell design, the
laser doped solar cell is expected to become
the first low-cost cell capable of energy
conversion efficiency above 20% to enter full-
scale production.
Photoluminescence Awards
The Centre has pioneered the use of
luminescence imaging technology for the
characterisation of silicon ingots, wafers and
cells with this technology now commercialised
by “spin-off” BT Imaging. This work continues
to attract substantial international attention
with the work of the two original developers
of the technology and the “B” and the “T” in Series resistance map of a silicon
BT Imaging, Deputy Director Associate Professor solar cell showing features due
Thorsten Trupke and Dr Robert Bardos, were to non-uniform processing
honoured in July by the award of the Berthold temperatures. The image was
created by the new technique
Leibinger Innovationspreis. The photo shows
developed by Dr Henner
Associate Professor Trupke accepting the prize in Kampwerth (inset) during his
Ditzingen, Germany. The Berthold Leibinger Stiftung doctoral thesis, resulting in his
gives this award every two years for “excellent selection as 2010 Student Inventor
of the Year.
research and development work on the application or
generation of laser light”. 2010 student inventor of
the year

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 ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE
2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT
Dr Zhengrong Shi (left), CEO and
Chairman of Suntech Power with
Professor Martin Green and Pluto
module.
450 MW Pluto capacity
Doctoral student Nicole Kuepper
in December accepting the 2010
Energy Institute Awards in London
on behalf of Suntech/UNSW as
well as the Individual Achievement
Award on behalf of Professor Martin
Green. Earlier in the year, Nicole
received the Australia Youth Trust’s
Tom Harvey Award for Citizenship
for 2010.
technology awards
6
Later in the year, Associate Professor Trupke was
also chosen as the UNSW 2010 Inventor of the
Year in recognition of the innovative features and
commercial significance of this work, following in
the footsteps of Centre Director Stuart Wenham,
who won this title in 2009. Also recognised in the
2010 Awards was Dr Henner Kampwerth as 2010
Student Inventor of the Year, for his doctoral thesis
work on imaging series resistance in silicon cells.
This work was supervised by Associate Professor
Trupke and Professor Martin Green.
Suntech Establishes 450 MW
Pluto Capacity
Suntech has announced the company has
now established 450 MW capacity of its high
performance Pluto cell, jointly developed with the
Centre. This corresponds to close to $1 billion/year
in product in today’s market.
The Pluto technology represents a low cost
approach to fabricating the Centre’s world-record,
25% efficient silicon cell. In 2009, early
production cells were used in a solar module
that surpassed the previous world record
of 15.5% for multicrystalline cells. In 2010,
Suntech improved this module efficiency to
17%. The strengths of the technology were
recognised at the 2010 Energy Institute
Awards in London when Suntech/UNSW were
jointly awarded the Technology Award in
recognition of the favourable cost ratio of Pluto
technology “with manufacturing capacity now
well above any other new silicon cell technology
commercialised worldwide”.
Also at the same Awards, Centre Executive
Research Director Martin Green received the
Award for Individual Achievement for “unparalleled
contributions to solar cell design, incitement of major
investment in solar resulting in vastly improved
performance and reduced costs, greatly increasing
expectations of what is commercially possible to meet
growing energy demands”.
Accepting the two awards on behalf of the Centre,
Suntech and Professor Green, was Nicole Kuepper
Left: Artist’s impressions of the new Solar Industrial
Research Facility (SIRF) due to be completed by mid-2011
which will showcase the Centre’s near-term technology.
Above: Artist’s impressions of the new Tyree Energy
Technologies Building that will house Centre research and
teaching in the future.
new photovoltaic buildings
(photo), herself no stranger to receiving awards.
In March, Nicole was awarded the Australia Youth
Trust’s Tom Harvey Award for Citizenship for 2010 to
recognise outstanding work of a young Australian in
development work.
New Photovoltaic Buildings
During 2010, construction began on two new
buildings on the UNSW Kensington campus
destined for the Centre’s future use.
The first of these is the Solar Industrial Research
Facility (SIRF) on the upper campus, due to be
completed in mid-2011. This impressive, stylish
building will house a full-scale, state-of-art solar
cell production line, although not with the level of
automation required for commercial throughputs.
A special area is also set aside for applying new
processing steps to cells otherwise processed on
the main line.
The SIRF facility will be used to demonstrate
the next generation of the Centre’s wafer-based
technology at large scale, accelerating the transfer
of this technology into production and increasing
the scope and effectiveness of licensing to the
rapidly growing industry. The facility will also play
a key role in Centre research and in the training
of Centre students as well as, via short courses,
the huge numbers of external engineers and
technicians entering this industry.
The second new Centre building is the Tyree Energy
Technology Building (ETB) being purpose-built
on the lower campus to house the Centre’s main
laboratories. These laboratories are expected to be
moved from their present site during 2012. The new
$155 million building is supported by Sir William
Tyree as well as by a grant of $75 million from the
Australian Government’s Education Investment
Fund. This grant was awarded after a presentation
by Centre researchers, Professors Stuart Wenham
and Martin Green as well as doctoral student, Nicole
Kuepper, to the Selection Committee emphasising
the past achievements of the Centre and the impact
of the new building on boosting Centre activities.
Co-located in the building will be other UNSW

Dr Zi Ouyang – Widely cited
first author. Professor Martin Green receiving
the Eureka Prize for Leadership in
Research from Dr Megan Clark, Chief
Executive, CSIRO.
Dr Supriya Pillai – First author of top
other awards
cited paper.
energy-related activities such as the Australian
Energy Research Institute (AERI).
Other Awards
Following on from a best paper award at the 24
European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference
in 2009, then doctoral student Zi Quyang was first
author on another paper “Effective light trapping in
polycrystalline silicon thin-film solar cells by means
of rear localized surface plasmons”, published in
July 2010 which was one of the “monthly top 20
most-downloaded articles last year” in Applied
Physics Letters.
The Centre’s role in stimulating the current
high level of interest in applying plasmonics to
photovoltaics has been recognised by the intense
interest in its seminal paper in this field, “Surface
plasmon enhanced silicon solar cells”, authored by
Supriya Pillai (pictured), Kylie Catchpole, Thorsten
Trupke and Martin Green, published in the Journal
of Applied Physics in May 2007. This has not only
been by far the Journal’s most highly cited paper
of the 3,470 papers published in 2007, but also has
been on the monthly list of the Journal’s 20 most
downloaded papers (all years) every month since,
including each month of 2010.
In August 2010, Executive Research Director
Professor Martin Green received the Eureka Prize for
Leadership in Research, one of the most prestigious
awards in Australian science.
In September, it was the turn of Centre Director,
Professor Stuart Wenham who was named 2010
Professional Engineer of the Year by the Sydney
Division of Australia’s peak engineering body,
Engineers Australia. Chris McGrath, a graduate from
the School, also won the student Engineer of the
ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE
2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT
Professor Stuart Wenham (top)
and Dr Richard Corkish (above)
(accepting award on behalf of
Chris McGrath) at the Engineering
Excellence Awards.
Year Award at the Sydney Division’s Engineering
Excellence Awards.
Undergraduate Awards
th
In March, the Dean of Engineering, Professor
Graham Davies, awarded Dean’s Awards to eight
of the Centre’s top undergraudate students for
their academic achievements in 2009.
Included in this group (see photo) was Bai Xue
who, this year, based on her achievements over
the entire photovoltaic engineering course was
awarded the University Medal, the University’s Left to right: Professor Graham
Davies, Yu Feng, Shen-Long Ooi, Xue
award for the highest academic achievement in the
Bai, Professor Richard Henry, John
graduating cohort. Durrant, Benjamin Hughes, Vincent
Allen, Dr Richard Corkish, Dongchen
Another Centre student, Alice Lang, has been
Lan. Absent: Dong Lin
awarded a prestigious Rhodes Scholarship. “Alice
has really worked hard in the Bachelor of Engineering
in Photovoltaics and Solar Energy Engineering degree
program and it is a real pleasure to see her rewarded
like this”, said Dr Richard Corkish, Head of School of
Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering.
“The engineering degrees that we offer attract some
fantastic students. This Rhodes Scholarship couldn’t
have gone to a more capable and deserving student”.
Professor Stuart Wenham and Bai
New Books Xue, winner of the University Medal.
Following on from the translation of the Centre’s undergraduate awards
highly regarded textbooks into simplified
and traditional Chinese in 2008 and 2009, the
Centre was invovled in publishing two more
translated versions in 2010. Martin Green’s
text “Solar Cells” was translated into simplified
Chinese during 2010 while his text was also
reproduced in Japanese translation during
the year. There are now nine different texts in
total published by the Centre. The translation
into Korean of “Applied Photovoltaics” is also
in progress.
new books published
by centre
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 ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
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2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT
Left to Right:
• Dr Matt Edwards
UNSW, Technology Transfer Team
• Mr Valantis Vais
UNSW Co-op Scholar
• The Hon. Kristina Keneally MP
Premier of NSW
• Prof. Stuart Wenham
UNSW, Director, Photovoltaics
Centre of Excellence
• Ms Adeline Sugianto
UNSW, Technology Transfer Team
NSW Premier Visits Centre
8
Dr Richard Corkish (left) and Professor Martin Green
(middle) talking with Minister Wan in the laboratory
area where the Centre’s world-record 25% efficient
cells are fabricated (Credit: NSW Office for Science and
Medical Research ).
High Profile
Visitors
NSW Premier Visits Centre
Following on from visits to the Centre in 2009
of the President of Korea, President Myung-
back Lee and the soon-to-be Prime Minister of
Australia, Julia Gillard, the then-NSW Premier, The
Honourable Kristina Keneally, visited the Centre in
May to announce that the NSW Government has
pledged $120 million to support and attract solar
energy projects to the State in conjunction with
the Commonwealth Government’s Solar Flagships
Program. “This is about leading the nation on solar
energy projects. Australia is a sun drenched nation and
we must harness this boundless energy,” Ms Keneally
said during her announcement.
Baroness Dr Mary Archer Visits Labs
Early in 2011, Baroness Dr Mary Archer, a specialist
in solar power conversion, visited the Centre.
While here, the Centre’s Deputy Directors gave
presentations in the Centre’s research strands
(Left to Right): Dr Gavin Conibeer, Dr Richard Corkish,
Professor Martin Green, Dr Mary Archer,
Dr Sergey Varlamov, Dr Anita Ho-Baillie, Professor
Stuart Wenham and Dr Ashraf Uddin.
ranging from incremental efficiency improvements
in commercial technology to Third Generation
PV theory and its implementation. Dr Archer is
working on a revised edition of her monumental
reference work “Clean Electricity from Photovoltaics”
in conjunction with Centre Executive Research
Director Professor Martin Green.
Chinese Minister of Science and
Technology Visit
Also early in 2011, The Chinese Minister of Science
and Technology, Dr Wan Gang, met with Professor
Martin Green and Dr Richard Corkish. The Minister
visited SIRF, toured the Centre labs where the
Centre’s world-record 25% efficient solar cell was
developed and spoke with Chinese postgraduate
students about their work. At a subsequent NSW
Government-organised Innovative Materials
Roundtable, Minister Wan said, “I am impressed by
the commitment shown by Australian Universities to
these new technologies and that so many Chinese
graduates have benefited from this expertise. In
particular, I should point out that the pioneering
Renewable Energy program set up by UNSW over 10
years ago and led by Prof Martin Green is an excellent
example of Australian innovation and shows how
Australia and China can work together to create new
fields of technology and opportunity”.
Also attending with Minister Wan was the newly
appointed Chinese Consul-General to Sydney,
Duan Jielong, on his first official visit to an
Australian university.
 ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
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2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT
 ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
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2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT

3. STAFF LIST
Director Postgraduate Co-ordinator
Stuart Ross Wenham, BE BSc PhD UNSW, FTS, FIEEE, FIEAust • Alistair B. Sproul, BSc (Hons) Sydney, PhD UNSW
(Scientia Professor)
Associate Professors
Executive Research Director • Gavin Conibeer, BSc MSc London, PhD Southampton
Martin Andrew Green, BE MEngSc Qld., PhD DSc(Hon) McMaster, DEng • Alistair B. Sproul, BSc (Hons) Sydney, PhD UNSW
UNSW, FAA, FTSE, FIEEE (Scientia Professor and Federation Fellow) • Thorsten Trupke, PhD Karlsruhe

Deputy Directors Senior Lecturers

• Gavin Conibeer, BSc MSc London, PhD Southampton • Stephen Bremner, BSc(Hons), PhD UNSW
• Thorsten Trupke, PhD Karlsruhe • Richard Corkish, BEng (Com) RMIT, PhD UNSW
• Ashraf Uddin, BSc (Hons) MSc Dhaka U, Bangladesh; • Evatt Hawkes, BSc (Hons) BEng (Hons) W. Aust., PhD Cantab.
PhD Osaka U, SMIEEE
• Alison Lennon, BSc(Hons) Sydney, PhD Sydney, PhD UNSW
• Sergey Varlamov, PhD Moscow
• Geoffrey J. Stapleton, BE UNSW
Business, Technology & Operations Manager • Ashraf Uddin, BSc(Hons) MSc Dhaka U, Bangladesh;
PhD Osaka U, SMIEEE
Mark D. Silver, BE UNSW, GMQ AGSM
• Muriel Watt, BSc N.E., PhD Murdoch
Undergraduate Co-ordinator
Lecturers
Ashraf Uddin, BSc (Hons) MSc Dhaka U, Bangladesh;
• Anna Bruce, BE(Hons) PhD UNSW
PhD Osaka U, SMIEE

10
• Merlinde Kay BSc(Hons) PhD UNSW • Omaki Kazuo
• Martha Lenio, B.A.Sc, Uni. of Waterloo • Nicole Kuepper
(until February 2010)
ARC
• Pei Hsuan Lu
• Santosh Shrestha, PhD UNSW PHOTOVOLTAICS
• Ly Mai, BE UNSW
• Long Seng To, BE(Hons) BA UNSW • Berhard Mitchell
CENTRE OF
• Zi Quyang (until November 2010) EXCELLENCE
Senior Fellows 2010/11
• James Rudd
• Anita W.Y. Ho-Baillie, BE PhD UNSW (returned • Lei “Adrian“ Shi ANNUAL REPORT
March 2010)
• Adeline Sugianto
• Dirk König, Dipl. Ing. (EE) Dr. rer. nat. (Ph) Chemnitz
• Yuguo Tao
• Sergey Varlamov, PhD Moscow
• Budi Tjahjono
Research Fellows • Kalaimagal Valliappan
• Patrick Campbell, BSc BE PhD UNSW • Ned Western
• Matthew Edwards, BE (Hons 1) PhD UNSW • Guangqi Xu
• Shujuan Huang, BE ME Tsinghua Uni., • Yao Yu
PhD Hiroshima Uni. • Xiaohan Yang
• Henner Kampwerth, MSc Freiburg, PhD UNSW • Tian Zhang
(since July 2010)
Technical Support Staff
• Emily Mitchell, BE PhD UNSW
(since November 2010) • Kian Fong Chin, BE QUT, MEngSc QUT,
• Ivan Perez-Wurfl, PhD Uni. of Colorado, Boulder MEngSc UNSW
• Thomas Soderstrom, PhD Uni. Of Neuchatel, • Bany Jaya, BE UNSW
Switzerland • Robert Largent, AS USA
• Nicholas Shaw, BE UNSW, PhD UNSW
Post-Doctoral Fellows • Lawrence Soria, AssocDipCompAppl W’gong
• Xiaojing Hao, BE, MSEE Northeastern Uni, China • Zhu Shi Yang
• Supriya Pillai, B. Tech (India), PhD UNSW • Alan Yee, BE UTS
• Sangwook Park (until March 2010)
Casual Staff
Adjunct Fellow • Suprabhat Basnet
Didier Debuf, BE ME PhD UNSW • Angela Jin
• Alex Lee
Visiting Professors/Fellows • Clara Mazzone
• Dr. Robert Bardos • Xian Ni, MPhil UNSW
• A/Prof Chee Mun Chong • Jonathan Pye
• Dr Dong-Jin Kim, Presidential Committee, Korean • Alexandra Ryan
Government (December 2010 – May 2011)
• Erdinc Saribatir
• A/Prof Soon Kweon, Chungju National University,
• Andrew See
Korea (January 2010 – January 2011)
• Lei Shi
• Darcy Wentworth, BSc BE Sydney U., MSc Colorado
• Yuguo Tao
Sch. of Mines, MSc UNSW
• Dean Utian
• Prof. Bingqing Zhou, Inner Mongolia Normal
University, China (until July 2010)
Student Administration Manager
Visiting Researchers Kimberly Edmunds, MEdLead UNSW
• Yukiko Kamikawa
Financial Officer
(JSPS Fellow, AIST, Tsukuba, Japan)
• Mallar Ray, Bengal Eng. Sci. University Julie Kwan
(3 weeks in May 2010)
Administrative Staff
Professional Officers • Danny Lin Chen, BSc UNSW
• Mark Griffin, BE UNSW • Mathew Cheung
• Yidan Huang, BSc Anhui • Sue Edwards
• Hamid R. Mehrvarz, PhD UNSW • Joyce Ho
• Tom Puzzer, BSc PhD UNSW • Jill Lewis
• Bernhard Vogl • Melissa Tang

Research Assistants PhD Students

• Nino Borojevic • Pasquale Aliberti
• Catherine Chan • Yael Augarten, BSc UNSW
• John Durrant • Shelley Bambrook
• Brett Hallam • Jose Bilbao
• Ziv Hameiri • Nino Borojevic, BE UNSW
• Phillip Hamer • Kristen Casalenuovo
• Jianshu Han • Catherine Chan
• Jialiang Huang • Obulesu Chatakonda
• Guangyao Jin • Jessie Copper
• Anahita Karpour • Hongtao Cui

11
 ARC
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2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT

• Dawei Di • Johnson Wong (until September 2010)

• Bonneville Eggleston • Bo Xiao
• Jack Fan • Guangqi Xu
• Peter Gress • Chaowei Xue
• Brett Hallam • Xiaohan Yang
• Ziv Hameiri, BSc BGU • Yang Yang
• Phillip Hamer • Yu Yao
• Jianshu Han • Jae Sung Yun
• Andy Hsieh • Bo Zhang
• Jialiang Huang • Haixiang Zhang
• Guangyao Jin (until September 2010) • Haoyang Zhang
• Craig Johnson
• Nicole Kuepper, BE UNSW Masters Students
• Taraka Kukunuri • Phillip Cook
• Martha Lenio, B.A.Sc, Uni. of Waterloo (until March • Telia Curtis
2010) • Mark Griffin
• Sammy Lee • Do Soon Jung
• Hua Li • Miga Jung
• Wei Li • Anahita Karpour
• Xiaolei Liu • Kyung Hun Kim
• Doris Lu • Taekyun Kim
• Sarah Macleod • Kenneth McLean
• Ly Mai, BE UNSW • Gerald Parnis
• Bernhard Mitchell • Shahla Zamani Javid
• Amir Nashed • Haixiang Zhang
• Zi Ouyang (until September 2010) • Tian Zhang
• Shyam Pasunurthi
Practicum Students
• Robert Patterson
• Yuanjiang Pei • Stephan Lehnen, RWTH, Aachen, Germany (until
March 2010)
• Binesh Puthen Veettil
• Stephan Michard, RWTH Aachen, Germany
• Fang Qi
(September 2009 – February 2010)
• John Rodriguez
• Manuel Morgano, Milano-Bicocca University, Italy
• Yong Heng So (October 2010 – January 2011)
• Adeline Sugianto, BE UNSW • Chandraprasad Rmachandran, UNSW (July –
• Yuguo Tao December 2010)
• Anthony Teal • Dolf Timmerman, University of Amsterdam, The
• Budi Tjahjono, BE UNSW Netherlands (September – December 2010)
• Long Seng To • Hsuan-Wen Wang, National Central University,
• Lara Treiber Taiwan (March 2009 – March 2010)
• Chao-Yang Tsao
• Zhenyu Wan
Taste of Research Summer Scholars
• Stanley Wang, BE, MEngSc UNSW • Xin Rui An
• Kee Soon Wang • Cong Chen
• Qian Wang • David Cordiner

12
 ARC
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• Solomon Freer • Ricky Li Qi Gu • Chao Shen

• Alexander Krisman • William Edwin Hargreaves • Dong Dong Shen
• Ruyou Li • Joel Jonathan Hohn • Lihui Song
• Zhongtian Li • Sueanne Lit Hunter • Eden James Tehan
• Zhong Lu • Gilbert Allen Jin • Lin Tian
• Desiree Surjadi • Haini Jin • Andrew Thai
• Xia Yan • Sara Louise Johnston • Chee Hong Thoo
• Chuanxi Yang • Douglas Jones • Wendy Truong
• Yuebin Zhao • Mattias Klaus Juhl • Valantis Vais
• Chao-Li (Philip) Kao • Ian Thomas Van Eerden
Master’s Coursework • Joseph Michael Kassouf • Taru Riikka Veijalainen
Chandraprasad Ramachandran • Harry Lam • James Dean Von Dinklage
• Alice Virginia Lang • Kan Wang
Undergraduate Thesis Students
• Andrew Lem • Ki Yun (Leo) Wang
• Padraic Nolan Aicken
• Ruoyu Li • Ned Western
• Soravit Angsuvarungsri
• Zhe Li • Ewan Robert Willcox
• Daniel Thomas Atkins
• Dong Lin • Eleanor Elizabeth Wood
• Mohammad Taufik Azami
• Xi Lin • Matthew Wright
• Xue Bai
• Tianyue Liu • Tian Xia
• Nicholas Daniel Boerema
• Ziheng Liu • Bo Xiao
• Anna Mary Cain
• Lui Lo • Shouyi Xie
• Kah Howe Chan
• Shunmian Lu • Heli Xu
• Cong Chen
• Meng Luo • Tian Xu
• Jian Chen
• Linzhi Ma • Buyi Yan
• Xu Yang Chen
• Henry Makgawinata • Chien-Jen Yang
• Yang Chen
• Soleman Mohammad Massoud • Xinda Yang
• Fang Cheng
• Praditya Mattjik • Zihao Yang
• Leroy Clunne-Kiely
• Clara Francesca Mazzone • Jizhong Yao
• Jie Cui
• Alexander Minchin • Yao Yao
• Claire Elizabeth Disney
• Fabian Johannes Muschalik • Cao Yu
• Michael Robert Dodds
• Viren Nathoo • Lan Yu
• Robert William Dumbrell
• Adam Sen (Ann) Ong • Tao Zhan
• Sarah Eager
• Shen Long Ooi • Lei Zhang
• Hua Fan
• Matthew Phillip O‘Regan • Tian Zhang
• Yu Feng
• Chen Pan • Xinyu Zhang
• Gerardo Flores Torres
• Jaga Park Ross • Xiang Zhao
• Alistair Forster
• Rochelle Tara Phillis • Xue Ying Zhao
• Zhen Gao
• Jessada Pothipakdi • Yinghui Zheng
• Daniel Scott Gilbert
• Helga Jane Prochaska • Xi Zhu
• Thomas Maxwell Glyde
• Jonathan Andrew Pye • Yong Zhu
• Linfei Gu
• Zixuan Qiu

13
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“First-generation” wafer-based
technology (BP Solar Saturn
Module, the photovoltaic product
manufactured in the highest
volume by BP in Europe, using
UNSW buried-contact technology).
Figure 4.1.1
Example of “second-generation”
thin-film technology (module
fabricated on CSG Solar’s German
production line, based on thin-films
of polycrystalline silicon deposited
onto glass, again UNSW-pioneered
technology).
Figure 4.1.2
14
4. RESEARCH
4.1 Introduction to Research
Photovoltaics, the direct conversion of sunlight to
electricity using solar cells, is recognised as one of
the most promising options for a sustainable energy
future with the photoovltaics industry poised
to become one of the world’s largest of the 21st
century. The ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence
commenced in mid-2003, combining previous
disparate strands of work supported under a variety
of programs, into a coherent whole addressing
the key challenges facing photovoltaics, as well
as “spin-off” applications in microelectronics and
optoelectronics. The Centre was funded by the ARC
until December 2010 and has since been funded
under a variety of other schemes.
The Centre’s photovoltaics research is
divided into three interlinked strands
addressing near-term, medium-term
and long-term needs, respectively. The
present photovoltaic market is dominated
by “first-generation” product based on
silicon wafers, either single-crystalline
as in microelectronics (Fig. 4.1.1) or a
lower-grade multicrystalline wafer. This
market dominance is likely to continue for
at least the next decade. First-generation
production volume is growing rapidly,
with the technological emphasis upon
streamlining manufacturing to reduce costs
while, at the same time, improving the
energy conversion efficiency of the product. Also
important is the reduction of the thickness of the
starting silicon wafer without losing performance,
to save on material use.
The Centre’s first-generation research is focussed
on these key issues. Building upon the success of
“buried-contact” solar cell, the first of the modern
high-efficiency cell technologies to be successfully
commercialised (Fig. 4.1.1), the Centre has
developed several other high-efficiency processes
in commercial production or close to this, based on
Centre innovations in laser and ink-jet processing.
Wafers are expensive and need quite careful
encapsulation, since brittle and also thermally
mismatched to the glass coversheet, making
first-generation technology reasonably material-
intensive. Several companies worldwide are
commercialising “second-generation” thin-film cell
technology based on depositing thin layers of the
photoactive material onto supporting substrates
or superstrates, usually sheets of glass (Fig. 4.1.2).
Although materials other than silicon are of interest
for these films, silicon avoids problems that can
arise with these more complex compounds due
to stability, manufacturability, moisture sensitivity,
toxicity and resource availability issues. CSG Solar,
a partner in the Centre, has commercialised an
approach pioneered by Centre researchers that
is unique in that it is based on the use of the
same high quality silicon used for first-generation
production, but deposited as a thin layer onto glass.
As well as its collaborative activities with CSG
Solar, the Centre currently maintains a largely
independent program addressing alternative
solutions to those adopted by CSG Solar for
producing high-performance “silicon-on-glass”
solar cells. The main emphasis of both is the
development of lower-cost approaches (such as
deposition by evaporation rather than PECVD). The
Centre also commenced activities on carbon-based,
organic solar cells during 2009 and a program on

other “earth abundant” materials, particularly CZTS
(Cu2ZnSnS4), in 2010.
At the present time, second-generation thin-films
are entering the market in increasing quantities.
Large-scale commercialisation of thin-film product
leads to a completely different manufacturing cost
structure compared to the wafer-based product.
However, costs again are increasingly becoming
dominated by material cost as production increases,
for example, by the cost of the glass sheet on which
the cells are deposited.
More power from a given investment in material
can be obtained by increasing energy-conversion
efficiency. This leads to the possibility of a third-
generation of solar cell distinguished by the fact
that it is both high-efficiency and thin-film. To
illustrate the cost leverage provided by efficiency,
Fig. 4.1.3 shows the relative cost structures of the
three generations being studied by the Centre. This
figure plots efficiency against manufacturing cost,
expressed in US$/square metre. First-generation
technology has relatively high production cost per
unit area and moderate likely efficiencies at the
module level (13-20%). The dotted lines in Fig. 4.1.3
show the corresponding cost/watt, the market
metric. Values below US$1/watt seem increasingly
feasible by improving the efficiency while reducing
manufacturing cost, but this is the likely limit of the
first-generation approach.
The third-generation is specified as a thin-film
technology, which therefore has manufacturing
costs per unit area similar to second-generation,
but is based on operating principles that do
not constrain efficiency to the same limits as
conventional cells (31% for non-concentrated
sunlight for the latter). Unconstrained
thermodynamic limits for solar conversion are much
higher (74% for non-concentrated light, giving an
idea of the scope for improvement). If a reasonable
fraction of this potential can be realised, Fig. 4.1.3
suggests that third-generation costs could be lower
than second-generation by another factor of 2 to 3.
Of the third-generation options surveyed by Centre
researchers, “all-silicon” tandem cells based on
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first-, second- and third-generation
EXCELLENCE
photovoltaic technology (wafers, 2010/11
thin-films and advanced thin- ANNUAL REPORT
films, respectively).
Second-generation thin-film
technology has a different cost
structure as evident from this figure.
Production costs per unit area are
a lot lower, since glass or plastic
sheets are a lot less expensive
than silicon wafers. However, likely
energy-conversion efficiencies are
lower (6-15%). Overall, this trade-off
produces costs/watt estimated as
about 2 times lower than those
of the wafer product, in large
production volumes.
Figure 4.1.3
bandgap-engineering using nanostructures
was selected as the most promising for
relatively near-term implementation (Fig. 4.1.4).
This involves the engineering of a new class of
mixed-phase semiconductor material based
on partly-ordered silicon quantum-dots in
an insulating amorphous matrix. The general
CZTS material system may also have some
potential here due to the range of bandgaps
accessible. Even tandem cells built on silicon
wafers could fall into the targetted cost zone
in Fig. 4.1.3. Photon up-conversion as a way of
“supercharging” the performance of relatively
standard cells forms a second line of research.
A third is the investigation of schemes for
implementing hot-carrier cells. Both of the
latter may prove to be particularly well suited
to organic solar cells.
The fourth Centre strand of silicon photonics Conceptual design of an all-silicon
draws upon elements of all three of the tandem cell based on Si-SiO2 (or
Si-Si3N4 or Si-SiC) quantum dot
photovoltaic strands. A by-product of this work
superlattices. Two solar cells of
has been the development of techniques based
different bandgap controlled by
on silicon light-emission for characterising both quantum dot size are stacked
completed devices, particularly solar cells, as well as on top of a third cell made from
silicon wafers at different stages of processing (Fig. bulk silicon.
4.1.5). Developing this approach to its full potential
Figure 4.1.4
has formed an increasingly large part of the Centre’s
photonics program.
Schematic representation of a
PL imaging system. An external
light source is used to illuminate
the silicon wafer or solar cell
homogeneously. The luminescent
emission (red arrows) from the
sample is captured with a sensitive
CCD camera. This technology was
commercialised by Centre “spin-off”
BT Imaging during 2008.
Figure 4.1.5
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 ARC
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CENTRE OF
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2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT

4.2 Facilities and

Infrastructure
The ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence is
located at the Kensington campus of the University
of New South Wales, about 6 km from the heart of
Sydney and close to its world famous beaches
including Bondi, Coogee and Maroubra
(Fig. 4.2.1).
Organisationally, the Centre of Excellence
is located within the School of Photovoltaic
and Renewable Energy Engineering (SPREE)
within the Faculty of Engineering. The Centre
of Excellence has a large range of laboratory
facilities (Fig. 4.2.2). These include the Bulk
Silicon Research Laboratories, the Device
Characterisation Laboratory, the Optoelectronic
Research Laboratories, the Thin-Film Cell
Laboratory, the Industry Collaborative
Laboratory, Inkjet Processing Laboratory and
Organic Photovoltaic (OPV) Laboratory. Off
campus the Centre has a Thin-Film Cleanroom
facility at Botany, 5km south-west of the main
campus. Another important resource is the
Semiconductor Nanofabrication Facility (SNF)
jointly operated by the Faculty of Science and
the Faculty of Engineering.
Additional equipment commonly used for solar
cell work is found at the new MicroAnalytical
Research Centre (MARC) and elsewhere on the
University campus. Included in this category
Centre of Excellence location
in Sydney. are TEM/SEM electron microscopes, focused ion
beam (FIB) specimen preparation equipment,
Figure 4.2.1
X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, AFM and
surface analysis equipment. TEM, ellipsometry and
a femtosecond time resolved photoluminescence
measurement system are also regularly accessed at
Sydney University.
During 2010, the development and acquisition of
laboratory equipment and infrastructure continued
with specific details about significant additions
found under the laboratory headings which follow.
The Centre of Excellence has three computer
networks. Both Kensington and Bay St Botany each
have a research/admin network. The third network
is for students enrolled in the Undergraduate
Degree Courses in Photovoltaics and Renewable
Energy. In 2010, the Kensington Research and
Administrative network grew by 20% to consist of
5 file servers, 1 terminal server, 1 intranet server,
2 Internet web-servers (hosted on Central IT
infrastructure), 2 licence servers (local and Central)
and over 170 client workstations. At Kensington,
an additional 31 computers are dedicated to
the computer control of laboratory and other
equipment. The Centre also has a 3 server computer
controlled SCADA and PLC network for equipment
control and monitoring the research laboratories
and related infrastructure. Bay St Botany has 9
dedicated equipment controllers and the research/
admin network supports 11 workstations.
The computer resources are used for measurement,
modelling/simulations, equipment control,

16

document control, laboratory design support,
Internet access, general administrative purposes
and maintaining the Centre’s presence on the
Internet.
Each postgraduate research student is allocated
a dedicated personal computer and has access to
shared computer resources.
The Centre upgraded Linux (Beowulf ) 64bit
cluster has an estimated computational power of
2 Teraflops to support the demanding Density-
Functional-Hartree-Fock and molecular dynamical
computations. A second 128 core cluster has
been installed for complementary investigations
of energy efficiency and renewable energy via
computational fluid dynamics techniques.
The Student Computer network comprises of
two computer laboratories of total 78 m2 with 5
servers, a UNSW custom CSE computer based IPQ
router and 34 workstations. Students enrolled
in the Undergraduate Degree Courses use these
computers for computer-related coursework and
Internet access. There is also an Internet capable
web-server that gathers and displays data collected
from solar arrays on the roof of the building. These
data can be viewed using a web browser and can be
made available for Internet access.
Students also have access to over 200
additional workstations made available through
collaboration with the School of Computer Science
and Engineering.
The Laboratory Development and Operations Team
develops and maintains core Centre and laboratory
facilities. During 2010, the team, under the
leadership of Mark Silver, comprised of an additional
5 equivalent full-time and 11 casual employees,
including: electrical engineers, a computer/
network manager, electronic/computer/laboratory
technicians and administrative staff.
Bulk Silicon Research Laboratories
The Centre houses the largest and most
sophisticated bulk silicon solar cell research facility
in Australia, incorporating both the High Efficiency
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Layout of laboratories
and other facilities
within the Electrical
Engineering
Building, Kensington.
Figure 4.2.2
and Buried Contact Cell Laboratories. Total
laboratory processing space of over 580
m2 (including the Industry Collaborative,
InkJet Processing Development, Device
Characterisation and Optoelectronic
Research Labs) is located in the Electrical
Engineering Building and is serviced
with filtered and conditioned air,
appropriate cooling water, processing
gases, de-ionized water supply, chemical
fume cupboards and local exhausts.
There is an additional 819 m2 area for
the accommodation of staff, research
students, school office and laboratory
CNC Laser Scribe Tool.
support facilities. Another 480 m2 of combined roof
space accommodates fixed PV arrays and 361m2 Figure 4.2.3
of accessible outdoor experimental space. Off site,
areas totalling 700 m2 are used for the storage of
chemicals and equipment spare parts and a new
100 m2 area for a nickel sintering belt furnace facility
at 78 Bay St Botany.
The laboratories are furnished with a range of
processing and characterisation equipment
including 23 tube diffusion furnaces, 6 vacuum
evaporation deposition systems, a laser-scribing
machine, 2 laser doping machines, rapid thermal
annealer, four-point sheet-resistivity
probe, quartz tube washer, silver/
nickel and copper plating facility, visible
wavelength microscopes, 3 wafer mask
aligners, spin-on diffusion system,
photoresist and dopant spinners, electron
beam deposition system, metallization
belt furnace, nickel sinter belt furnace,
manual and automatic screen printers
and a laboratory system control and data
acquisition monitoring system.
The laser scribe tool, shown in Figure 4.2.3,
has a 20 watt Nd:YAG laser for infrared
operation (1064 nm) and an optional
frequency doubler for green operation Wafer Mapping Tool.
(532 nm). The work stage is CNC controlled allowing
1 micron positional accuracy and table speeds Figure 4.2.4
approaching 25 cm/second across an area of 15
cm by 15 cm. The tool is used primarily for Buried
17
 ARC
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Contact solar cell fabrication, cutting 35-micron
wide laser grooves as deep as 100 microns into
silicon wafers and scribing wafers in preparation for
cleaving. It can also be used to cut other suitable
materials, such as stainless steel.
Device Characterisation Laboratory
This laboratory is located on the lower ground floor
Flash Cell Tester. of the Electrical Engineering Building. Associated
with it is the Optoelectronic Research Laboratories,
Figure 4.2.5
reception area, seminar room, offices for Centre staff
interacting with the public and industry, including
the Business & Technology Manager, Finance
Officer, External Relations and Design Assistance
Division Manager.
The Device Characterisation Laboratory houses
characterisation equipment including “Dark
Star”, the Centre’s station for temperature
controlled illuminated and dark current-voltage
measurements, the Centre’s Fourier-transform
infrared spectroscopy system (FTIR), frequency
dependent impedance analyser, ellipsometer,
Sinton photoconductance lifetime equipment,
wafer probing station, open circuit voltage versus
illumination measurement system (Suns-Voc), 4 point
resistivity probe, spectral response system and
Optical characterisation bench.
spectrophotometer with integrating sphere.
Figure 4.2.6
In 2008, a multi function wafer mapping tool, shown
in Figure 4.2.4, was installed. This unit provides
state of the art capability for the measurement
of carrier lifetime, bulk resistivity, emitter sheet
resistance and Light Beam Induced Current (LBIC)
on wafer samples.
Additions in 2009 included a high speed
commercial flash cell tester with 156 mm square
wafer capability as shown in Fig 4.2.5, a replacement
UV/VIS/NIR spectrophotometer and a commercial
Luminescence Inspection System (LIS) from spin off
company BT Imaging.
18
Remote plasma PECVD machine.
Figure 4.2.7
Optoelectronic Research Laboratories
This facility has six optical benches and several
visible and near-infrared semiconductor diode
lasers along with other optical and electrical
instrumentation. The facility is used for
photoluminescence (PL) and electroluminescence
measurements in the visible and infrared spectral
range up to wavelengths of 2500nm, luminescence
experiments with simultaneous two-colour
illumination, quasi steady state photoluminescence
lifetime measurements and Sinton lifetime testing
with the conventional flash-light replaced by a high-
power light emitting diode array.
This facility also houses the Centre’s world-leading
first photoluminescence imaging system. Other
equipment includes a silicon CCD camera (for
sensitive PL measurements), spectroscopic PL
systems, PL lifetime measurement unit, and LBIC
measurement system. Areas separate from the
Device Characterisation Laboratory were necessary
in order to meet stringent standards for safe laser
use. It shares cryogenic cooling equipment with the
Device Characterisation Laboratory.
Thin-Film Cell Laboratory
This 40 m2 laboratory is equipped with a range of
equipment for thin-film deposition and patterning,
including a plasma-enhanced chemical vapour
deposition (PECVD) system, a sputtering system,
larger area plasma etcher, a reactive ion etcher (RIE),
a resistively heated vacuum evaporator, helium
leak detector and an optical microscope with
digital image acquisition system. Also used by the
laboratory is an electron-beam vacuum evaporator
for silicon which is physically located within the
Bulk Silicon Research Laboratory. This Si evaporator
is also equipped with an ionizer unit and a sample
heater, enabling fast-rate Si homoepitaxy at
temperatures of about 500-600°C by means of ion-
assisted deposition (IAD). The IAD is also equipped
with a residual gas analyser to permit real time
process monitoring. Other equipment of use in thin-
film projects is located within the Semiconductor
Nanofabrication Facility.

Thermal and e-beam Evaporator.
Figure 4.2.8
The PECVD system, shown in Fig. 4.2.7, has a 40 x
20 cm2 process platen and can handle large-area
silicon wafers as well as smaller pieces. Two types
of plasma excitation (remote microwave and direct
RF) are available. The machine is used for the
low-temperature deposition of thin dielectric films
(silicon nitride, silicon dioxide, silicon oxy-nitrides)
and of amorphous silicon. The dual-cylinder,
remote microwave plasma source produces
excellent-quality silicon nitride and silicon dioxide
films, with precise control over the stoichiometry
at temperatures up to 500°C. Amorphous and
microcrystalline silicon films can also be deposited
in the system.
In 2008, the thermal evaporator was upgraded to
also support e-beam evaporation. This capability
greatly expands the range of materials which can be
deposited and is of great interest to 3rd generation
researchers. In 2009 a new 4 point probing station
was added to the laboratory. In 2010 the computer
support system for the optical microscope was
upgraded to improve the useability of the digital
camera fitted.
Industry Collaborative Laboratory
This 120 m2 laboratory houses equipment needed
for many of the industry-collaborative research
activities including the Buried-Contact Solar Cell
group. The laboratory equipment includes a belt
furnace; a state of the art laser micromachining
tool; a new PECVD deposition system (located in
the adjacent Thin Film Solar Cell Laboratory); a
TiO2 spray deposition station; a high temperature
semiconductor muffle furnace, manual screen
printer and a fully automatic production scale
screen printer. In 2008, a new 532nm green laser
was added and customised in-house to increase the
capability for processing laser doped solar cells.
In 2009, new additions included a fast metallization
firing furnace capable of processing 156 mm square
wafers, a light induced plating system, spin on
doper and mirror steered scanning laser for laser
doping. In 2010 a new wafer spinner was added
to the laboratory. Off site at 78 Bay St Botany, a
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ANNUAL REPORT
nitrogen environment belt furnace capable of nickel
sintering 156 mm square wafers and larger on its 25
inch wide belt was installed.
Inkjet Processing Development Lab
This laboratory houses the Centre’s inkjet printing
development systems. The laboratory is used to
develop solar processing “inks” (chemical solutions)
and for printing them onto a solar wafer under
computer control. The aim is to develop low cost
processing techniques for creating fine structures in
solar cells. It is anticipated that the inkjet printing is
capable of replacing processes such as laser scribing
and photolithography for forming fine patterns
for contacting but at a cost of at least 10 times
cheaper. Equipment includes two ink jet material
deposition printing systems, capable of depositing
Inkjet development systems.
a wide range of materials onto different substrates,
a surface tension meter and viscometer. In 2009 a Figure 4.2.9
commercial aerosol deposition system capable of
very fine scale patterning was purchased.
Semiconductor Nanofabrication Facility
The Centre also owns equipment within, and has
access to, the Semiconductor Nanofabrication
Facility (SNF) at the University. This is a joint facility
shared by the Faculties of Science and Engineering
and houses a microelectronics laboratory and a
nanofabrication laboratory for e-beam lithography.
The SNF provides an Australian capability for the
fabrication of advanced nanoscale semiconductor
devices and their integration with microelectronics.
SNF research projects form an integrated effort to
fabricate innovative semiconductor nanostructures
using the latest techniques of electron beam
patterning and scanning probe manipulation.
A major applied objective of the facility is the
development of a prototype silicon nuclear spin
quantum computer. The capabilities of this facility
were expanded to house the, NCRIS funded,
Australian National Nanofabrication Facility. In
2010 the facility added a new large area e-beam
lithography system and new e-beam evaporator for
non MOS-compatible metals deposition.
19
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Bay Street Clean Room Sputter Machine. UHV Electron Beam Evaporator.

Figure 4.2.10 Figure 4.2.11

Thin-Film Clean Room facility in In 2009, an optically assisted IV measurement

Bay Street, Botany
In 2003, the Centre added a 120 m2 cleanroom
facility in Bay Street, Botany to its infrastructure,
greatly improving its experimental capabilities in
the area of thin-films. This cleanroom is equipped
with several fume cupboards, two tube furnaces,
an electron-beam vacuum evaporator, a thermal
vacuum evaporator, a glass washing machine, a
rapid thermal processing (RTP) machine and a
5-chamber cluster tool. The cluster tool presently
features four plasma-enhanced chemical vapour
deposition (PECVD) chambers and one lamp-
heated vacuum annealing chamber. The PECVD
chambers enable the low-temperature deposition
of dielectric films (silicon oxide, silicon nitride,
etc) and amorphous silicon films (either n- or
p-doped or undoped). Furthermore, samples
can be hydrogenated by PECVD using hydrogen
plasma at substrate temperatures of up to 480°C.
During 2004, the Centre purchased a low-pressure
chemical vapour deposition (LPCVD) system, an
infrared NdYAG laser scriber and a box furnace for
sample annealing. The LPCVD system is capable of
depositing doped crystalline silicon on glass and
with its additional remote plasma source is currently
engaged in hydrogenation work. The NdYAG
laser, located outside the clean room, is used for
scribing silicon films and other suitable metal and
dielectric materials.
system was installed for the determination of static
hot carrier distributions. The LPCVD computer
control system was also upgraded to provide
enhanced throughput. A line beam diode laser
system was also installed, outside the clean room,
for work on low thermal budget defect annealing.
In 2010, the first stage of a multi-chamber
sputter system has been ordered to allow our 3rd
Generation Group to carry out significantly different
functions on a sample without exposing it to the
atmosphere between each process. Processes
include sputter-depositing different dopants in
separate chambers, vacuum annealing, also PECVD
layers. This purchase will be “Stage I” in that one
chamber will be purchased; a loadlock chamber
and other peripherals have been configured from
decommissioned stock. Stage II will involve the
purchase of a second processing chamber and a
transfer/loadlock chamber.
The addition of computer control to our
hydrogenation tool provides more reliable
process repeatability and accuracy of set process
parameters. The processor inputs all process
parameters for each “layer” defining each step
before starting the process. This upgrade also
frees processors’ time in that they need not be in
attendance to change settings when beginning
each process layer.

In 2006, a state of the art multi-target sputter Organic Photovoltaic Laboratory (OPV)
machine was installed. In 2008 this vacuum tool
In 2010 fit out of a new OPV laboratory in the
was upgraded from four to five separate targets.
Chemical Sciences Building commenced and
Each target is able to be operated independently
OPV equipment currently located in other Centre
of one and other, allowing users to cosputter a
laboratories is being integrated into the new facility.
thin film from more than one target and deposit
A recent arrival has been the inert atmosphere, four
multilayers without breaking vacuum. Three power
glove boxes with integrated spin coater. The new
supplies are available with substrate biasing. The
laboratory includes the Centre’s first fume cupboard
custom made system can handle substrates up to
with integral hydrofluoric acid scrubber as well as
150mm x 150mm. Excellent film purity is assured
support space for vacuum evaporation, annealing
as the system incorporates a load-lock. Computer
and sample storage.
control can be used for most operations, including
substrate heating, allowing precise multilayers to be
deposited repeatedly.

During 2007, a new computer controlled multi

pocket, multi source UHV electron beam evaporator
system was delivered. This equipment provides the
capability for high “industrial” rate silicon and other
thin film deposition.

20
4.3 First Generation
Wafer Based Projects
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Research Team • K. Valliappan (Research Assistant) PHOTOVOLTAICS
• L. Zhang (Research Assistant) CENTRE OF
University Staff • Y. Yao (PhD student and Research EXCELLENCE
• S. R. Wenham (Centre Director) Assistant)
2010/11
• M. A. Green (Executive • L. Gu (Research Assistant)
ANNUAL REPORT
Research Director) • N. Western (Research Assistant)
• T. Trupke (Deputy Director – • Mattias Klaus Juhl (Research Assistant)
Photoluminescence Imaging) • Xi Zhu (Research Assistant)
• A. Lennon (Group Leader – Inkjet and • X. Bai (Research Assistant and
Plating Technologies) undergraduate thesis)
• A. Ho-Baillie (Group leader - High • Y. Yeung (Research Assistant)
Efficiency Cells) • Bo Xiao (PhD student)
• J. Roderiguez (PhD student)
Postdoctoral Fellows
• B. Mitchell (PhD Student)
• H. Mehrvarz (High efficiency Cells)
• Li Hua (PhD student)
• M. Edwards (Tech Transfer)
• D. Lu (PhD student)
• B. Tjahjono (Core Research)
• Y. Yang (PhD student)
• L. Mai (Tech Transfer)
Technology Transfer Team
Postgraduate Research Students
and Research Assistants Managers
• M. Lenio (Research Assistant and • D. Jordan (Team leader)
PhD student)
• C.M. Chong (Deputy Team Leader
• Z. Hamieri (PhD student) – Devices)
• N. Kuepper (Research Assistant and • M. Edwards (Deputy Team Leader –
PhD student) Program Manager)
• S. Wang (PhD student) • S. Wenham (Technical Director)
• N. Borojevic (Research Assistant and
PhD student) Team Members
• S. Zamani Javid (Research Assistant and • A. Sugianto
Masters student) • N. Kuepper
• P. Hamer (Research Assistant and • B. Hallam
PhD student)
• C. Chan
• A. Sugianto (Research Assistant and
• A. Lennon
PhD student)
• B. Tjahjono
• B. Hallam (Research Assistant and
PhD student) • L. Mai
• A. Karpour (Research Assistant and • C. M. Chong
PhD student) • X. Bai
• D. Wang (PhD student) • P. Hamer
• A. Han (Research Assistant) • E. Mitchell
• C. Chan (Research Assistant and
NewSouth Innovations
PhD student)
• G. Xu (Research Assistant and • N. Simpson
PhD student) • A. Prib

4.3.1 High Efficiency Silicon Cells

Alternate Rear Reflectors for Silicon

Si wafer
Solar Cells
Si wafer
During 2010, the high efficiency group conducted Passivation
studies into improved planar rear reflectors and also Dielectric stacks Padding laye
into a scattering rear reflector for silicon solar cells Metal
Metal
as shown in Fig. 4.3.1.1. The aim of this work is to (a) Planar rear reflector made
increase reflectance over a broad angular range and up of dielectric stacks and
(b) scattering rear reflector
to enhance light trapping properties, respectively.
made up of silver plasmonic
The effect of varying refractive index of the middle nanoparticles sandwiched
Si wafer between passivating and
layer of a dielectric stack (DS) of SiO2/SiNx/SiO2
Si wafer padding dielectric layers.
has been studied. The thicknesses of each layer in Passivation layer
the DS are kept at ¼ wavelength thick
Dielectric while the
stacks Padding layer Figure 4.3.1.1
refractive index of the middle layer is varied from Metal
Metal

21
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Rb and IQE under Lambertian light distribution
EXCELLENCE
Rb and IQE under perpendicular incident light

1 1.2 1.2

2010/11 0.95 1
0.99

1
0.97
ANNUAL REPORT 0.9 R (n=1.5) 0.8 0.95 0.8

Rear reflectance
Rear reflectance
R (n=2.0) R (SiO2 / Al)
R (n=2.6) 0.93 R (SiO2 / Ag)

IQE
IQE
0.85 R (n=3.0) 0.6 R (optimised DS / Al) 0.6

R (n=3.2) 0.91 R (optimised DS / Ag)

0.8 IQE (n=1.5) 0.4 IQE (SiO2 / Al) 0.4
IQE (n=2.0) 0.89 IQE (SiO2 / Ag)
IQE (n=2.6) IQE (optimised DS / Al)
0.75 IQE (n=3.0) 0.2 IQE (optimised DS / Ag) 0.2
0.87
IQE (n=3.2)
0.7 0 0.85 0
900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250
Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)

R (left axis) and IQE (right axis) under normally R and IQE under a Lambertian distribution of light for
incident light for a planar silicon solar cell with a silicon solar cell with various types of rear reflectors
dielectric stack plus metal rear reflector. The including the standard SiO2/metal and the optimised
effect of varying the refractive index of the dielectric stack (DS)/metal rear reflectors.
middle layer of the dielectric stack (DS) is shown.
Figure 4.3.1.3
Figure 4.3.1.2

Measured EQE of un-textured solar cell

1.00E+02
(4.3.1.1)
9.00E+01
8.00E+01
7.00E+01 EQE enhancement
(4.3.1.2)
6.00E+01
EQE (%)

5.00E+01
Original solar cell
4.00E+01
Solar cell only with passivation layer
3.00E+01
2.00E+01 Solar cell with passivation layer and Ag plasmon

1.00E+01
0.00E+00 (4.3.1.3)
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
wavelength (nm)
Current density Jsc (mA/cm2) was calculated
by integrating the product of IQE and photon
flux, from 300nm to 1300 nm (assuming zero
EQE of a planar solar cell with 1.5 to 3.2. Such stacks with a rear contacting metal front surface reflection). The standard AM1.5G
standard rear reflector (SiO2/Al) layer applied onto a planar cell result in internal spectrum has been used. Table 4.3.1.1 shows the
structure and after the application improvement of Jsc as a result of applying DS/metal
reflectance (R) and internal quantum efficiencies
of Ag nanoparticles (prior to
the application of padding and (IQE) shown in Fig. 4.3.1.2. Figure 4.3.1.3 compares rear reflectors (over the standard SiO2/Al reflector)
metal layers). the R and IQE of standard SiO2/metal reflectors to on both planar and textured solar cells.
optimised DS/metal reflectors when applied to cells
Figure 4.3.1.4
with textured front surface.

The calculation of R and the IQE for Figures 4.3.1.2 (4.3.1.4)

and 4.3.1.3 is carried out as follows. All photo-
generated carries are assumed to be collected Another promising scattering rear reflector
Spectrally sensitive mirrors
by the solar cell (which is roughly the case in structure involves plasmonic scattering from Ag
the Centre’s PERL cells). AB is the absorption nanoparticles. The idea is to scatter the unabsorbed
in the bulk region, AT refers to the cell’s total long wavelength light back into the silicon bulk,
absorption (AT=AB+AR, with AR defined as rear thereby randomising the reflected light directions
reflector absorption). IQE equals the ratio of to enhance light trapping. This can be particularly
AB and AT as indicated in Eq. 4.3.1.1. Formulae important from the first double-pass of light across
for AB and AT are given elsewhere [4.3.1.1]. a cell with pyramidal texture since a large fraction
R is the wavelength dependent internal is lost when internally striking the surface of a
Sunlight
rear reflectance. It can be simply calculated pyramid of opposite slope to that coupling it in.
for perpendicularly incident light, or be a Light travelling past the Ag nanoparticles will be
weighted value of a Lambertian angular light reflected back by the padding layer/metal interface
distribution as shown in Eq. 4.3.1.3. T+ is the as shown in Fig.4.3.1.1 (b), and be scattered for
Solar cells of
different band gaps fraction of light transmitted to the rear surface the second time. Fig. 4.3.1.4 shows the preliminary
and T- is the fraction of light reflected from the results of applying such structure on a silicon solar
rear side transmitted to the front surface. An cell prior to the application of the padding layer.
Multi-junction cell concept using
approximation for T+ T- is used to simplified formula The application of such a nanoparticle reflector
spectral splitting.
in Eq. 4.3.1.2, where a is the absorption coefficient involves the removal of existing back metal layers
Figure 4.3.1.5 and the thinning of the rear passivating SiO2
which varies with wavelength and W is the wafer
thickness. layer followed by the growth of Ag plasmonic

22
 Refractive index of middle layer in DS
Jsc improvement n=2.0 n=2.6
Under normal incident light 1.08% 1.97%
Under Lambertian incident light -0.03% 0.06%
Jsc improvement after
applying dielectric stack (DS)/
metal rear reflectors compared
to the standard SiO2/Al
reflector for both planar and
textured solar cells.
Table 4.3.1.1
40.7% III-V cell stack on Ge showing
the I-V curves of constituent
cells [4.3.1.2].
Figure 4.3.1.6
particles onto the thinned passivating layer. While
the EQE enhancement as shown in Fig. 4.3.1.4
is encouraging, it is anticipated that more EQE
gain is possible by adding the padding and metal
reflector layers.
Spectrum Splitting
During 2010, the group continued its work
on improving the efficiency of solar cells by
subdividing the broad solar spectrum into smaller
energy ranges and to convert each range with
a cell of appropriately matched bandgap (see
Figure 4.3.1.5).
The Centre is involved in a collaborative research
project involving Solar Systems and Spectrolab in
fully exploring the potential of spectrum splitting
in combination with the power tower concept,
for higher efficiency conversion of concentrated
solar power (CSP). A working prototype CSP power
tower system of 140kW rating at Waterbridge,
Victoria has demonstrated the highest sustained
conversion efficiency to date for any solar to electric
conversion system without yet the benefit of such
splitting [4.3.1.3]. We plan to demonstrate the
additional potential by the construction of a small
“power-cube” prototype capable of independent
confirmation of energy conversion efficiency above
40%, including all optical losses.
The work is based on combining the only two
commercial solar cell technologies for concentrated
sunlight, silicon and III-V semiconductor stacks on
Ge substrates, with the latter shown in Fig. 4.3.1.6.
The Ge substrate provides a good crystallographic
template for subsequent layers but Ge has too low a
bandgap to be a good opto-electronic match to the
two cells on top. From the current-voltage curves
shown, the Ge cell can be seen to be generating
much more current than the other two cells. The
extra current is essentially wasted as heat in the
Ge cell with the situation becoming worse as the
airmass (AM) increases from the standard AM1.5
test condition shown (particularly in the mornings
and afternoons).
n=3.0 n=3.2
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The initial idea was to reflect some of the excess (a) Original “Power Cube” receiver
photons reaching the Ge cell onto a separate and concept. Light in approximately the
890-1100nm wavelength range is
relatively inexpensive silicon cell array using an
reflected by a band-pass dielectric
innovative “power cube” receiver as in Fig. 4.3.1.7(a). reflector onto a silicon array rather
For the cell stack shown in Fig. 4.3.1.6, up to 0.085 than being dissipated as heat in
A/W of photon current could be reflected onto a the Ge cell; (b) Improved “Demi-
Cube” concept. Thermal design is
silicon cell where it would be converted at about
improved by integrating one array
0.7V under concentration. This would add an extra and the reflector. By switching the
6% absolute to the combined cell performance position of the silicon and III-V array,
taking it from 40.7% efficiency to above 46%. the filter design becomes far less
critical as shown in Fig. 4.3.1.8.
Additional advantages would be that the
Figure 4.3.1.7
essentially lossless dicroic reflector used to give this
wavelength selective reflection could also be used
to control the angular emission from the III-V cells,
increasing their voltage output (by 2-20 mV/cell for
radiative efficiencies above 10%). Moreover, by
controlling the precise wavelengths reflected Fig. 4.3.1.7 (b)
during the day, spectral mismatch losses could R
be greatly reduced compared to the use of a 1.0
III-V array alone. An additional advantage is the
reduced amount of waste heat to be removed
from the receiver and the larger area available
for its extraction.
Fig. 4.3.1.7 (a)
More detailed analysis of the receiver has
shown that the “demi-cube” approach of Fig. 0 900
1100
4.3.1.7(b) is even more attractive. By integrating
the array and reflector and switching the Simplification of filter design with
position of the two arrays, the design of the new configuration.
reflector is greatly simplified. Low UV and far-IR
Figure 4.3.1.8
absorption in the filter to avoid excessive heating
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Filter Wavelength Jsc III-V Top Cell Jsc III-V Middle Jsc III-V Bottom Current
Cut-offs (nm) (Am-2) Cell (Am-2) Cell (Am-2) Mismatch (%)
Without Filter 152.41 147.27 199.24 38.8
Design 1 932-1070 152.41 146.50 146.46 4.09
Design 2 930-1068 152.31 146.89 144.96 6.41
Design 3 930-1066 151.99 146.89 146.12 4.54

Effect of the use of dielectric

reflectors on reducing current
mismatch within the III-V device.

Table 4.3.1.3

Fixed Demi-Cube Structure Variable Demi-Cube Structure demi-cube structure will be

Angle Angle even greater if used within a
Seasons between Filter III-V cell Si cell Total cell Filter between III-V cell Si cell Total cell day as the changes in daily
in La III-V & Si cut-offs efficiency efficiency efficiency cut-offs III-V & Si efficiency efficiency efficiency spectrum content will be
Parguera cells (°) (nm) (%) (%) (%) (nm) cells (°) (%) (%) (%)
greater than those observed
Summer 33.9 874-1060 41.0 4.1 45.1 874-1060 33.9 41.0 4.1 45.1
in Figure 4.3.1.9. Table 4.3.1.3
Autumn 33.9 874-1060 40.2 4.1 44.3 894-1080 35.3 40.8 4.2 45.0
shows the effect of the use
Winter 33.9 874-1060 41.3 4.1 45.4 874-1060 33.9 41.3 4.1 45.4
Spring 33.9 874-1060 40.3 4.1 44.4 894-1080 35.3 40.9 4.2 45.1
of dielectric reflectors on
reducing current mismatch
at 500 suns (or higher) sunlight concentration is no within the III-V device.
Effect of varying angle between
Si and III-V arrays to maximise cell longer essential. Also, the requirements on reflector
output from the various seasonal design are considerably relaxed due to the greater References:
spectral contents shown in
ease of designing for high reflection rather than for 4.3.1.1 M.A. Green, “Lambertian light trapping in textured
Fig. 4.3.1.9(b). solar cells and light-emitting diodes: analytical
high transmission (Fig. 4.3.1.8), with design now
Table 4.3.1.2 solutions”, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and
simplifying to that of a noncritical band pass filter.
Applications 10(4), pp. 235-241, 2002.
The extra cell area required is not a factor since the
4.3.1.2. Richard King, 51st Electronic Materials Conference,
larger array is formed from low June, 2009.
cost silicon cells.
4.3.1.3 J. Lasich et al., “World’s First Demonstration of a
140kWp Heliostat Concentrator PV (HCPV) system”,
Another advantage of the
34th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,
“demi-cube” concept is that the Philadelphia, 7-12 June 2009.
angle between the Si and III-V
arrays can be varied to take 4.3.2 Industry Collaborative Research and
advantage of the non-ideal Commercialisation
reflection and transmission
properties of the dielectric 4.3.2.1 Introduction
reflector. As the incidence
The Centre’s Technology Transfer team (TTT) was
angle on the dielectric reflector
established in 2008 to accelerate the development
changes, the reflector cut-off
of the Centre’s commercially significant
wavelengths vary and so do
technologies and to carry out technology transfers
the slopes in the transition
to industry. This includes assisting companies to
region between reflection
establish and optimise the large scale production
and transmission. This allows
of UNSW photovoltaic technology. With the high
the reflector to capture the
demand for UNSW technology and new licences,
spectrum with the most
the TTT grew significantly during 2010 with the
suitable wavelength range for
inclusion of Phil Hamer, Xue Bai and Emily Mitchell.
the Si and III-V arrays as the
The already strong academic record of the TTT was
spectral content of sunlight
also further enhanced with an additional two team
varies daily and seasonally, as
members having been awarded University Medals
shown in Fig. 4.3.1.9.
Seasonal averaged direct spectral for being placed first in their respective university
contents for (a) Canberra and (b) Table 4.3.1.2 shows the effect of varying angle programs. This included Emily Mitchell who received
La Parguera. between Si and III-V arrays to maximise output from the University Medal for first place in Photovoltaic
Figure 4.3.1.9 various spectral contents using the spectra of Fig. Engineering at UNSW in 2007 prior to completing
4.3.1.9 as an example. Note the spectra shown in her PhD at the Fraunhofer Institute in Germany and
Figure 4.3.1.9 and used for Table 4.3.1.2 are seasonal Xue Bai who received the University Medal for being
averages only. Hence the advantage of variable placed 1st in Photovoltaic Engineering at UNSW in

24

TTT photo June 2010 with Matt Edwards overseas at
the time and new comers Emily Mitchell, Phil Hamer
and Xue Bai about to join the team.
Figure 4.3.2.1
2010. This takes the number of University Medallists
within the TTT to six at the end of 2010, but with
another university medallist Nicole Kuepper being
temporarily on leave from the TTT while completing
her PhD. Figure 4.3.1 shows the TTT in June 2010
with members from left to right being D. Jordan, A.
Sugianto, S. Wenham, A. Lennon, B. Hallam, L. Mai, B.
Tjahjono and N. Kuepper.
4.3.2.2 Industry Collaborators and
Licensees of Technology
The Centre has a large number of collaborators
and licensees including many cell manufacturers
working with the Centre to improve or develop new
solar cell technology for commercialisation. Some
of these fund the Centre quite generously and are
seen as being partners to NewSouth Innovations
(NSi), the commercial arm of the University that
manages the entire intellectual property portfolio
for the Centre. Interest from companies wanting
to become commercial partners with the Centre or
license technology grew rapidly during the last two
years despite the international financial downturn
in late 2008. This appears to be due in part to the
perceived world leadership of UNSW in this area,
but also due to the growing long-term importance
placed on photovoltaics by a world struggling to
deal with climate change, diminishing resources
and increasing energy requirements. Collaborators
with the Centre in the first generation photovoltaics
area come predominantly from China, Germany,
the United States, Australia, South Korea and
Taiwan and include Suntech-Power, Roth and Rau,
Guodian Solar, Centrotherm, Tianwei, Optomec,
Global Sunrise Energy, BP Solar, Sunergy, CSG Solar,
E-ton Solar, Spectraphysics, Schott Solar, Hyundi
Heavy Industries, China Light, Corum Solar, Advent,
Shinsung, JA Solar and Yunnan Tianda. Several of
these companies are amongst the world’s largest
solar cell and equipment manufacturers.
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4.3.2.3 Commercially Relevant 150-200 �m
Technologies 3mm patterned metal contact
phosphorus
4.3.2.3.1 Introduction
With screen-printed solar cells continuing bulk of wafer
to dominate commercial manufacturing
with well over 50% market share, the
n ++
broad aim of this work has been to
p-type rear metal contact
develop, in conjunction with several
p+
industry partners, the next generation
of screen-printed solar cell. In particular,
metal
the fundamental limitations of the
conventional screen-printed solar cell
Standard screen-printed solar cell.
that have limited its performance for the
last 30 years have been identified, and innovative Figure 4.3.2.2
approaches to redesigning the emitter and front
metal contact have been devised, developed and
analysed in this work. In addition to overcoming
the current and voltage limitations imposed by
the design shown below, a further aim of this work
has been to retain compatibility with existing
equipment and infrastructure currently used by our
industry partners for the manufacture of screen-
printed solar cells.
Despite the dominance of this technology,
this solar cell design shown in Fig. 4.3.2.2 has
significant performance limitations that limit the
cell efficiencies to well below those achievable
in research laboratories around the world. In
particular, the front surface screen-printed
metallisation necessitates a heavily diffused emitter
to achieve low contact resistance and also to
achieve adequate lateral conductivity in the emitter
since the metal lines need to be widely spaced
compared to laboratory cells to avoid excessive
shading losses. Such cells therefore typically have
emitters with sheet resistivities in the range of 50-60
ohms per square, which inevitably give significantly
degraded response to short wavelength light.
Good work in recent years by partners Dupont
and Ferro has improved paste formulations,
allowing ohmic contacts to be formed to more
lightly doped emitters in the vicinity of 60 ohms/
square while simultaneously lowering the bulk
resistivity of the fired paste. To further raise this
25
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Screen-printed fingers running
perpendicular to the heavily
diffused semiconductor fingers
where electrical contact is
made. A dielectric/AR coating
passivates the top surface and
isolates the metal from the
lightly diffused top surface.
Figure 4.3.2.3
sheet resistivity to above 100 ohms per square, as
required for near unity internal quantum efficiencies
for short wavelength light, serious resistive losses
are introduced, both in the emitter and through
the contact resistance at the metal to n-type
silicon interface.
Furthermore, the conventional design for screen-
printed solar cells has quite poor surface passivation
in both the metallised and non-metallised
regions. Even if good ohmic contacts could be
made to more lightly doped emitters, the large
metal/silicon interface area would significantly
limit the voltages achievable due to the high
levels of recombination in these regions and the
corresponding contribution to the device dark
saturation current. These voltage limitations are
not of major significance at the moment due to the
limitations imposed by the substrates. However,
in the future as wafer thicknesses are reduced to
improve the device economics and improved rear
surface passivation is introduced, the cells will have
the potential for improved open circuit voltages,
but only provided the surfaces, including under the
metal, are well passivated.
4.3.2.3.2 Semiconductor Finger
Solar Cells
To accommodate a top surface emitter sheet
resistivity of at least 100 ohms per square, metal
fingers need to be spaced no more than 1mm apart
to avoid excessive sheet resistivity losses. Due to
the large width of screen printed metal lines or
100 microns or more, such a close spacing is not
possible without shading well over 10% of the cell
surface. The concept of semiconductor fingers is
therefore introduced as shown in Figure 4.3.2.3.
These semiconductor fingers are formed by laser
doping the silicon surface while simultaneously
patterning the dielectric layer to expose the
heavily doped silicon surface. Developmental
work with the laser doping process allows sheet
resistivities as low as 1 ohm/square to be achieved
while simultaneously forming laser doped lines of
only 8 microns width. Spacing such lines 0.8mm
apart avoids significant resistive losses within the
26
lightly doped emitter which can be diffused to
100 ohms/square, ensuring excellent response to
the short wavelengths of light. In the laser doped
regions, approximately half of the incident light is
lost due to absorption within the heavily doped
semiconductor fingers.
This is defined as a 50% effective shading loss
of the semiconductor fingers. Using this design,
the effective shading loss of the semiconductor
fingers is only 0.5%, while the effective emitter
sheet resistivity of the emitter is 50 ohms/square.
This latter figure results from the emitter sheet
resistance of 100 ohms/square in parallel with the
laser doped lines which cover 1% of the area with a
sheet resistivity of 1 ohm/square and therefore also
effectively contribute 100 ohms/square. This allows
the screen-printed lines to retain their normal
spacing, but with 99% of the emitter being lightly
doped and therefore able to achieve near unity
internal quantum efficiencies for short wavelengths
of light. In addition, the passivating dielectric layer
not only passivates the lightly diffused surface so
as to give near unity internal quantum efficiencies
for short wavelength light, but it also isolates the
metal from these same regions to minimise the
device dark saturation current. Importantly, the
silicon is only exposed at the semiconductor fingers,
with the screen-printed metal having been shown
to make excellent ohmic contact to the heavily
phosphorus diffused silicon in these regions.
Both thick oxides and silicon nitride layers, when
used with appropriate pastes, appear to provide
adequate protection to the lightly diffused surface
regions, preventing the screen-printed metal from
contacting the silicon.
A typical cell design based on this concept uses
semiconductor fingers 8 microns wide of sheet
resistivity 1-2 ohms/square and spacing of 0.8mm.
The top surface sheet resistivity is typically 100
ohms/square, with the effective sheet resistivity
in the direction parallel to the semiconductor
fingers typically 50-60 ohms per square. The screen
printed metal lines are printed perpendicular
to the semiconductor fingers with a width of
110 microns and spacing of 2.2mm. The overall

120
100
80
60 EQE
%
Reflection
40
IQE
20
0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Wavelength (nm)
effective shading loss of the combination of the
semiconductor fingers and the screen-printed
metal lines (not counting interconnect strips) is
therefore 5.5%, comprising 5% from the metal plus
0.5% from the semiconductor fingers. This is typical
of conventional screen-printed cells, but with the
greatly enhanced short wavelength response of
these cells giving about a 4% advantage in short
circuit current.
This design also has the advantage of being the
equivalent of a self-aligned selective emitter design
with the metal only contacting the silicon in heavily
doped regions. This gives the cell top surface
structure much higher voltage capability although
improved rear surface passivation will be necessary
to capitalise on this. The biggest challenge in
turning this into a robust technology for large scale
production is the very small metal/silicon interface
area which is less than 0.1% of the top surface.
This is sufficient for suitably low contact resistance
to facilitate high fill factors provided everything
works properly. However variability in this contact
resistance is a weakness in the design causing
efficiencies in pilot production of the technology
to vary from 17 to 18.4%, with the average being
below 18%.
The processing sequence for this technology is
easily retrofitted onto a standard screen-print line
and is as follows:
1. Surface texturing
2. Emitter diffusion (100 ohms per square)
3. Rear surface etch plus edge isolation
4. SiNx deposition by PECVD (top surface)
5. Semiconductor fingers by laser doping
6. Rear metal plus front metal screen-printing
7. Firing of metal contacts
Only step 5 deviates from standard homogeneous
emitter screen-printed solar cell fabrication, with
the overall fabrication appearing to be simpler
and shorter than those sequences proposed for
introducing selective emitter designs for screen-
printed solar cells.
ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE
2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT
Spectral response of
semiconductor finger cell.
Figure 4.3.2.4
The best semiconductor finger solar cells have fill
factors of 79%, demonstrated with this structure
on large area devices of approximately 150cm2,
verifying the effectiveness of this contacting
scheme for minimising resistive losses. These
cells also have near perfect response to short
wavelength light as shown below, leading to Jsc
values of 36-37mA/cm2. Even though commercial
p-type substrates are not capable of voltages
above about 640mV, Voc values approaching this
have been achieved in pilot production with this
technology, with corresponding efficiencies as high
as 18.4%.
This concept of semiconductor fingers does not
appear to have been used in large-scale commercial
solar cell production, and has considerable appeal
as it facilitates good conductivity within the
emitter, but without the normal trade-off found
in screen printed cells. Normally, such regions of
good emitter conduction are located at the top
surface and therefore degrade the cell spectral
response and current generating capability due to
the corresponding extremely short minority carrier
diffusion lengths in such regions. This technology
is particularly well suited to multicrystalline silicon
wafers that normally degrade when exposed to
prolonged thermal treatments.
Another possible implementation of this
technology would appear to be the incorporation
of the laser chemical processing (LCP) techniques
developed by the Fraunhofer Institute in Germany
in conjunction with the laser company Synova.
This would allow the superior performance of
the laser grooved semiconductor finger solar cell
to be combined with the simplicity and low cost
of the laser doped semiconductor finger solar
cell. Both institutions have intellectual property
that would appear to provide significant benefits
in combination.
27
 ARC
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CENTRE OF
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2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT
Photo of a hybrid screen-printed
and plated solar cell showing the
three levels of metallisation. Each of
the two busbars effectively collect
current from 8 small solar cells,
each with a tapered screen-printed
line that carries the current from
the narrow plated lines to the
respective busbar/interconnect.
Figure 4.3.2.4b
28
4.3.2.3.3 Advanced Semiconductor
Finger Solar Cells
As part of the core research of the Centre of
Excellence funded by the ARC and UNSW, an
enhanced version of the semiconductor finger solar
cell was designed and developed to overcome the
limitations of the standard semiconductor finger
solar cell described in Section 4.3.2.3.2. This involves
plating 2 microns of silver (or Ni/Ag or Ni/Cu/Ag) to
the screen-printed metal at the end of processing,
which simultaneously plates a similar thickness
to the semiconductor fingers when using light
induced plating as shown in Figure 4.3.2.4B.
The application of this plated metal has several
benefits. Firstly, it makes good ohmic contact
to both the heavily doped silicon and also the
screen-printed metal, overcoming the high contact
resistance sometimes experienced by the standard
semiconductor finger solar cell. This makes high fill-
factors routinely achievable while solving the yield
problems of the original implementation. Secondly,
the increased conductivity of the semiconductor
fingers facilitates increasing the screen-printed
metal line spacing to typically 2-3cm. Although the
corresponding width has to be increased to 400
microns, it has the benefit of allowing both tapering
and increased height to above 50 microns.
This reduces the shading loss of the screen-printed
metal fingers from 5% down to about 1%, with
the corresponding Jsc increase taking efficiencies
to above 19%. Interestingly the effective shading
loss of the semiconductor fingers was expected
to increase by 0.5% although in reality, the plated
laser doped surface appears rough enough to
scatter the reflected light so that almost half is
totally internally reflected at the glass/air interface
and returned to the solar cell surface. Therefore
the effective shading loss of the semiconductor
fingers remains virtually unchanged. Importantly,
by avoiding the contact between the screen-printed
silver and the lightly doped silicon, the top surface
design of this solar cell behaves very differently to
standard screen-printed contacts and appears to
Cross-sectional SEM photos show: (a) discontinuities
in the Al-doped p+ layer; (b) a deep and uniform Al-
doped p+ layer.
Figure 4.3.2.5
have the potential to achieve open circuit voltages
approaching 700mV.
The development of this technology will form part
of the ASI project involving Silex and Suntech. It is
particularly well suited to multicrystalline silicon
wafers due to the avoidance of prolonged high
temperature thermal processes. Based on small area
test devices, the inclusion of rear surface passivation
is expected to take efficiencies on multi material to
over 18% with corresponding open circuit voltages
in excess of 650mV while on mono, efficiencies
of 21% are anticipated with open circuit voltages
exceeding 670mV.
4.3.2.3.4 Advanced N-Type Screen-
Printed Solar Cells
4.3.2.3.4.1 N-type Screen-Printed Cells
with Homogeneous Top Surface Diffusion
Increasing interest is being shown in n-type
CZ material as a means for avoiding the widely
reported defects associated with the high boron
and oxygen concentrations in p-type CZ material.
In particular, screen-printed aluminium has been
used as a simple and cost-effective way to create an
Al-alloyed rear emitter for such n-type CZ material,
especially in the n+np+ cell design with rear junction.
However low voltages for such structures reported
in the range 617-627mV appear to be a severe
limitation of this approach since n-type CZ wafers
should be capable of achieving much higher open
circuit voltages.
Discontinuities in the p+ layer have been
identified as the main cause for such performance
degradation of this device. These discontinuities,
as seen in Fig.4.3.2.5 (a), are isolated points where
the junction fails to form, usually created by non-
uniform wetting of the silicon by the Al during the
alloying process. Although their presence can be
minimized by optimizing the firing process so as to
allow uniform wetting of the surface to occur, they
cannot be completely avoided. In small quantities,
such non-uniformities have almost negligible
influence on the performance of the back surface

PL images illustrate the improvement in uniformity
and quality of the p+ layer achieved by the new
firing process. (a) before and (b) after the low
temperature treatment.
Figure 4.3.2.6
field in conventional p-type cells. However, they can
significantly degrade the quality of the Al-alloyed
emitter in n-type wafers by allowing Al to locally
bypass the p+ region and directly contact the n-type
bulk via a Schottky barrier causing a non-linear
shunt. A new and modified firing process has
therefore been developed to avoid the damage
from such non-uniformities. In this method, a
patented low temperature solid phase epitaxial
growth process is employed after the conventional
standard spike firing to minimize the impacts of
these junction discontinuities so that a uniform and
good quality junction as illustrated in Fig. 4.3.2.5 (b)
can be achieved.
These improvements have facilitated a 15-20mV
increase in Voc relative to those reported in the
literature and efficiencies over 17% for standard
screen-printed solar cell technology with
homogeneous n-type emitter (front surface field)
applied to n-type wafers. Figure 4.3.2.6 shows
the improvement in the photoluminescent (PL)
response resulting from the improved firing and
formation of the rear contact and junction.
A common problem with the manufacture of
conventional screen-printed solar cells is minute
amounts of aluminium paste accidently coming
into contact with the cell front surface. This can
happen when wafers are face down during the
printing of the rear or during wafer transfer/
handling. Aluminium paste contamination of such
surfaces and transfer belts happens relatively easily
in a production environment such as through a
broken wafer that has been Al printed, operators’
contaminated gloves, tiny holes in the screen-
printing screen etc. However such contamination
with the current rear junction n-type technology
creates unusual photoactivated shunts that are not
present in the dark.
This is because a p-n-p transistor structure is formed
when the unwanted aluminium on the top surface
is fired into the n-type surface (with the second p-n
junction of course being at the rear of the device).
In this phototransistor, the lightly doped wafer
forms the base of the transistor, and despite the
ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE
2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT
Inverted form of the PERL (Passivated Emitter and Rear
Locally diffused) solar cell developed at UNSW based
on the use of N-type silicon.
Figure 4.3.2.7
base being very thick, approaching
200 microns, the high lifetime of the
CZ n-type material allows the transistor
to achieve moderate gain levels and
therefore conduct large currents when
illuminated by light that generates
the necessary base current for the
transistor. The unusual consequence
is that the apparent shunt resistance
of the cell is very poor (low) when
illuminated brightly, increasing to
high values in the dark or even low
illumination levels. The ramifications
of this for cell efficiency and fill-factor
are that values fall with reducing light
intensity as is normally the case for Schematic of a laser doped
shunted cells, but with values increasing again Al-alloyed rear junction n-type
for low illumination levels as the shunt problems solar cell.
disappear as the phototransistors are deactivated. Figure 4.3.2.8
Even without such phototransistor shunting,
analysis of such homogeneous emitter n-type
devices indicates that even higher voltages
are potentially achievable if not for the large
dark saturation current contribution from the
heavily doped phosphorus diffused top surface.
This emphasises the importance of moving to
the equivalent of a selective emitter design for
the front surface to facilitate both improved
short wavelength response as well as increased
device voltages.
4.3.2.3.4.2 N-type Screen-Printed Cells
with the Equivalent of a Selective Emitter
Until recently, the Centre held the world record
(jointly with Stanford University) for the most
efficient n-type silicon devices with 22.7% efficiency.
The cell design was based on the inverted form
of the PERL (Passivated Emitter and Rear Locally
diffused) solar cell developed at UNSW and is
shown below. In this work, the cell design has
been adapted to accommodate the use of low cost
screen-printed solar cell processes involving the
alignment of the screen-printed front metal lines to
the heavily doped n+ regions to form the equivalent
of a selective emitter on the front surface and the
29
 use of a screen-printed aluminium grid pattern on heavily diffused lines. The wafers were rinsed and
the rear to form the localised p+ regions during the submerged in 1% HF solution for 30sec to remove
ARC spike firing of the Al. the dopant source and any native oxide from the
PHOTOVOLTAICS laser doped lines. Lastly, light induced plating (LIP)
CENTRE OF This approach enables the achievement of 18%
was subsequently performed to deposit Ni, which
efficiency but requires a quite complicated
EXCELLENCE was sintered at 400oC, followed by Cu plating to
processing sequence.
2010/11 form the front contacts.
ANNUAL REPORT For comparison purposes, the screen-printed front
The performance improvement relative to the
contacts were replaced with laser doped contacts.
selective emitter screen-printed counterparts arises
With a top surface homogeneous emitter diffused
primarily from the reduced shading losses by the
to about 200 ohms per square, the self aligned
top surface metalisation although slightly higher
metalisation with heavy doping beneath the
voltages as high as 650mV, fill-factors and yields
metal contact was formed by melting the silicon
are also achieved, apparently due primarily to the
through the silicon nitride anti-reflection coating
reduced metal/silicon interface area and superior
in the presence of an n-type dopant source. This
alignment with the laser doped contacts.
laser doping process automatically damages the
overlying silicon nitride layer, facilitating direct A spectral response measurement was performed
plating of metal to the heavily doped regions as to investigate different regions in the cell. A very
a self-aligned top surface metal contact. The cell high value of more than 95% was maintained for
structure is shown below. This approach appears to internal quantum efficiency (IQE) from 580nm to
have significant advantages over the screen printing 960nm. However, there was a slight drop in the
technique such as self alignment to the locally short wavelength range, indicating that the front
diffused top surface, narrower metal surface passivation can be further improved.
lines and corresponding significantly
100
lower shading losses. Despite being a 4.3.2.3.5 Buried Contact Solar Cells
90
significantly simpler process than the
80 Despite this technology being commercialised more
screen-print selective emitter design,
70 than a decade ago, it remains a key technology for
excellent cell efficiencies of 18.6%
60 IQE collaborative research with industry and continues
have been achieved on large cell
(%) 50 to do well commercially with close to $1 billion of
EQE areas of 148.6cm2 using commercial
40 product now deployed in the field and many new
Reflectance grade CZ n-type wafers. Commercial
30 companies interested in its commercial potential.
partners have demonstrated even
20 New developments at the Fraunhofer Institute in
higher efficiencies, exceeding 19%
10
conjunction with the laser company Synova make
while simultaneously using only
the groove formation and doping a much simpler
0 industrial equipment.
360 480 600 720 840 960 1080
and lower cost process than incorporated into the
In this work, the cells were fabricated original technology implementation. The German
Wavelength (nm)
using industrial sized (125x125mm) company Rena is offering a turn-key production line
phosphorus-doped CZ n-type wafers for this technology although it appears at this stage
Spectral response of a typical laser
of 3ohm-cm resistivity and ~180mm that significant laser induced damage is making the
doped n+np+ solar cell.
thickness. A texturing process was performed in a achievement of high efficiencies difficult.
Figure 4.3.2.9 NaOH/Isopropanol based solution to form random
Never-the-less, this is expected to create
pyramids. A thin phosphorus diffused n+-layer with
significant new interest in the Buried Contact
a sheet resistivity of 200 ohm/sq serving as the front
technology, particularly with the apparent growing
surface field was created by a thermal diffusion at
acknowledgement of the benefits of the technology
850oC using liquid POCl3 source in a conventional
over existing screen-printed solar cell technology.
tube furnace. A chemical etch containing HF
In the 2006 European Inventor of the Year Awards,
and HNO3 was then applied to the
the Buried Contact technology contributed to
back of these wafers to remove the
Green and Wenham receiving a Top 3 Ranking (out
unwanted n+-layer from this surface.
of more than 200,000 inventions world-wide in the
A silicon nitride layer with a refractive
period 1990-2000) for inventors outside Europe. A
index of 2.05 and thickness of 75nm
further distinction for this technology is its listing
was subsequently deposited using a
amongst Australia’s Top 100 Inventions of the 20th
commercial Roth & Rau remote plasma
Century as determined by the Australian Academy
PECVD system to simultaneously form
of Technological Sciences and Engineering. The
an anti-reflective coating and provide
original design for this solar cell has the buried
passivation for the front surface as well
metal contacts on the top surface as shown in
as the bulk material.
Figure 4.3.2.10 although in more recent years
After screen-printing with a selected the interdigitated rear contact design applied to
Aluminium paste on the entire back n-type wafers shown in Fig. 4.3.2.11 has become
surface with a gap of around 2mm particularly popular and a focus of UNSW research.
from the edges, the wafers underwent Efficiencies of 20% have been demonstrated
an alloying process at 860oC in a on small area devices with efficiencies of 21%
Buried contact cell with buried
contacts on both front and conventional conveyor belt furnace to produce eventually believed achievable on large area
rear surfaces. the rear Al-alloyed emitter. A phosphorus dopant CZ material.

Figure 4.3.2.10
source was then spun onto the front surface,
followed by the laser doping process using a 532nm
wavelength Q-switch diode laser to create locally

30

Buried contact cell with interdigitated rear contacts.
Figure 4.3.2.11
4.3.2.3.6 Laser Doped Selective Emitter
Solar Cells
The benefits of a selective emitter have been well
known and quantified for many years. The benefits
of heavy doping beneath the metal contacts
contribute significantly to the high performance
levels achieved by technologies such as the Buried
Contact Solar Cells, the semiconductor finger
solar cell, the point contact solar cells and the
world-record holding Passivated Emitter and Rear
Locally diffused (PERL) solar cell. The heavy doping
not only facilitates reduced contact resistance
between the metal and the silicon, but probably
more importantly it shields the high recombination
velocity metal/silicon interface from the active
regions of the cell. In addition, by restricting the
heavily doped material to the immediate regions
beneath the metal contact, little light absorption
takes place in such regions thereby avoiding
problems with carrier collection from heavily doped
regions where the minority carrier diffusion lengths
are very short.
Despite the commercial success of the Buried
Contact Solar Cell described above, a potentially
more effective and simpler way of achieving a
selective emitter is by using laser doping to produce
the heavily doped regions beneath the metal
contacts as shown in Fig. 4.3.2.12. Following top
surface emitter phosphorus diffusion to about 100
ohms per square and silicon nitride deposition,
an n-type dopant source is applied or can even be
incorporated into the silicon nitride layer. A 532 nm
NdYAG laser is used to melt the silicon to a depth
in the vicinity of a micron while simultaneously
releasing the n-type dopants into the molten
region. The molten silicon subsequently regrows
epitaxially, heavily doped with phosphorus. Just
as importantly, the overlying silicon nitride layer
is removed from the silicon surface in isolated
regions, facilitating direct plating to the exposed
n++ surface. Electroless plating of Ni and Cu provides
a particularly effective self aligned metalisation
scheme to provide metal lines wherever the laser
doping was effected. The laser doped regions are
typically 12 microns wide, leading to metal lines of
only 20 microns width after plating.
Innovative light induced plating techniques have
been developed that facilitate the achievement of
very high aspect ratios for the plated Nickel and
ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE
2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT
Laser doped selective emitter solar cell with self
aligned plated metal contacts.
Figure 4.3.2.12
Copper. Using conventional electroless plating
techniques which tend to plate conformally with a
uniform plating rate in all directions, the 10 micron
wide laser doped line plates to a width of about
30 microns for a plating height of about 10
microns as shown in Figure 4.3.2.13 (a). In
comparison, the new light induced plating
techniques achieve line widths of only 24
microns for even greater metal height as
shown in Fig. 4.3.2.13 (b).
Contact resistances below 0.001 ohmcm2 have
been demonstrated, leading to fill factors
as high as 80% being achieved on devices
of approximately 150cm2 in area. This has
facilitated the achievement of efficiencies
above 19% on commercial-grade CZ p-type
silicon. Of particular importance has been the
defect generation accompanying the laser
doping process, particularly in conjunction
with dielectric-coated, textured silicon
surfaces. Planar surfaces present minimal
challenge in terms of achieving near defect
free regions in the vicinity of the laser
melted regions. Textured surfaces however,
particularly in conjunction with dielectric
coatings of significantly different thermal
expansion coefficient, have provided a
significant challenge to match the low defect
densities achievable with planar devices.
Important processing parameters in the
optimization of the laser doping process
for textured surfaces have included laser
pulse envelope shape, pulse duration, pulse
frequency, laser light frequency, laser power,
beam focus as well as the type of dielectric and
dopant source being used.
The TT team has had significant success
helping various companies get this technology
into pilot production, often achieving higher
efficiencies and on larger area commercial (a) electroless conformal plating
of Cu onto a laser doped region
wafers, than has been achieved at UNSW. For and (b) Improved aspect ratio
example, 19.0% efficiency or higher has been for metal plated by the new light
achieved in pilot production at several companies, induced plating techniques where
four of which have chosen to do joint publications the height is 12 microns while the
width is 24 microns. (c) FIB photo
with UNSW documenting the achievements
of Cu plating using the new light
including Sunrise Global Energy in Taiwan, Roth induced plating techniques as
and Rau in Germany, Centrotherm in Germany and for (b).
Shinsung in Korea.
Figure 4.3.2.13
31
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20
ARC 70
15
PHOTOVOLTAICS 60
10

Reflectance (%)
CENTRE OF 50 400 550 700 850 1000

EXCELLENCE 40
Photolith. inverted pyramids
2010/11 30 I.J. inverted pyramids

ANNUAL REPORT 20
I.J. v-grooves

10

0
300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200
Wavelength (nm)

(a) Optical Microscope

photograph of ink jet Reflectance of silicon wafers
patterned lines in a SiO2 layer with different surface finish (i)
and (b) Scanning Electron inverted pyramids formed by
Microscope photograph of photolithography, (ii) inverted
the grooves formed in the pyramids patterned by ink jet
silicon surface following KOH printing and (iii) v-grooves
etching of (a). patterned by ink jet printing.

Figure 4.3.2.16 Figure 4.3.2.17

30-40 micron diameter holes
formed by ink-jetting.
Figure 4.3.2.14
(a) Optical Microscope photograph
of ink jet patterned holes in a SiO2
layer and (b) Scanning Electron
Microscope photograph of the
inverted pyramids formed in the
silicon surface following KOH
etching of (a).
Figure 4.3.2.15
The preferred implementation of the laser doping
selective emitter (LDSE) technology also uses an
equivalent laser doping/plating combination on
the rear surface using a boron doping source. In
this cell design, the majority of both the front and
rear surfaces is well passivated using silicon nitride
although the preferred rear surface passivation
of the undiffused p-type surface uses somewhat
different deposition parameters for best results.
Implied Voc values above 730mV at one-sun
demonstrate the near perfect passivation achieved
with such surfaces. Following laser doping of the
rear surface, even though plated contacts can be
used similarly to on the front surface, the preferred
rear contact is achieved through depositing
aluminium over the entire surface followed by a
low temperature sinter used to form good ohmic
contact with the boron laser doped regions. In
this cell design, the aluminium layer provides an
excellent rear surface reflector. Even with standard
commercial grade p-type CZ wafers, based on
laboratory results it appears this technology will
achieve comfortably over 20% efficiency on full
sized commercial wafers when established in pilot
production in early 2011 with impressive open-
circuit voltages in the vicinity of 670mV.
The simpler version of the LDSE technology
equivalent to the pilot production established at
Sunrise with aluminium alloyed rear surface, is far
simpler to retrofit onto existing screen-printed
production lines, with 90% of existing equipment
retained. For several manufacturers such as
Shinsung in South Korea, this new technology
whereby the laser doped selective emitter
combined with light induced plating of the metal
contacts are used to replace the front surface
screen-printed metal is achieving significantly
higher efficiencies well in excess of 19% compared
to 18% for conventional screen-printed cells with
minimal if any cost increase per cell. Roth and Rau
have also secured the rights from UNSW to develop
and sell turn-key production lines based on the
LDSE technology world-wide This is expected to
make it far simpler for many companies, particularly
new manufacturers, to take up the new LDSE
technology in large scale production.
Two other popular implementations of the laser
doping technology with industry collaborators are
the bifacial structure using laser doped self-aligned
contacts of opposite polarity on both surfaces and
the interdigitated rear surface laser doped contacts
for rear junction n-type devices. Collaborative
research projects based on these cell designs have
been established with the aim of developing the
technologies to take cell efficiencies on n-type
CZ also to above 20% in large scale commercial
production at some stage in the future.
Another use of the laser doping technology was
described in Section 4.3.2.3.4.2 as a replacement
for screen-printed contacts with n-type CZ wafers
in conjunction with aluminium alloyed rear
contact and junction. As reported above, excellent
efficiencies in the vicinity of 19% have also been
achieved with this cell design on 148.6cm2 n-type
CZ wafers. A simpler patented version of this
technology has also been developed which requires
no diffusion processes, no edge junction isolation
and no thermal processes above 450 degrees
Celsius except for the aluminium alloying process
for several seconds. Never-the-less, the technology
is still able to achieve efficiencies above 18% on
full-sized commercial substrates. The processing
sequence used is:
1. Wafer texturing
2. Silicon nitride deposition
3. Aluminium rear surface printing and firing
4. Laser doping front surface
5, Ni/Cu light induced plating
4.3.2.3.7 Inkjet Technology for Solar Cell
Fabrication
4.3.2.3.7.1 Resist Based Method
Inkjet technology has been an area of rapid
development over the last decade, particularly for
printing. In recent years, its application has been
spreading to other fields, but as yet has had only

32
 80
25
70 ARC
20

60
PHOTOVOLTAICS
15
CENTRE OF
Reflectance (%)

50 10
400 550 700 850 1000 EXCELLENCE
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Random upright pyramids

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I.J. inverted pyramids ANNUAL REPORT
20 I.J. v-grooves

10

0
300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200

Wavelength (nm)

(a) Reflectance of silicon wafers with different surface

finish (i) laboratory fabricated random, upright pyramids,
(ii) inverted pyramids patterned by ink jet printing and (iii)
v-grooves patterned by ink jet printing and (b) SEM of (iii).

Figure 4.3.2.18

minimal impact in photovoltaics. The first company

apparently to commercialise a photovoltaic
technology incorporating inkjet technology is CSG
Solar who during 2006 commenced production
of a thin-film technology that uses inkjet printing
of a corrosive material to etch patterns in a
resist layer to facilitate metal contacting to the
underlying silicon.

In the present work, the use of inkjet technology

has been expanded to encompass a range of solar
cell fabrication processes including texturing,
grooving, patterning of dielectric layers for metal
cheaper alternative to photolithographic based Honeycomb texturing (a) and
contacting, localized diffusions, etc. The techniques
processing. macrogroove texturing (b) of
developed to carry out these processes are uniquely multicrystalline silicon wafers
different to those used before. A non-corrosive These new approaches appear capable of achieving through the use of inkjet
plasticizer is inkjet printed onto a low cost resist similar device performance levels but with the technology.
layer, altering the chemical properties of the resist greatest challenge being to match the dimensions Figure 4.3.2.19
layer in these localized regions to make them of features in the resist patterning achievable with
permeable to etchants such as hydrofluoric acid photolithography. Test devices to date based on
(HF). This facilitates the patterning or etching of inkjet technology have achieved feature dimensions
underlying dielectrics or semiconductor material such as holes of 30-40 microns diameter as shown
to facilitate a range of semiconductor processes. in the matrix of holes below.
Importantly, the change in resist permeability is However, these dimensions need
a reversible process making it feasible to return to be reduced to about 10 microns
the resist to its original state after carrying diameter to fully match the
out processes on the underlying material. This performance levels demonstrated
also opens the option to partially reverse the with photolithographic based
permeability to reduce the hole or feature size processing. New and innovative
produced in the underlying material. inkjet printing techniques
have been recently developed
A particular exciting application of this inkjet
for further reducing the resist
technology work is for very high efficiency silicon
patterning dimensions. This work
solar cells. The University of New South Wales
is being greatly assisted by the
has held the world record for silicon solar cell
recent availability of the new 1
efficiencies for the last 15 years, initially with the
picolitre inkjet heads.
Passivated Emitter solar cell (PESC) and more
recently with the Passivated Emitter and Rear The described dielectric patterning
Locally diffused (PERL) solar cell. Despite the capabilities via inkjet patterning Schematic showing the principle
performance and achievements of these two can not only be used for defining localized diffusion of “Direct Etching” for patterning
dielectric layers.
technologies, neither has been used commercially, regions and locations for metal contacts, but also for
apart from for space cells, primarily due to the the formation if textured surfaces and light trapping Figure 4.3.2.20
sophistication, cost and complexity of the processes schemes. Examples of the latter are shown below as
involved. The photolithographic based processing is well as corresponding reflectance curves.
probably the main contributor to this. In this work,
Significant interest is also being shown in
inkjet printing techniques have been developed for
developing high efficiency approaches for
patterning low cost resist layers as a simple, much

33
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(a) Optical image of grooves
etched in a 260 nm thick thermal
oxide grown on a polished Si
wafer by deposition of 25 layers
of aerosolised 10% (w/v) NH4F
solution onto a polyacrylic acid
polymer layer of thickness ~ 2.2
mm. The aerosol and sheath gas
flow rates were 18 and 55 cm3/min,
respectively. The process velocity
of the stage was 10 mm/s and the
platen was heated to 45ºC. (b)
Dektak profile of a section of the
grooves shown in (a).
Figure 4.3.2.22
Aerosol jet-etching of a silicon
oxynitride layer to form lines of only
15-20 microns.
Figure 4.3.2.23
34
(a) Optical image, and (b) Dektak profile of a groove
etched in a 260 nm thick thermal oxide grown on
a polished Si wafer by deposition of 10 layers of
aerosolised 10% (w/v) NH4F solution onto a polyacrylic
acid polymer layer of thickness ~ 2.2 microns. The
aerosol and sheath gas flow rates were 21 and 50 cm3/
min, respectively. The process velocity of the stage
was 10 mm/s and the platen was heated to 45ºC. The
groove width at surface ~35 microns.
Figure 4.3.2.21
multicrystalline silicon wafers. Record performance
multicrystalline silicon cells have in the past
benefited from photolithographically defined
“honeycomb” texturing using an acidic isotropic
etch. Such structures have also been demonstrated
recently using inkjet technology as shown in Figure
4.3.2.19. Such techniques appear to have significant
commercial appeal.
4.3.2.3.7.2 Direct Etching Via
Aerosol Jetting
The key to high-efficiency silicon solar cells is the
ability to form small-area metal contacts to the
silicon through dielectric passivating layers. In this
work, a new method for patterned etching of SiO2,
SiOxNy and SiNx dielectric layers
has been developed and patented.
The method uses Optomec’s M3D
aerosol jetting device to deposit a
solution containing fluoride ions,
according to an etching pattern,
onto an acidic water-soluble
polymer layer formed over the
dielectric layer as indicated in the
schematic of Figure 4.3.2.20. The
deposited solution reacts with
the polymer layer, at the locations
where it is deposited, to form an
etchant that etches the SiO2 and SiNx
under the polymer layer to form a
pattern of openings in the dielectric
layer. After the pattern of openings is formed, the
acidic water-soluble polymer and the etch residue
are easily removed by rinsing in water. The method
involves fewer steps than photolithography and is
safer than existing immersion etching techniques
in that the corrosive etchant HF is only formed
in-situ on the surface to be etched. Furthermore,
the method uses small amounts of inexpensive
chemicals and produces significantly less hazardous
fluoride waste than existing immersion etching
methods.
Aerosol jet printing is a new deposition technology
being pioneered by Optomec, Inc. The technique
enables the finely-controlled deposition of an
aerosol, which is generated from a liquid, by using
a sheath gas to constrict the aerosol into a fine jet
which is directed to the substrate. The technique
has been previously used in applications such as
printed electronics, fuel cells and displays.
The aerosol etching method has been used to etch
groove structures in SiO2 which have been thermally
grown on polished silicon wafers. By varying the
aerosol and sheath gas flow rates the geometry
and depth of etching can be varied. For example,
grooves (see Figure 4.3.2.21) were cleanly etched in
a 260 nm thick SiO2 layer using aerosol and sheath
gas flow rates of 21 and 50 cm3/min respectively
and depositing 10 layers of aerosolized 10% NH4F
solution. These grooves were ~35 microns wide at
the surface but only ~ 20 microns wide at the Si/
SiO2 interface.
Even narrower structures can be etched by reducing
the aerosol flow rate and increasing the sheath gas
flow rate. Figure 4.3.2.22 shows the formation of
central, more deeply, etched grooves which are 200
nm deep and ~10 microns at the Si/SiO2 interface.
It is anticipated that the use of an even lower flow
rate for the first, wetting layer will largely eliminate
the wider, shallow etched region at the surface thus
enabling very narrow grooves to be etched to a
depth of at least 200 nm.
We have also been able to etch grooves 20-
25 microns wide in 75 nm thick SiNx layers on
chemically-textured silicon surfaces. The etched
grooves can be used to form front or rear metal
contacts for silicon solar cells using metal plating,
screen printing or evaporation deposition methods.

Spectral response curve of a 19%
efficient Pluto solar cell.
Figure 4.3.2.24
Solar cell efficiencies of commercially
manufactured Pluto solar cells (a) in
chronological order and (b) as a histogram.
Figure 4.3.2.25
Compared to current inkjet implementations of
this direct etching method, aerosol jet etching
results in faster etching (fewer layers required
to be deposited), smaller etched features and
less variation in etched groove width over large
etching patterns. Although the current etched
feature sizes are sufficiently small for many current
front-contact and rear-contact silicon solar cells, it
is anticipated that the feature sizes can be further
reduced in the near future with refinement of the
jetting parameters and modification of the surface
polymer layer composition. Replacing the thermal
oxide or SiNx layer with SiOxNy also has beneficial
consequences for the dimensions of the feature
sizes formed such as shown by the etched lines of
15-20 microns width shown in Figure 4.3.2.23. These
further reductions in etched feature size may enable
high-efficiency silicon solar cell designs, such as the
PERL cell, to be commercially realised.
This area of work has attracted significant interest
and funding from industry, including being
awarded a 3-year ARC Linkage grant for the design
and fabrication of high efficiency solar cells through
the use of the described patented inkjet technology
from UNSW.
4.3.2.3.8 PLUTO Technology
The Pluto technology is a low cost implementation
of the UNSW PERL (Passivated Emitter and Rear
Locally diffused) solar cell developed at UNSW.
The PERL technology currently holds the world-
record for silicon solar cell performance with
25% efficiency being recorded as the new world
record for silicon solar cell efficiency during 2008.
Through collaborative research with Suntech,
two generations of Pluto technology have been
developed. The first uses the standard front surface
design of the PERL cell but with a screen-printed
rear aluminium alloyed rear metal contact that
simplifies the technology and allows it to be easily
retrofitted onto existing screen-printed solar cell
lines. In comparison to standard screen-printed
solar cells made on the same production line, Pluto
cells achieve an increase in performance of more
than 10% by taking average efficiencies from about
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17.5% to 19.5%. These efficiencies have been
independently confirmed by the Fraunhofer
Institute in Germany. The main contributors to
these increased efficiencies are: reduced shading
loss (3%); improved short wavelength response
due to selective emitter (3%); improved Voc due
to lightly diffused emitter and well passivated
surfaces (3%); and improved fill-factor due to
reduced resistive losses (3%).
In comparison to the semiconductor finger
technology, many of the losses associated with
Pluto production cell (right) with
the screen-printed metal contacts (shading, significantly reduced reflection
contact resistance, metal resistance, dark saturation losses compared to standard
current from the metal/silicon interface, etc.) have screen-printed solar cells (left).
been minimised through the Pluto technology,
Figure 4.3.2.26
facilitating an efficiency increase by about 1%
in absolute terms. The spectral response and
corresponding performance spread in production
are shown in Figures 4.3.2.24 and 4.3.2.25
respectively.
In comparison to the laser doping technology, the
main advantage is the elimination of most of the
defects and associated recombination that exists in
the resolidified laser doped regions or in locations
immediately adjacent to these. Consequently, Pluto
cells achieve reduced junction recombination and
therefore higher fill factors and Vocs leading to a
performance increase of about 5%.
This technology is unique to Suntech with some
of the intellectual property being owned solely
by Suntech. Intellectual property arising from the
collaborative research is jointly owned by UNSW
and Suntech, but with the latter having the right to
use it in its own production. Suntech has publicly
announced that it has increased the manufacturing
capacity of the Pluto technology to 450MW during
2010. This will be further scaled during 2011 with
the full 2GW production capacity to be retrofitted
to the Pluto technology during 2012. Figure 4.3.2.26
shows a photo of a Pluto cell juxtaposed to a
standard screen-printed solar cell.
The second generation of Pluto technology
uses the full PERL cell design by eliminating
the rear screen-printed aluminium layer and
35
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replacing it with a localised metal contact. It is
expected to take efficiencies to the 20-23% range
depending on wafer quality. It does however
avoid the use of vacuum deposition processes and
photolithographic techniques, thereby avoiding
the expensive fabrication costs associated with
most laboratory technologies. This technology is
expected to follow the first generation of Pluto
technology into large scale production about 1-2
years later. Suntech is also the only company with
the right to manufacture generation 2 Pluto devices.
The PLUTO technology has been also successfully
applied to multicrystalline silicon wafers and
implemented into large scale production with
efficiencies of 17-18% also independently
confirmed by the Fraunhofer Institute. In mid
2009, Suntech beat the 15.5% multicrystalline
silicon module world-record efficiency held by
Sandia National Laboratories in the US for 15 years.
This was followed later in the year by Suntech’s
achievement of another world-record of 16.5%
(aperture area) for a multi module, this time beating
the recently achieved ECN world record in the
Netherlands. During 2010, this module efficiency
was further increased to 17% and again confirmed
by the Fraunhofer Institute.
4.3.2.3.9 Photoluminescent Imaging for
Device and Material Characterisation
With the current growth in the photovoltaic
industry and the trends towards higher cell
efficiencies, generally achieved on lower
quality and thinner silicon wafers, there is an
increasing demand in research laboratories and
in industrial manufacturing for fast and easy to
use characterisation tools. Recent research at
UNSW has established photoluminescence (PL)
techniques as extremely fast and useful tools for
the characterisation of silicon wafers and of silicon
solar cells.
In particular, this work has shown that luminescence
imaging techniques give two dimensional high
resolution images of electrical parameters such as
localised series resistance values and the minority
36
Luminescence image of a
completed multicrystalline silicon
solar cell.
Figure 4.3.2.27
carrier lifetime shown below for a multicrystalline
silicon solar cell. The data acquisition times for
such measurements are of the order of typically
only one second per wafer, which is orders of
magnitude faster than any competing experimental
techniques. High resolution images of other
electrical parameters such as the shunt resistance
are also feasible.
A prototype bench-top system established at
the Centre three years ago was in such heavy
demand by various UNSW research groups and for
consultancy projects that a new state-of-the-art
system was purchased from BTI during 2010. It has
helped identify a variety of unexpected processing
problems and in developing new processing
sequences much more quickly than previously
possible. In many cases the two dimensional
information contained in PL images has given
easy to interpret clues about the origin of specific
problems. The ability to measure a large number
of samples in a short time is very beneficial in
this context.
Collaboration with various industrial partners
has also identified various processing problems
previously unknown to the manufacturers. In
addition, recent research at UNSW has shown how
the luminescence imaging technique could be used
for in-line process control, for example to remove
the influence of shunts. Other potential industrially
relevant in-line applications for luminescence
imaging that are under investigation include crack
detection, spatially resolved series resistance
monitoring, quality control of raw material and
process control of individual key processing steps
such as the emitter diffusion. The collaborative
work with various industry partners and several
journal and conference publications have resulted
in significant interest worldwide in the technique,
specifically in a commercial PL imaging system.
A start-up company BT Imaging Pty Ltd has been
formed by Centre researchers Robert Bardos and
Thorsten Trupke in 2007 with commercial sales of
the system taking place during 2008. The company
has developed commercial off-line and in-line
luminescence imaging tools, with healthy sales to
research groups and cell manufacturers throughout
the world during 2010.
In summary, photoluminescence techniques have
proven particularly useful for the characterisation
of various aspects of the screen printed solar
cell process. Photoluminescence imaging was
applied to the study of belt furnace processing,
while photoluminescence imaging with current
extraction was applied to the characterisation of
n-type solar cells with printed metallisation to
identify failure mechanisms in the metallisation. The
accuracy, high speed and non-destructive nature
of PL techniques make it an attractive candidate
for use in high-throughput screen printed solar cell
production lines.
4.3.2.4 Pilot Production
Many of the above technologies have been
implemented or are in the process of being
implemented into pilot production. Table 4.3.2.1
summarises the performance of each of the
technologies in pilot production using standard
commercial wafers with commercial processes
and equipment.
4.3.2.5 Core Research
The distinguishing feature of core research is that it
is funded by UNSW and the Centre of Excellence or
other Government funding scheme. The priorities
for the work are therefore set by the Centre rather
than by industry. Any IP is therefore wholly owned
by UNSW, but with any such developments made
available at no cost to industry partners of the
Centre such as those funding collaborative research
programs or else licensing Centre technology. Such
core research is therefore of great importance in the
initial stages of development of a new technology
to take the development to the point where
industry interest is gained and industry is willing
to fund the ongoing development. An example
of this is the Advanced Semiconductor Finger
Solar Cell described in Section 4.3.2.3.3 where
core research has facilitated the development and
demonstration of the concept, to the point where
test structures can show that efficiencies above
19% are achievable, making these the most efficient
screen-printed cells world-wide on standard
commercial grade p-type CZ wafers. This work is
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Other important areas of the core research are
2010/11
where problems are tackled and the solutions
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can be used for the benefit of all or most industry
partners. Examples include improvements in the
light induced plating techniques, reducing the laser
induced defects during the laser doping process,
reducing feature sizes during inkjet patterning of
dielectric layers, improving surface passivation
techniques, adapting processes to suit low cost
silicon etc. The Centre has a large number of
very talented PhD students contributing to this
core research, the achievements from which are
significantly accelerating the progress for most
industry collaborative research projects. This
represents a major benefit to companies that
engage in funding photovoltaic research at UNSW.
Some core research however is conducted in
conjunction with companies, but where the
companies are not funding the work at UNSW and
have no claim over any resulting IP from the work at
UNSW and cannot exercise any restriction regarding
its use. An example of this is the collaboration with
Centrotherm to evaluate the compatibility between
the LDSE technology and the standard Centrotherm
screen-printing technology. Cells from a standard
Centrotherm screen-printing line for producing
homogeneous emitter solar cells of 18% efficiency
were fabricated without front silver metal. The
emitter sheet resistivity was the only processing
variation, being raised to 120 ohms per square.
After laser doping and plating at UNSW, the finished
5 inch cells were sent to the Fraunhoffer Institute in
Germany where they were confirmed to be 19.3%
efficiency. This is believed to be the highest ever
independently confirmed for industrial solar cells
fabricated on standard commercial grade p-type CZ
wafers. This record may however be shortly broken
through collaborative work with Shinsung where
similar devices fabricated using similar wafers have
been measured to be 19.6% efficiency and have
been sent to Fraunhofer for confirmation.

Jsc Voc Effic Area Wafer

Technology ARC (mA/cm2) (mV) FF (%) (%) (cm2) type
1 BCSC SiO2 36.8 619 79.0 18.0 148.6 (p-type CZ)
1 BCSC SiN 33.4 604 77.4 15.6 156 (p-type multi)
2 IBBC SiN 37.1 675 79.4 19.8 46 (n-type CZ)
3 Screen-print SiN 37.1 632 78.8 18.5 148.6 (p-type CZ)
3 Screen-print SiN 33.3 614 75.5 16.0 156 (p-type multi)
4 SCF SiN 36.7 635 79.0 18.4 148.6 (p-type CZ)
5 LDSE (Sunrise) SiN 37.8 638 79.0 19.0 225 (p-type CZ)
5 LDSE (UNSW) SiN 37.6 638 79.6 19.0 148.6 (p-type CZ)
5 LDSE (Centrotherm) SiN 38.4 638 78.9 19.3 148.6 (p-type CZ)
5 LDSE (Roth & Rau) SiN 37.8 635 78.4 18.8 225 (p-type CZ) Performance of each of
5. LDSE (Shinsung) SiN 38.6 640 79.3 19.6 148.6 (p-type CZ) the technologies in pilot
production using standard
5 LDSE SiN 35.4 628 77.9 17.3 156 (p-type multi) commercial wafers with
5 LDSE SiN 36.0 645 79.9 18.6 148.6 (n-type CZ) commercial processes and
6 Pluto SiN 38.4 638 79.5 19.5 148.6 (p-type CZ) equipment.

6 Pluto SiN 38.9 638 81.9 20.4 4.0 (p-type CZ) table 4.3.2.1
6 Pluto SiN 35.7 633 78.6 17.7 156 (p-type multi)
7 PERL ZnS/MgF2 41.7 704 82.5 24.2 46 (p-type FZ) 37
 4.4 Second Generation:
Silicon,
ARC Organic and other
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PHOTOVOLTAICS
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4.4.1.1 Summary is a thick pigmented resin (P150) with a

Research Team
University Staff
• Dr Sergey Varlamov (group leader)
• Prof. Martin Green
Research Fellows
• Dr Thomas Soderstrom (since 6/2010)
Technical Staff
• Dr Patrick Campbell
• Mark Griffin
Postgraduate Research Students
• Johnson Wong (PhD) (until 9/2010)
• Zi Ouyang (PhD) (until 9/2010)
• Guangyao Jin (PhD) (until 9/2010)
• Jialiang Huang (PhD)
• Yuguo Tao (PhD)
• Peter Gress (PhD)
• Hongtao Cui (PhD)
• Do Soon Jung (Masters)
• Bonne Eggleston (PhD)
• Wei Li (PhD)
• Qian Wang (PhD, since 3/2010)
• Kyung Hun Kim (Masters, since 3/2010)
• Anthony Teal (PhD, since 3/2010)
• Jae Sung Yun (PhD, since 3/2010)
• Chaowei Xue (PhD, since 9/2010)
Visiting Academic
A. Prof. Soon Kweon (since 1/2010)
38
The focus of the silicon thin-film group
research has been on further improvements
in the technology of e-beam evaporated
poly-crystalline (poly-Si) thin-film solar cells,
which is conducted within an ARC Linkage
grant project with CSG Solar.
The UNSW e-beam evaporator, the tool
supplying precursor Si films for the
project, underwent major refurbishment
during 2010, allowing greatly improved
reliability and up-time of the tool, to
reduce background contamination level
and to achieve more accurate control of
Si deposition rate and doping, allowing
deposition of high quality Si films. After
processing the films into solar cells and
applying a newly developed etch-back Si
texturing process a new UNSW efficiency
record for evaporated cells of 7.1% (Voc
458 mV, Jsc 26.6 mA/cm2, FF 58%) has been
demonstrated.
Outstanding progress has been made
in the area of light-trapping in poly-Si
thin-film cells. Firstly, a comprehensive
study of various back-surface reflectors
(BSR) of practical significance has been
conducted. It allows choosing the best BSR
depending on the cell design and structure.
For example, the best BSR for a planar cell
high load of TiO2, while the best BSR for
a textured cell is a highly reflective white
paint. Secondly, further development in
plasmonic poly-Si thin-film cells led to
record-breaking Jsc enhancement of 50%.
Thirdly, a simple and effective Si film etch-
back texturing process has been introduced
to improve light-trapping in the e-beam
poly-Si cells on planar glass, which allowed
achieving a record current of 26.6 mA/cm2,
the highest ever reported for evaporated
poly-Si solar cells.
The first encouraging results have been
obtained for transient heating defect
anneal of poly-Si films. The open-circuit
voltage improvement of about 58 mV was
demonstrated after poly-Si cell structures
were exposed to diode laser or flash lamp
radiation for only a few milliseconds. The
diode laser was also successfully applied to
large area boron diffusion to prepare back
surface field (BSF) layers.
A large amount of data has been collected
about effects of different annealing
treatments on solid phase crystallisation
(SPC) of Si films and resulting poly-Si film
quality and cell performance. A focus was
on application of higher temperatures
during either the whole SPC process or

Structure of a p-type poly-Si solar cell on planar glass
(layer thicknesses and grain size not to scale).
Figure 4.4.1.1
its stages, such as the incubation, to shorten the
crystallisation while maintaining or even improving
the cell performance. The result is that, regardless
of when a higher temperature is used, it always
causes poorer poly-Si crystal and electronic quality.
However, the degree to which the cell performance
deteriorates, depends on the Si film preparation
conditions. E-beam cells and hybrid cells, i.e. the
cells with PECVD emitter and e-beam absorber and
BSF, can be crystallised at 640C within only two
hours (as compared to 20 hrs at 600C) without a
significant loss in their performance. In the area of
the SPC emitter seed-layer approach, the factors
leading to the best seed crystal quality are being
studied.
A comprehensive concept of performance limiting
recombination in poly-Si has been developed.
According to the concept it is intragrain defects,
such as dislocations that are responsible for limiting
the minority carrier lifetime in poly-Si material and
thus the cell performance. In the practical range of
dopant concentrations in the quasi-neutral region
of the cell absorber (> ~5E15 cm-3), the lifetime
limiting recombination occurs via shallow levels
linked to dislocations. At dopant concentrations
lower than ~5E15 cm-3 the lifetime is limited by
recombination via deep levels introduced by
charged impurities at dislocations and possibly
grain-boundaries. The dislocation density in poly-Si
thin-film cells was estimated from the TEM images
and found to be of an order of 1E10 cm-2, which
is consistent with experimental voltages of about
500 mV.
4.4.1.2 Introduction
The technology of thin-film poly-Si on glass solar
cells is developing steadily and it is expected
ultimately to become cost-competitive with
other thin-film technologies [4.4.1.1, 4.4.1.2]. The
presently best developed poly-Si on glass PV
technology has been commercialised by CSG Solar
AG where an approximately 1.5 mm thick PECVD
amorphous silicon (a-Si) precursor diode is solid-
phase-crystallised to form a poly-Si film, which is
annealed and hydrogenated to activate dopants,
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remove and passivate defects, and then
processed into metallised modules
[4.4.1.3]. The highest achieved efficiency
for 94 cm2 mini-modules produced by
CSG technology is 10.5% [4.4.1.4], and full
scale 7-8% efficient modules have been
manufactured in Thalheim, Germany
since 2006.
Research in the thin-film group at
UNSW focuses on critical cell fabrication
processes and explores a range of
advanced approaches to improve the
performance and manufacturability
of poly-Si thin-film cells. The group’s
work over the past years has led to
innovative solutions to the key steps of Process sequence of the four
the cell fabrication process, including Al induced types of poly-Si thin-film on glass
solar cells under development at
glass texturing (AIT) [4.4.1.5] and localised surface
UNSW. All cells are designed for the
plasmons (SP) in metal nanoparticles [4.4.1.6] for superstrate configuration (i.e., the
enhanced light trapping, silicon deposition by sunlight enters the cell through
high rate PECVD [4.4.1.7] and e-beam evaporation the glass).
[4.4.1.8], defect anneal and passivation, and cell Figure 4.4.1.2
metallisation and interconnection [4.4.1.9]. The
following sections summarise the thin-film cell
research projects and their results.
4.4.1.3 Solar cell fabrication sequence
The thin-film group research in 2010 focused on
two different solar cell types: cells deposited by
PECVD and by e-beam evaporation. A schematic
representation of a poly-Si thin film cell is shown in
Figure 4.4.1.1 and Figure 4.4.1.2 describes the cell
fabrication sequence.
Additionally hybrid cells combining a PECVD emitter
with an e-beam absorber and BSF were produced
in collaboration with CSG Solar. The substrate
used for all cells is 3.3 mm thick borosilicate glass
(Schott Borofloat33). Both planar and textured glass
substrates are investigated: typically e-beam and
hybrid cells are fabricated on the planar glass while
PECVD cells are fabricated on textured glass. The
texture on the Si facing glass surface aims to reduce
the reflection losses and to enhance the light
trapping in a weakly absorbing poly-Si thin-film. The
39
 ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE
2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT
Calculated random scatter absorption limit (black
dots) and measured optical absorption in 2 μm thick
poly-Si thin films on planar, AIT, and SAIT glass with air
as the BSR.
Figure 4.4.1.4
texture is prepared by the UNSW-developed AIT
method [4.4.1.10] described below and consisting
of an irregular rough array of sub-micron sized
dimples.
The next step is the deposition of an
approximately 75 nm thick SiN film (refractive
index ~2.1 at 633 nm) by PECVD at about 400°C
or by reactive sputtering at 200°C. The SiN film
acts both as an AR coating and a barrier layer
for contaminants from the glass. An a-Si n+/p/
p+ precursor diode is then deposited by either
e-beam evaporation or PECVD on planar or AIT
glass respectively, followed by SPC at 600°C. The
resulting as-crystallised poly-Si diodes have Voc
of only about 150-180 mV. A high temperature
treatment is then performed at ~1000°C for 30-60
s to activate the dopants and to anneal defects,
which increases Voc up to 220-250 mV. The final
step of the material preparation is hydrogenation
in a remote hydrogen plasma to passivate the
remaining defects resulting in Voc of 450~500 mV
typical for the finished cells.
The cells are metallised using a combination
of photolithographic patterning with dielectric
and metal deposition processes to create an
interdigitated electrode structure on the rear (Si
side) of the cells. Typically, the BSF electrode of the
PECVD cells covers the whole rear cell surface and
the cells can only be illuminated from the glass
side [4.4.1.11, 4.4.1.12]. The BSF electrode of the
e-beam cells consists of thin Al fingers covering only
4% of the rear surface, thus allowing bifacial (i.e.
illumination from both glass and Si side) operation
AFM images of bare AIT (a) and SAIT
(b) glass and SEM image of 2 μm of the cells [4.4.1.13, 4.4.1.14, 4.4.1.15]. The details
thick poly-Si film on AIT glass (c). of the cell metallisation are described in respective
sections below.
Figure 4.4.1.3
The hybrid cells are made on planar glass with the
SiN layer and the emitter deposited in the CSG Solar
large area KAI PECVD tool and the absorber and BSF
layers in the UNSW e-beam evaporator. The films
are processed into either individual 2 cm2 large solar
cells using the UNSW bifacial metalisation or solar
40
110
100 680 C 640 C 600 C
90
80
70
60
Quv [%]
50
40
30
20 E-beam
10 Hybrid
0 PECVD
-10
5 50 500
Annealing Time [min]
Normalised UV crystallinity factor (Quv) of PECVD,
E-beam and Hybrid films as a function of the annealing
time at 600ºC, 640ºC and 680ºC.
Figure 4.4.1.5
mini-modules of 36 cm2 area using the proprietary
CSG Solar metallisation technology described
elsewhere [4.4.1.4].
4.4.1.4 Glass Texturing
An advanced glass texturing method was
developed at UNSW and it is referred to as
“aluminium induced texture” (AIT) [4.4.1.5, 4.4.1.10].
A thin sacrificial Al film is deposited onto planar
glass, followed by annealing at about ~600°C in
an inert atmosphere. The anneal initiates a red-ox
reaction whereby Al is oxidised to Al2O3 and SiO2
from the glass is reduced to silicon, as follows:
A surface texture is imparted to the glass according
to the nucleation conditions provided during this
anneal. Subsequent wet-chemical etching removes
the reaction products from the glass surface and
reveals the glass texture (Figure 4.4.1.3a). Further
improvement in the AIT process conditions led to
development of so-called “sub-micron AIT” (SAIT)
glass with smaller and steeper feathers (Figure
4.4.1.3b), which ensure even better light absorption
in a poly-Si film prepared on such texture (Figure
4.4.1.4) [4.4.1.16].
Typical atomic force microscope (AFM) images of
the bare AIT and SAIT glass surfaces with the RMS
roughness of 800 and 150 nm respectively and an
SEM image of the AIT glass coated with a 2 μm thick
poly-Si film are shown in Figure 4.4.1.3.
As shown in Figure 4.4.1.4, the absorption in
the 2 μm thick poly-Si films on the best AIT
and particularly SAIT glass in the 500~1000 nm
wavelength interval is very close to the calculated
random scattering absorption limit, based on
Monte Carlo ray tracing. It should be noted that
the significantly higher absorption than the
theoretical limit at 1000 nm and above can be
attributed to the enhanced parasitic absorption in
the glass and/or measurements errors as discussed
elsewhere [4.4.1.11].
 ARC
Films Method Incubation Time [min] Crystallisation Time [min] PHOTOVOLTAICS
600°C 640°C 680°C 600°C 640°C 680°C CENTRE OF
OTM 300 50 16 780 140 29
EXCELLENCE
Raman 360 50 12 720 125 28
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XRD 270 62 16 1020 120 32
UV-R 270 50 14 900 125 32 ANNUAL REPORT
PECVD Average 300 53 14 855 128 30
OTM 300 35 11 720 90 23
Raman 300 32 10 660 90 24
XRD 270 31 12 1020 105 24
UV-R 270 31 9 900 90 25
E-beam Average 285 32 10 825 94 24
OTM 300 45 14 780 130 28
Raman 360 40 12 690 120 28
Incubation and
XRD 270 60 15 1020 135 30 crystallisation times
UV-R 270 45 12 900 120 30 for Si films (solar cell
Hybrid Average 300 48 13 848 126 29 structures) deposited by
Generic equation [4.4.1.19] 660 108 22 different techniques.

Table 4.4.1.1

4.4.1.5 Solid Phase Crystallisation summary of the incubation and full crystallisation
Annealing Temperature [ C]
Solid phase crystallisation (SPC) is a thermally times based on all film characterisation methods is 680 640 600
given in Table 4.4.1.1. -6
activated process of transformation of a-Si into poly- E-beam = 3.01 eV
Si, which is used for poly-Si thin-film cell fabrication. Hybrid = 2.82 eV
Based on the data from the table it is possible -7 PECVD = 2.72 eV

ln(1/time) [s-1]
The SPC parameters, such as the exact temperature to estimate the activation energies (Ea) for the
profile, as well as the film structure, such as the incubation and crystal growth processes using -8
composition and thickness of the individual the Arrhenius law. The Arrhenius plots are shown
layers, have effects on the resulting crystal and in Figure 4.4.1.6. The Ea calculated from the plots -9
electronic quality of poly-Si film and thus on the cell Incubation
are 3.0 and 3.3 eV (e-beam), and 2.7 and 3.2
performance. A detailed study of the SPC kinetics eV (PECVD), and 2.8 and 3.2 eV (hybrid) for the -10
was conducted to clarify such effects. Several -7 E-beam = 3.31 eV
incubation and crystal growth respectively. The Hybrid = 3.17 eV
techniques – optical transmission microscopy PECVD = 3.18 eV
ln(1/time) [s-1]
Ea for the crystal growth falls within the reported -8
(OTM), Raman, UV reflection (UV-R), and X-ray 3.1-3.4 eV range, but the Ea of less than 3.0 eV for
diffraction (XRD) spectroscopes, scanning electron the incubation is significantly smaller than ~3.4 eV -9
microscopy (SEM) – were used to characterise the previously found [4.4.1.20]. Most likely it is because
SPC kinetics and the crystal quality of the films. -10 Crystal growth
the nucleation rate, to which the incubation time
External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) and Suns-Voc is closely related, is enhanced by particular film -11
measurements were used to characterise the cell deposition conditions and/or the particular film 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5
performance [4.4.1.17, 4.4.1.18]. 1/kT [eV-1]
structure, such as the presence of the heavily
Representative SPC kinetics for Si films deposited doped layers and interfaces.
Arrhenius plots for the incubation
by different techniques (PECVD, e-beam, and The average grain size in the e-beam poly-Si films and crystal growth processes in
hybrid) at different temperatures based on the UV-R crystallised at different temperatures was estimated PECVD (♦), E-beam (■) and Hybrid
measurements are shown in Figure 4.4.1.5. Similar (●) films with the n+/p-/p+ solar
from the SEM images shown in Figure 4.4.1.7, where
cell structure.
so-called “S-curves” were obtained by the other the grain boundaries were enhanced by Secco
characterisation techniques mentioned above. The Figure 4.4.1.6

Voc Jsc Absorber Doping Diffusion Length [nm]

Films T [°C] [mV] [mA/cm2] p.FF [%] p.Eff [%] [/cm3] Emitter Absorber Performance parameters of
600 474 12.7 76 4.6 5.4×1015 160 2400 the poly-Si thin film solar cells
640 466 11.5 70 3.8 5.8×1015 140 1800 obtained by integration of the
PECVD 680 456 10.8 63 3.1 4.6×1015 135 1500 EQE curves over the AM1.5G
600 474 13.4 76 4.8 9.8×1015 180 2150 solar spectrum, from Suns-Voc
640 462 13.3 75 4.6 8.6×1015 155 2100 measurements, and C-V analysis.
E-beam 680 432 12.9 74 4.1 9.5×1015 120 2000 All cells have an area of 2 cm2.
600 459 14.4 75 4.9 2.9×1015 235 4000 Table 4.4.1.2
600 455 14.1 75 4.8 3.2×1015 210 4000
Hybrid 640 433 13.6 73 4.2 2.5×1015 170 4000

(a) (b) (c)

SEM images of the fully

crystallized and Secco etched
e-beam poly-Si films for different
SPC temperatures.
3 m 3 m 3 m Figure 4.4.1.7

41
 2.7
ARC 2.4 c-Si

Average Grain Size [µm]

E-beam 600 C
PHOTOVOLTAICS 2.1

Normallised intensity
PECVD 640 C
CENTRE OF 1.8 Hybrid
680 C
T
EXCELLENCE 1.5
2010/11 1.2
ANNUAL REPORT
0.9

0.6
560 600 640 680 720
SPC Temperature [℃] 508 512 516 520 524 528 532
Shift [/cm]

a) The average grain size of PECVD (♦), E-beam (■) and

Hybrid (●) films obtained from respective SEM images
as a function of the SPC temperature.
b) Raman spectra of the E-beam films crystallised at
different temperatures (c-Si as a reference). The peak
intensities are normalised.

Figure 4.4.1.8

Intrinsic P 8E18, cm-3 P 1e20, cm-3 P 3E20, cm-3

after SPC [4.4.1.21]. If it is
used as a seed layer followed
Thickness, nm Shift, cm -1
FWHM, cm -1
Shift, cm FWHM, cm Shift, cm
-1 -1
FWHM, cm -1
Shift, cm
-1
FWHM, cm -1 -1

by solid-phase epitaxy (SPE)

50 517.7 7.46 517.6 7.43 517.7 6.86 517.4 7.87
of the absorber and BSF
100 518.4 7.42 517.3 6.92 517.8 6.72 517.0 7.23
layers, it can help to improve
200 518.5 6.75 518 6.90 518.5 6.94 518.5 6.76
the quality of the cell poly-Si
material and to lead to
The Raman peak shift and etching. The grain size decreases from 2.3 µm to 1.5
better cell performance. To
FWHM for emitter seed layers µm and 1.0 µm as the SPC temperature rises from
find preparation conditions that result in better
of different thickness and with 600C to 640C and 680C. Similar trends are observed
different P doping. seed layer properties a series of films was fabricated
for PECVD and hybrid Si films as shown in Figure
with different P concentrations and thickness. The
Table 4.4.1.3 4.1.1.8. The Raman peaks for Si films of all types are
seed layer quality was assessed by Raman (Table
slightly shifted to the left of the c-Si peak, and their
4.4.1.3) and UV-R spectroscopy and the Hall mobility
FWHM are larger for the
(Table 4.4.1.4). The best quality is found for the
higher SPC temperatures
Thickness, nm Carrier conc., cm-3 Hall coeff., cm3/C Mobility, cm2/V*s thickest seed layer of 200 nm and intermediate P
similarly indicating a slightly
concentration of 1e20 cm-3. Using the optimised
50 8.22E19 -9.12E-08 63 poorer crystal quality
emitter seed layers high crystal quality poly-Si cell
100 8.66E19 -8.67E-08 53 of the films crystallised
structures were grown by SPE as confirmed by the
200 8.76E19 -8.56E-08 35 at higher temperatures
98% Quv quality factor (Figure 4.4.1.9).
(Figure 4.4.1.9).
Hall mobilities for emitter seed All performance parameters of the poly-Si thin-film 4.4.1.6 Transient heating defect anneal
layers of different thickness and with
P doping of 3.3E20 cm-3.
solar cells degrade for higher SPC temperatures As was mentioned in section 4.4.1.3, the defect
but to a different extent (Table 4.4.1.2). The PECVD annealing in poly-Si films after SPC is a very
Table 4.4.1.4 cells are most affected, with the pseudo efficiency important process for improving cell Voc. Finding
decreasing from 4.6% to 3.1% for SPC temperatures the best conditions for this process is complicated
of 600C and 680C respectively. The e-beam and due to conflicting trends. On one hand, higher
hybrid cell pseudo-efficiencies annealing temperatures and longer times are
decrease more modestly, from preferred because of better dopant activation
4.9% to 4.2% for the same SPC and more complete defect dissolution. On the
temperatures. There is hardly any other hand, the same conditions cause excessive
loss in the e-beam and hybrid cell dopant smearing and glass distortion, which need
performance after SPC at 640C but it to be avoided. Typically, for any given annealing
allows shortening the SPC time from temperature, there is an optimum time balancing
typical 20 hrs to only 2 hrs. It makes favourable processes with unfavourable ones. For
640C a preferred SPC temperature example, at 950ºC such an optimum time is about
for such cells, particularly for process 3 min, while a similar Voc effect can be achieved at
development purposes when 0.1- 1050ºC for only 50 s. Following this trend, it can be
0.2% loss in the efficiency is not estimated that, at temperatures near the Si melting
important. point (1414 ºC), the optimum annealing times
The research continued in the area can be of order of a few milliseconds, because of
of the SPC emitter seed layer. It was which this type of processes are generally called
UV reflection peaks at 274 nm for previously reported that a heavily “millisecond annealing” [4.4.1.22]. Very importantly,
SPE poly-Si cell structures and c-Si phosphorus doped (>1e20 cm-3) Si layer can form a for such short times the thermal diffusion length
wafer as a reference. in glass is of an order of tens of microns only
high crystal and electronic quality poly-Si material
Figure 4.4.1.9 [4.4.1.23], which means the bulk of the glass stays

42
 ARC
rear metal PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE
2010/11
Si film
ANNUAL REPORT
glass
sunlight front metal

Schematic representation of the interdigitated Schematic cross section of a poly-Si thin-film solar cell
metallisation scheme of PECVD poly-Si thin-film with a point-contacted rear surface (not to scale).
solar cells on glass (not to scale). Figure 4.4.1.11

Figure 4.4.1.10

cold resulting in less distortion and lower thermal an area of 4.0 cm2, and an intended
140
budget for the annealing process. structure of glass/SiN/n+p-p+. The
120
standard processing sequence
Two recently available techniques, which allow

Current [mA]
100
includes SPC at 600oC for ~ 15 hrs;
heating a few micron thick Si film up to its melting 80
rapid thermal defect annealing and Voc 510mV
point within a few millisecond long time are diode 60 Jsc 29.0mA/cm2
dopant activation at ~1000ºC for
lasers and flash lamps [4.4.1.22, 4.4.1.24]. With the 40 FF 62.6%
~ 1 min; remote hydrogen plasma Eff 9.3%
diode lasers in particular, the exposure time can 20
defect passivation at 600ºC for ~30
be easily controlled in the CW mode from about 1 0
min; followed by metallisation using -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
ms to 100 ms by the laser beam scanning speed,
the interdigitated contact scheme Voltage [mV]
while the degree of Si film heating is controlled by
shown in Figure 4.4.1.10 and
adjusting the laser power.
described elsewhere [4.4.1.11].
Initial experiments on effects of millisecond Measured current-voltage of a
One of recent advances in improving the PECVD cell 9.3% efficient PECVD solar cell
annealing of poly-Si cell structures have been
performance was the development of an optimised made on AIT textured glass
conducted using either the UNSW diode laser (silicon thickness 2.3 µm, cell area
metallisation scheme with a superior BSR made of
(LIMO450-12x0.3) or the flash lamp system 4.0 cm2, approximated AM1.5G
a combination of a thin silica layer and evaporated
provided by external collaborators (Research Center spectrum, 100 mW/cm2, cell
Al. The rear Al electrode makes a contact to the cell temperature 25°C).
Forschungszentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Dresden,
BSF layer through small vias photolithographically
FZD). In the very first tests the Si film samples Figure 4.4.1.12
defined in the silica film (Figure 4.4.1.11). When
developed severe cracking and even delamination
the PECVD cells are fabricated on the AIT glass and
after diode laser treatments at room temperature,
metallised using such a point contacted rear-surface
so all following experiments were performed at
structure they possess enhanced light-trapping
elevated glass temperatures from 550C to 700C. A
and achieve both high Jsc of 29 mA/cm2 and record
Voc increase up to about 60 mV has been observed
efficiency of 9.3% [4.4.1.7].
for poly-Si film samples on both planar and textured
BSG as well as SLG for the exposures between 3 and The measured I-V curve of the record cell together
20 ms (Tables 4.4.1.5 and 4.4.1.6). It is only slightly with the other important cell parameters is
lower than the Voc increase of about 75 mV typical illustrated in Figure 4.4.1.12. The measurements
for the standard RTA treatment at 950-1000C for were apertured to 4.0 cm2 area and a NREL
tens of seconds. calibrated cell was used as a reference.

4.4.1.7 PECVD cells

PECVD cell structure and Power density, Exposure, Temperature, V(0.1), Voc, Voc change,
performance kW/cm2 ms oC mV mV mV The Voc results for diode
10.3 3 550 354 433 59 laser treated poly-Si on glass
The poly-Si thin-film cells made with
10.0 3 600 336 418 44 cell structures.
the use of the PECVD are the most
1.1 150 550 261 347 -27
technologically advanced and have Table 4.4.1.5
1.1 150 600 257 344 -30
achieved the highest efficiencies
0.8 360 550 283 364 -10
compared to other cell types. 0.8 360 600 283 365 -9

The cells are made

on 3.3 mm thick Power density, Exposure, Temperature, Voc, Voc gain, Voc results for flash lamp
textured Borofloat Glass kW/cm2 ms Pulse shape oC mV mV treated poly-Si on glass
glass, have about SLG planar 2.4 20 Gaussian 700 385 56 cell structures.
2-2.5 μm thickness, BSG planar 7.8 3 Gaussian 700 407 40
Table 4.4.1.6
BSG textured 1.8 20 Structured 700 430 59
BSG textured 1.5 20 Gaussian 700 425 54 43
 Metallisation on cell level
completed: top view of a 5x5 cm2
ARC sample showing 4 individual cells
PHOTOVOLTAICS plus cross sectional view (SiN and
silica layers not shown) with the
CENTRE OF emitter and air side busbars.
EXCELLENCE
Figure 4.4.1.15
2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT

A schematic air-side top view of a

mini-module using wire-bonded
cell interconnection.

Figure 4.4.4.16

High rate PECVD of a-Si

films for poly-Si cells a-Si:H material confirms an identical crystal quality
The manufacturing of poly-Si thin-film to that of the standard rate poly-Si as shown in
solar cells is a commercially viable process Figure 4.4.1.14.
[4.4.1.1]. However, the deposition of
the precursor a-Si films by currently The poly-Si cell structures were fabricated with
conventional PECVD has been identified the thin emitter and BSF layers deposited at
as having high cost and a low throughput the standard rate and the ~2 µm thick absorber
due to its low deposition rate (25-35 nm/ deposited at the high rate of 250 nm/min in a
min) and the high equipment cost [4.4.1.3]. different PECVD chamber. After the standard
Si evaporation by electron beam (e-beam) material processing sequence described above, the
Deposition rate of a-Si:H as a has been investigated as a higher rate and Voc of the high rate cell was higher than the Voc of
function of power for the SPC- lower cost alternative. A challenge with e-beam the standard rate cell as shown in Table 4.4.1.7.
optimised PECVD process.
evaporation is its directional nature (“line-of-sight” The current research in PECVD poly-Si cells is
Figure 4.4.1.13 deposition), leading to non-conformal coating focusing on developing advanced cells, which
of textured surfaces, which results in combine the best AIT glass for enhanced light
microstructural defects and the poor trapping with the high rate PECVD Si films to
1.2
textured cell performance [4.4.1.25, achieve efficiencies exceeding 10%.
hi gh r at e
1
4.4.1.26]. Another high rate process, which
s t d. r at e
0.8 in contrast to the evaporation can provide PECVD cell metallisation – cell
Si waf er
a conformal coating of textures, is hot-wire
0.6 interconnection
CVD. However, no performance results have
0.4 During fabrication of large size thin-film PV
been reported for the SPC hot-wire CVD
modules, the as-deposited films are divided
0.2
solar cells, and it is also known that the
into smaller area unit cells, which are then
0 hot-wire CVD a-SiH has very high nucleation
505 510 515 520 525 530 535 interconnected in series to reduce the resistive
rates [4.4.1.23], which may lead to poor
ohmic losses. A novel approach allowing a low
crystal and electronic quality of SPC poly-Si.
loss interconnection of individual thin-film
Raman spectra (normalised) of the
poly-Si films obtained by SPC of the A major part of research conducted on PECVD of cells into a minimodule using wire-bonding
standard (pink) and high (blue) rate a-Si:H has been traditionally focused on minimising was recently developed in the UNSW thin film
PECVD a-Si:H. The spectrum of c-Si the defect density for a-Si:H solar cell applications. group [4.4.1.9]. Figure 4.4.1.15 shows a sample
is (black) shown for reference. However, device-grade a-Si:H, which performs well containing four individual PLASMA cells prior to the
Figure 4.4.1.14 for a-Si:H cells, is not necessarily the best precursor interconnection process.
material for making poly-Si cells by
The interconnection method consists of laser
SPC and a higher rate PECVD a-Si:H
Absorber deposition rate, 1-Sun Voc, n=1 Voc, n=2 Voc, scribing an isolation groove along the glass side
may also be suitable for producing
nm/min mV mV mV aluminium busbar to define the cells. Wire-bonds
a good electronic quality poly-Si
35 494.6 ± 8.9 496 666 are then placed over this groove, connecting the
films. Using a conventional 13.56
250 512.4 ± 4.5 513 711 air-side BSF busbar to the glass side emitter busbar
MHz PECVD system and a process
of the adjacent cell as shown in Figure 4.4.4.16. This
Suns-Voc results (the average of five optimised for the SPC application,
method can be expanded by applying a conductive
points) after RTA and hydrogenation much higher deposition rates up to 265 nm/
of SPC poly-Si diodes on AIT material (with a non-conductive adhesive) to the
min have been demonstrated as shown in Figure
glass with PECVD a-Si:H absorber surface of the cell, and wire-bonding the first and
4.4.1.13 [4.4.1.7].
deposited at 35 nm/min (“low rate”) the last cell busbars to the surface of the conductive
250 nm/min (“high rate”). Raman microprobe characterisation of the poly-Si material as also shown in the figure.
Table 4.4.1.7 films obtained after SPC from the high rate PECVD

44
 ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
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I-V curves of the individual cells and 2010/11
the wire-bonded minimodule. ANNUAL REPORT
Figure 4.4.1.17

Schematic the of e-beam Si

evaporation tool with boron
and phosphorus effusion cells
for in-situ doping.

Figure 4.4.1.18

functional 2 cm2 area 6% efficient cells.

Figure 4.4.1.19 illustrates the progress
with the efficiencies of the e-beam
cells and Table 4.4.1.9 summarises the
design features of the cells typically
Table 4.4.1.8 and Figure 4.4.1.17 show the example fabricated at UNSW. The cells are also
electrical results from wire-bonding of two adjacent made with the reverse polarity structure,
PECVD cells. As can be seen, the interconnection i.e. the p-type glass side emitter, and the
scheme improves the Jsc and, thus, the overall n-type absorber and air-side BSF layers.
module efficiency compared to the individual cells,
During previous years the focus of the
which is primarily due to the large reduction in
e-beam cell research was on improving
lateral series resistance along each busbar to the
the poly-Si material quality and optimising Evolution of the PECVD and e-beam
nearest series or module wire-bond connection cell efficiencies at UNSW.
the cell structure and post deposition treatments
point. All I-V measurements were done with
(RTA, hydrogenation) to achieve better voltages. Figure 4.4.1.19
aperture to define the cell area.
Respectable Voc in the range up to 500 mV were
measured by the Suns-Voc technique on the non-
4.4.1.8 E-Beam evaporated Si cells metallised cells. More recently the focus has shifted
to developing a working metallisation scheme,
E-Beam cell structure, fabrication, and
improving the cell currents and fill factors (FF), i.e.
performance producing functional e-beam cells with appreciable
Deposition of Si using an e-beam evaporator can conversion efficiencies.
be performed at a very high rate of up to 1 mm/
min. Other advantages of the method include
absence of toxic gases, good Si source material
usage and compatibility with a continuous in-line
deposition mode. Thus, if performed in a non-UHV AB PECVD thin-film cell
environment (base pressure > 1×10-8 Torr, pressure Cell A Before Cell B Before interconnected (prior to interconnection,
encapsulation) and module
during Si evaporation > 1×10-7 Torr), e-beam Voc (mV) 508.7 507.9 1010.6
(after interconnection,
evaporation is a cost effective Si deposition method Isc (mA) 96.4 97.6 101.3 encapsulation)
for the thin-film PV applications (Figure 4.4.1.18). FF (%) 69.78 68.45 70.9 electrical properties.
Eff (%) 7.8 7.7 8.3
The thin-film group at UNSW has been researching Table 4.4.1.8
e-beam Si thin-film cells since 2004, and significant
progress has been achieved in advancing the
cell technology from a few square millimetre
area mesa devices at the start to recent fully Parameter Details
Glass 3.3 mm planar Borofloat33
AR coating SiN (~75 nm, n ~2.1)
Typical design parameters of
Emitter n+ (~100 nm, P, 5e19~1e20 cm-3, 400~500 W/sq)
the UNSW E-beam Si cells.
Base p (~2 µm, B, 1e16~1e17 cm-3)
Table 4.4.1.9
BSF p+ (~150 nm, B, up to 1~5x1019 cm-3, ~1000 Ω/sq)
RTA 10~20 s at 1000°C or ~4 min at 900°C
Hydrogenation 15~20 min at ~600°C, remote plasma
Metal 0.5-1.5 μm thick interdigitated Al fingers on front & rear
Back reflector Diffuse while paint

45
 Voc (mV) Jsc (mA/cm2) FF (%) Eff (%) Rs (Ωcm2)
ARC 479 20.1 66 6.3 4
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF Measured 1 sun J-V results of
EXCELLENCE 1.8 µm thick planar e-beam
2010/11 cells with aligned bifacial
metallisation ([4.4.1.13,
ANNUAL REPORT 4.4.1.14]). The shunt resistance
of the cells is > 2000 Ωcm2
and has a negligible effect on
the performance.

Table 4.4.1.10

Schematic (left) and actual (right) views of a metallised e-beam cell (white
paint BSR not shown).

Figure 4.4.1.20

Doping (cm-3) Voc (mV) FF (%) Jsc (mA/cm2) Rs (Ωcm2) Eff (%) pEff (%) The dopant concentration was determined using
1.7×1015 413 64.1 19.2 2.0 5.09 5.5 the Z-analysis technique described elsewhere
5.7×1015 418 61.9 17.6 3.4 4.67 5.3 [4.4.1.27]. This technique has an advantage of
1.0×1017 449 62.5 6.5 7.9 2.16 2.5 yielding the electrically active dopant density,
8.3×1017 403 54.4 4.0 19 1.04 1.3 which is most relevant to the cell performance. The
cells were characterised by Suns-Voc, EQE, light
Performance parameters of e-beam E-Beam cell metallisation J-V measurements and the results are shown in
cells with different absorber
The e-beam cell metallisation scheme, illustrated Table 4.4.1.11. To account for the spectral mismatch
doping densities.
in Figure 4.4.1.20, was developed in 2008 and allow between the light I-V tester and the AM1.5G solar
Table 4.4.1.11 bifacial illumination and versatile back surface test spectrum, which causes measurement artifacts,
reflector (BSR) study. It features interdigitated Al line a conservative approach was used where the short-
contacts for both heavily doped layers, the emitter circuit current density during the J-V measurements
and BSF. The BSF electrodes only cover about 4% of was adjusted to match those determined from
the area. The emitter electrode is formed in a way EQE measurements.
that avoids contact with the absorber layer entirely.
The major observed effect of the doping density
Instead of plasma etching the grooves
is a sharp reduction of the cell current with
through the whole Si thickness, a timed etch
increased doping. It dominates a weaker effect
stop is used such that a thinned emitter layer
on the cell voltage, where Voc rises slightly up to
still remains at the bottom of the grooves.
dopant density of about 1e17/cm3 before falling
Then, the glass-side comb-like electrode is
sharply at the higher densities. The best cell
centred in the grooves leaving significant
efficiencies are obtained at the lowest active dopant
space (>10 μm) between the edges of the
concentrations in the range between 1e15/cm3 and
electrodes and the groove sidewalls. After
5e15/cm3. Figure 4.4.1.21 shows the effect of the
metallisation the entire cell rear surface is
doping densities on the key cell parameters.
then coated with a layer of a white paint as
a diffuse BSR. The typical cell performance
parameters obtained with the described
Role of back surface filed
metallisation are listed in Table 4.4.1.10. The BSF is very important for the poly-Si solar cell.
Besides transporting the holes to the metallic
E-Beam cell absorber contacts, it also repels the electrons from the rear
doping density cell surface thus reducing recombination at this
interface. In fact, this effect is crucial for the poly-Si
The electronic properties of the absorber
thin-film device as shown in Figure 4.4.1.22. Without
layer, mainly the effective minority carrier
the BSF the Voc of the cell is reduced from 435 mV to
diffusion length and life-time, are expected
only 270 mV. Increasing the BSF thickness from 30
to depend strongly on the layer doping level,
to 90 nm decreases the sheet resistance by a factor
which thus can have a large effect on the cell
3 (as expected) but does not impact the Voc of the
performance. After introducing a working
Measured values for Voc, pFF, device as presented in Figure 4.4.1.22. Increasing
metalisation scheme, an absorber doping
Jsc(EQE), and pEff as a function the deposition rate of the BSF has a positive effect
of the absorber doping. Jsc is optimisation experiment was conducted in order
on the Voc. The Voc increases by 40 mV when the
calculated from EQE results. to estimate this effect. All cells in the experiment
deposition rate increases from 5 A/s to 10 A/s.
Jsc(EQE) and pEff were obtained were intended to be nominally identical but with
under two different back surface the different doping densities in the absorber The best efficiency reported previously for the
reflector (BSR) schemes: air (black
(about 2 μm thick, made on the SiN coated planar poly-Si cell with the identical metallization was
closed squares) and white paint (red
open squares). glass, and with the metallisation and the white- 5.2 % with a voltage of 435 mV [4.4.1.13]. The
paint BSR as described in the previous section). development of the high rate BSF clearly improved
Figure 4.4.1.21

46

2 m thick film
480
465
BSF deposition rate
5 [A/s]
10 [A/s] +40 mV
450 2.5 [A/s]
Voc [mV]
435
420
+165 mV
405
270
255
0 30 60
BSF thickness [nm]
Voc of 2 µm thick evaporated poly-Si solar cells with
various BSF layers thickness and deposition rate.
Figure 4.4.1.22
the voltage. The I-V curves data of the solar cells
with and without a BSR are presented in Figure
4.4.1.23. The poly-Si solar cells with a white paint
BSR has a conversion efficiency of 6.3% with
Voc=479 mV, FF=66% and Jsc=20.1 mA/cm2. The
BSR increases the Jsc by 5.3 mA/cm2 and decreases
the FF by 2% due to the increase of Jsc and (increase
of ohmic losses in the metallization).
Light- trapping in e-beam poly-Si
thin‑film cells
Poly-Si thin-film solar cells need effective light-
trapping to compensate for the moderate
absorption. This is typically achieved by glass
substrate texturing for PECVD cells. However,
evaporated poly-Si cells are not compatible with
textured glass due to low density material grown on
textured substrates as shown in Figure 4.4.1.24. A
cross-sectional FIB investigation of the evaporated
Si films on the textured glass reveals noticeable
morphological differences from the films on the
planar glass. On relatively smoother textures the Si
film has apparently vague areas of lower material
density, or high defect density, extending from the
inflexions in the texture features. Such defective
areas further develop into microcracks or voids
either after the thermal treatment (SPC, RTA) or
on the rougher textures. When the glass texture
has vertical or overhanging features, extended
discontinuities in the evaporated Si film are found.
Most described defects are believed to be related
to the columnar microstructure, which is typical for
evaporated films. Clear experimental evidence for
the columnar microstructure and the low density
void network present in the SPC poly-Si films was
ARC
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ANNUAL REPORT
15.0
12.5
Jsc[mA/cm2]
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5 No BSR 482 mV 68% 14.8mA/cm2 4.9%
White paint 479mV 66% 20.1mA/cm2 6.3%
0.0
90 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Voc [mV]
I-V curves of 2 µm thick planar poly-Si thin film solar
cells with and without white paint as back reflector.
Figure 4.4.1.23
recently reported [4.4.1.26].
Such a defective structural
morphology is formed due to
two inherent characteristics
of the evaporation, high
directionality of the arriving
atomic flux and the adatom low
surface mobility. The deposition
only takes place on the surface
areas in direct line-of-sight of
the evaporation source resulting in discontinuities FIB cross section of an evaporated Si
in the areas shaded from the source either by the film on textured glass substrate. (a)
surface topographical features or by the previously is a grey-scale image, and (b) is the
same image but set to a black and
deposited atoms themselves. The earlier arrived
white mode.
adatoms cast “shadows” for subsequently arriving
adatoms, thus creating a network of parallel high Figure 4.4.1.24
density columns surrounded by lower density
material, as it is schematically shown in Figure
4.4.1.25. Besides, in contrast to PECVD deposition,
the evaporated adatoms have a sticking coefficient
close to unity; they do not have or receive the
excessive energy to move in any way from
the place of their initial landing to find a more
thermodynamically favorable position, thus leading
to morphological and possibly electronic defects.
Possible approaches to reducing an extent of the
defect formation during deposition by evaporation
is using smoother glass texturing and/or to texture
the Si film surface instead of, or in addition to Schematic representation of
formation of low density material
smooth glass textures or a completely different
and voids during evaporation,
approach, the localized surface plasmon (LSP) where already adsorbed adatoms
enhanced light-trapping. The different structures cast shadows for newly arriving
are presented in Figure 4.4.1.26. adatoms thus forming parallel
channels filled with no or low
density material.
Figure 4.4.1.25
Schematic representation
different light trapping
scheme. A) planar, B)
textured glass, C) back
texture, D) nanoparticles.
Figure 4.4.1.26
47
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Light-scattering by surface
plasmons (top-left); SEM image
of Ag nanoparticles formed
from 16 nm thin precursor film
(top-right); AFM micrograph of
Si cell surface coated with Ag
nanoparticles (left). AFM micrograph of etch-back
textured poly Si film surface.
Figure 4.4.1.27
Figure 4.4.1.28

The plasmonic light-trapping relies on scattering collects transmitted light, which otherwise would
by Ag nanoparticles as shown in Figure 4.4.1.27 be lost, and redirects it back to the cell thus
[4.4.1.28]. Such nanoparticles can be relatively increasing the cell optical thickness at least twice.
simply formed by depositing a 5-30 nm thin Ag Additionally, most practically used BSRs are diffuse
film on already metallised and characterised and thus scatter the light, contributing to better
poly-Si e-beam cells followed by annealing at light- trapping. Depending on particular cell
about 200ºC leading to formation of 50-200 nm design, different BSRs are used: UNSW PECVD cells
wide irregularly shaped particles. The AFM profile use a combination of silicon dioxide layer with Al;
and SEM image of the Ag nanoparticles on a UNSW e-beam cells use a diffuse white paint or Ag
poly-Si film are presented in Figure 4.4.1.27. nanoparticles (or both); CSG Solar cells (both PECVD
and e-beam) use a combination of the diffuse
The silicon back texture can be simply made by
pigmented resist coated with Al [4.4.1.1]. However,
etching the silicon film in a KOH solution. After
until recently there was no systematic study of BSRs
a few second, pyramids formation appears as
to know which one is best suited particular poly-Si
presented in Figure 4.4.1.28. The roughness is
cell design.
typically around 100 nm whereas the roughness
of the nanoparticles is around 15nm. This A comprehensive comparative study has been
demonstrates the different mechanism of light conducted during 2010, which characterised and
Schematic structure of plasmonic
poly-Si thin-film solar cell with 44%
scattering involved into the two methods. compared the performance of different BSRs on
Jsc enhancement. poly-Si solar cells. The cell material prepared by
The optimisation of the two approaches is currently
PECVD was provided by CSG Solar and processed
Figure 4.4.1.29 ongoing at UNSW. The best developed process for
into metallised cell using the UNSW bifacial
plasmonic light-trapping uses a Ag nanoparticle
metallisation described in the previous section
array formed from 16 nm thick precursor Ag film
(Figure 4.4.1.30). To ensure fair comparison, all
directly on the poly-Si cell coated with a
BSRs were tested on the same cell, which was
350 nm thick MgF2 layer, with a white paint
characterised prior to and after application of each
100 BSR on the top, a spacing layer between the
BSR. The following BSRs were examined: acrylic
90
nanoparticles and the back reflector, typically
80 white paint (WP); P150 resist loaded with titania
350 nm of MgF2 (Figure 4.4.1.29) [4.4.1.6]. The
70
particles (P150W); P150W coated with ~ 150 nm
Jsc enhancement due to the plasmonic light-
EQE, 1-R [a.u.]

60
Al (P150W-Al); P150 with a double load of titania
50 trapping is 44%.
40 (P150DW); twice thicker P150DW (DP150DW); Ag
Jsc [mA/cm2]
30
Ag nano 23.5 The Si-back texture can be made by wet nanoparticles. The results are summarised in Table
20
white paint 21.9 chemical etching, plasma etching, or a 4.4.1.12 and also plotted in Figure 4.4.1.31.
10
Si back text 24.2
combination of both. The current gain
0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 For the planar cells the Ag nanoparticles provide
wavelength [nm] achieved due to the Si-back texture is about
the best Jsc enhancement of about 48% on average
66%, significantly higher than the gain due to
(Jsc ~21 mA/cm2) (the best cell enhancement is
the plasmonic light-trapping (Figure 4.4.1.30).
EQEs of a cell with planar interfaces 50%) followed by the double P150DW and the
However, both approaches have further potential
(black), a plasmonic cell, and a cell white paint. For the textured cell one has to note a
with Si-back texture. for improvement, currently being evaluated.
lot higher Jsc (~24 mA/cm2) compared to the planar
Figure 4.4.1.30 cells even without any BSR due to excellent light-
4.4.1.9 Back-Surface Reflector study trapping providing by the random glass texture.
Most thin-film solar cells, and poly-Si cells in The enhancement due to BSRs are very modest
particular, are not thick enough to fully absorb with the white paint performing the best. The Ag
incident light even if the cells are textured to nanoparticle BSR is not tested for the textured cells
improve light-trapping. A back-surface reflector because nanoparticles cannot be formed on the
(BSR) is a necessary part of cell structure which textured surface.

48
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ANNUAL REPORT

Current enhancement in planar (left) and textured (right)

poly-Si solar cells dur to different back-surface reflectors.
Note that the reference Jsc is 14.25 and 24. 18 mA/cm2
for the planar and textured cell respectively with no BSR.

Figure 4.4.1.31

4.4.1.10 Recombination Planar Textured

Jsc enhancement by different
back-surface reflectors on
processes in thin-film Si on BSR Jsc, mA/cm 2
Gain, % Jsc, mA/cm 2
Gain, % planar and textured poly-Si
glass solar cells No BSR 14.25 24.18 (80%) thin-film solar cells.
The current output of poly-Si thin-film WP 18.86 32.4 26.19 8.3
Table 4.4.1.12
solar cells is approaching the so- P150W 17.16 20.4 24.37 0.8

called Lambertian limit, which serves P150W/Al
P150DW
as a gauge for quantum efficiencies.
DP150DW
However, there is little understanding
Ag nanoparticles 21.51
about how high the Voc could be
– the lowest foreseeable practical
limit is the Voc of multicrystalline Si wafer based
solar cells. Thus, the voltage of poly-Si cells as an
academic topic is still a research frontier where the
fundamental limits are unknown and speculations
abound. In previous years many researchers have
attributed the lower lifetimes of poly-Si solar cells to
their small grain size, a view which holds merit if the
grain boundaries are not well passivated [4.4.1.29],
but in more recent years it is becoming clear that
intragrain defects are also potent enough to limit
the lifetime to the nanosecond range [4.4.1.30].
While the grain boundary recombination can be
successfully mitigated by enlarging the grain size or
optimising the passivation of dangling bonds within
the grain boundaries, so far there has not been an
effective method to circumvent the detrimental
effects of intragrain defects. The goal of research at
UNSW is to elucidate the dominating recombination
pathway in the poly-Si thin-film solar cells so that
the attainment of higher Voc becomes a more
tractable problem.
As a result of a comprehensive study of the poly-Si
on glass solar cell characteristics (Suns-Voc, EQE)
and film properties over a range of temperatures
17.75 24.6 24.58 1.7
18.56 30.2 25.35 4.9
19.09 34.0 25.44 5.2
50.9
and absorber dopant concentrations, a concept
consistent with experimental observations, which
describes the dominant recombination in poly-Si
has emerged [4.4.1.31, 4.4.1.32, 4.4.1.33, 4.4.1.34]. qΦ
Ec
According to the concept, the carrier recombination EF
in poly-Si on glass solar cells can be modelled as 1
a superposition of two processes. The first one
2
involves the electronic transition between shallow
states which are 0.05-0.07 eV below the conduction
band and 0.06-0.09 eV above the valence band, Ev
respectively, which are consistent with
the shallow bands at silicon dislocations
(Figure 4.4.1.32a). The second process
occurs via deep levels at charged defects.
The shallow band recombination
dictates the solar cell properties over
the entire practical absorber doping
range of 5E15~1E17 cm-3; the deep level
recombination originates from either
charged dislocations or grain boundaries
and only becomes influential at dopant
concentration lower than ~5E15 cm-3
(Figure 4.4.1.32b).
(a) The dominant recombination
pathways in poly-Si solar cells
involving shallow defect levels: 1)
direct transition between shallow
bands; 2)transition between
deep level and shallow band; (b)
Simulation of the lifetime at Voc vs
dopant concentration. The short
dashed line represents shallow
bands recombination, and the long
dashed line represents deep level
recombination at grain boundaries.

Figure 4.4.1.32

49
 1.E-08
ARC PECVD 2.2e15
PHOTOVOLTAICS PECVD 5.1e15
e-beam 6.4e15
CENTRE OF 1.E-09
ALICE 2e16
EXCELLENCE ALICE 4.5e16
2010/11 ALICE 5e16
lifetime (s)
ANNUAL REPORT 1.E-10
1.E-11
1.E-12
30 40 50 60 70
q/kT
Arrhenius plots for the diode In the ideal sc-Si the diode saturation current J01
saturation current J01/(JL/I) (a) and follows the Arrhenius law with the activation energy
for short-circuit current Jsc (c) for
Ea equal to the Si bandgap when extrapolated to
poly-Si and c-Si solar cells; b) Voc
plots extrapolated to 0K for poly-Si 0K. The short-circuit current density, Jsc, in sc-Si is
and c-Si solar cells. only very weakly dependent on the temperature
(due to the effect of band-gap variation). However,
Figure 4.4.1.33
poly-Si solar cells exhibit different characteristics
[4.4.1.31]. The Arrhenius plots for J01 of poly-Si
solar cells have distinctively a smaller slope, which
reflects a lower Ea associated with J01 by 0.15-
0.18 eV. As a consequence, the Voc plots versus T
extrapolated to 0K have a lower intercept
in the range 1.0~1.1 eV as compared
to 1.27 eV for sc-Si solar cells (Figure
4.4.1.33a, b). The Arrhenius plots for Jsc
of poly-Si cells whose absorber diffusion
length is shorter than the absorber
thickness have steeper slopes indicating
stronger temperature dependence of the
poly-Si cell current (Figure 4.4.1.33c).
Although the smaller Ea and the
intercept could in principle be due to the
narrower band gap in poly-Si material as
compared to c-Si, it cannot explain the
temperature sensitivity of Jsc. On the
other hand, both effects are consistent
Typical sequence of EQE curves
with existence of shallow sub-bandgap
at different temperatures ranging
from 120K to 320K states acting as either minority carrier traps or
recombination centres.
Figure 4.4.1.34
50
1.E-08
PECVD 3e15
PECVD 1e16
PECVD 2.4e16
PECVD 1e16
e-beam 1.56e17
1.E-09 e-beam 7.2e15
e-beam 6.9e16
e-beam 2.5e16
lifetime (s)
1.E-10
1.E-11
1.E-12
80 30 40 50 60 70 80
q/kT
Lifetime vs q/kT plots for a) p-type, and b) n-type
poly-Si thin-film cells.
Figure 4.4.1.35
Further confirmation of the shallow-level related
recombination in poly-Si solar cells comes from
the study of the bulk lifetimes as a function
of temperature which allows a more detailed
understanding of the behaviour of these shallow
levels in the device quasi-neutral, bulk regions.
Minority carrier diffusion lengths in the absorber
layers of various poly-Si thin-film cells were
extracted by fitting the device EQE simultaneously
with its optical reflectance, a procedure which
has become a routine for poly-Si thin-film cells
whose short lifetimes precludes quantification
by the standard techniques such as the quasi
steady state photoconductance (QSSPC). The EQE
measurement and fitting procedure were repeated
for each sample at different temperatures ranging
from 120K to 320K. Figure 4.4.1.34 superposes the
front-side EQE curves of the same cell at different
temperatures (note that the heights of the curves
are reduced slightly due to additional reflectance
by a quartz window on the cryostat in which the
sample is placed). Clearly the quantum efficiency of
the cell varies strongly with temperature.
Figures 4.4.1.35 a) and b) plot the extracted lifetime
τ against q/kT for p- and n-type cells respectively.
Although the actual lifetime values at a given
temperature differ greatly from cell to cell, all the
lifetime curves exhibit Arrhenius law with the
activation energy (Ea) of 0.17-0.21 eV near room
temperature [4.4.1.32]. These activation energies

0.5 μm
are much larger than those reported for plastically
deformed Si and multicrystalline Si [4.4.1.35],
where the dominant recombination is thought
to be via transitions between the shallow and
deep levels. Assuming direct transitions between
shallow levels, the Ea is expected to be (Ec-Ede)+(Edh-
Ev)+2.5kT=180~120 meV (where Ede and Edh are
shallow band energies near the conduction and the
valence bands respectively), which is in remarkable
agreement with the experimental values.
Furthermore, as a consequence of electron
transitions between the shallow bands, the
recombination rate becomes proportional to the
concentrations of both minority and majority
carriers, as in the case of radiative recombination,
in contrast to recombination via deep levels,
where the rate is proportional to the minority
carrier concentration only. It leads to minority
carrier lifetime inversely proportional to the
majority carrier concentration, or roughly to the
dopant concentration [4.4.1.32]. The experimental
confirmation of this effect is shown in Figure
4.4.1.36 which plots the minority carrier lifetimes
in a number of poly-Si solar cells versus the dopant
density. There is a clear inverse relationship
between the lifetime and dopant density.
Amongst the n-type cells in Figure 4.4.1.35b, three
are made from small grained (~1 μm) poly-Si (circle
or square data points), and three are made from
large grained (~5 μm) poly-Si epitaxially grown on
an Al induced crystallised (AIC) seed layer (triangle
data points). The similarity in the temperature
behaviour of the lifetime, regardless of the grain
size, indicates that large and small grain materials
have a common lifetime limiting mechanism. Also,
in Figure 4.4.1.36 one readily sees that the AIC cells
(triangles) can take on the lifetime values either
above or below the power law trend line, indicating
that they do not have consistently superior lifetimes
just by virtue of their larger grain size. It was found
that the predominant grain orientation plays a
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Typical TEM DFWB image of a poly-
Si film on glass.
Figure 4.4.1.37
greater role in determining the Voc of AIC
1.E-09
cells in fact, of the two rightmost triangle lifetime at 232K (s) Series1
ALICE (n-type)
AIC
data points representing AIC cells at e-beam (n- type)
about 5E16 cm-3 doping in Figure 4.1.1.36, PECVD (n-
e-beam (p type)
the higher lifetime point originates from PECVD (p-type)
(100) preferentially oriented material and Power (Series1)
1.E-10
the lower lifetime point comes from (111)
-0.9619
preferentially oriented material. y = 462576x
2
R = 0.8161
All the above evidence points at
intragrain defects, as a likely limit
on poly-Si thin-film cell lifetimes. In 1.E-11
1.00E+15 1.00E+16 1.00E+17 1.00E+18
particular, dislocations are the most likely
dopant concentration (cm-
candidates because they provide the
strain fields necessary to create split-off
states from the band edges that can act Lifetimes at 232K for various poly-Si
as shallow levels [4.4.1.36]. To estimate dislocation thin-film cells plotted against
dopant concentration.
density in poly-Si solar cells a TEM study was
conducted using the Weak-Beam-Dark-Field (DFWB) Figure 4.4.1.36
technique. An example image is shown in Figure
4.4.1.37 and the dislocation density deduced by the
image analysis is in the order of 1E10 cm-2. There
is very rough correlation between the dislocation
density found in poly-Si solar cells and the cell Voc.
The best cells with Voc > 500 mV have dislocation
density of 6~8x109 cm-2, while for the cell with very
poor Voc < 450 mV the dislocation density is about
1.5x1010 cm-2 [4.4.1.37].
As the dopant density decreases, the shallow
band recombination gradually becomes less and
less significant and eventually, at sufficiently low
dopant densities, less than about 5x1015 cm-3 the
recombination involving deep levels starts to
dominate (process 2 in Figure 4.4.1.32a). Such deep
levels are associated with defects concentrating in
dislocations and grain boundaries. The defects are
usually charged to the same polarity as the majority
carriers thus creating potential barriers which
attract the minority carriers. The lifetime in this case
depends on the potential barrier heights, which
become greater with lowering dopant density.
51
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Simulated Voc of a poly-Si solar
cell (2.2 µm thick n-type absorber,
Jsc 27 mA/cm2) in which both
shallow bands recombination and
deep level recombination at grain
boundaries (with electrostatic
fluctuations) occur.
Figure 4.4.1.38
The effect of recombination via deep levels
at charged defects is to place an upper
limit on the minority carrier lifetime (thus
the cell Voc). Figure 4.4.1.38 shows Voc
simulation results of poly-Si solar cells
where two recombination processes in
the absorber, both via shallow bands and
via deep levels, taking place in parallel.
Above 1x1016 cm-3 doping, the Voc is fairly
constant and approaches the 485 mV
limit corresponding to the case where
only shallow band recombination occurs.
Below 1x1016 cm-3 doping, deep level
recombination becomes influential to the
device performance eroding the Voc by about 21
mV when the doping reaches 1x1015 cm-3. Thus, in
the practically significant dopant concentration
range of 5x1015~5x1016 cm-3, an immediate
challenge to consistently raising the Voc above 500
mV is to reduce the dislocation density to below
the 1x109 cm-2 level. If and when this is achieved
the next step to even higher Voc is minimisation of
charged defects likely associated with impurities.
4.4.1.11 References
4.4.1.1 M.A. Green, “Polycrystalline silicon on glass
for thin-film solar cells”, Applied Physics A: 96,
p. 153, 2009.
4.4.1.2 A. G. Aberle, “Fabrication and characterisation of
crystalline silicon thin-film materials for solar cells”,
Thin Solid Films, 26, p. 511, 2006.
4.4.1.3 P. A. Basore, Proceedings of the 21st EUPVSEC, p.
544, Dresden, Germany, 2006.
4.4.1.4 M. Keevers, T.L. Young, U. Schubert, R. Evans,
R.J. Egan and M.A. Green, “10% Efficient Csg
minimodules:, Proceedings of the 22nd EUPVSEC,
p. 1783, Milan, Italy, 2007.
4.4.1.5 G. Jin, P. I. Widenborg, P. Campbell, S. Varlamov,
“Lambertian matched absorption enhancement
in pecvd poly-Si thin film on aluminium
induced textured glass superstrates for solar cell
applications”, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research
and Application, 2010, v. 18, pp. 482-589.
4.4.1.6 Z. Ouyang, S. Pillai, F. Beck, O. Kunz, S. Varlamov, K.
R. Catchpole, P. Campbell, M. A. Green, “Effective
Light Trapping in Polycrystalline Silicon Thin-film
Solar Cells by Means of Rear Localised Surface
Plasmons”, Appl. Phys. Lett., 2010, v. 96, 261109.
4.4.1.7 P. I. Widenborg, G. Jin, P. J. Gress, and S. Varlamov,
“High rate 13.56MHz PECVD a-Si:H depositions for
SPC poly-Si thin film solar cells”, Proceedings of the
24th EUPVSEC, Hamburg, 2009.
4.4.1.8 Z. Ouyang, O. Kunz, A. B. Sproul, S. Varlamov,
“Influence of the absorber doping for p-type
evaporated polycrystalline silicon thin-film solar
cells on glass, J. Appl. Phys., 2011, 109, 060104.
4.4.1.9 P.J. Gress, P.I. Widenborg, S. Varlamov, A.G. Aberle,
Wire bonding as a cell interconnection technique
for polycrystalline silicon thin-film solar cells on
glass”, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and
Applications, 2010, v. 18, pp. 221-228.
4.4.1.10 P.I. Widenborg, N. Chuangsuwanich, A.G. Aberle,
Glass texturing, Patent AU2004228064A1.
4.4.1.11 P.I. Widenborg, A.G. Aberle, “Polycrystalline
Silicon Thin-Film Solar Cells on AIT-Textured Glass
Superstrates”, Advances in Optoelectronics, 2007,
article ID 24584.
4.4.1.12 P.I. Widenborg, S.V. Chan, T. Walsh, and A.G. Aberle,
“Thin-Film Poly-Si Solar Cells on AIT-textured Glass
– Importance of the Rear Reflector”, Proceedings of
the 33rd IEEE PVSC, San-Diego, 2008.
4.4.1.13 O. Kunz, Z. Ouyang, S. Varlamov, and A.G. Aberle,
“5% efficient evaporated solid-phase crystallised
polycrystalline silicon thin-film solar cells”, Progress
in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, v. 17,
p. 567, 2009.
4.4.1.14 O. Kunz, Z. Ouyang, J. Wong, and A.G. Aberle,
“Advances in evaporated solid-phase-
crystallized poly-Si thin-film solar cells on glass
(EVA)”, Advances in Optoelectronics, 2008,
article ID 532351.
4.4.1.15 O. Kunz, J. Wong, J. Janssens, J. Bauer, O.
Breitenstein, A.G. Aberle, “Shunting Problems Due
to Sub-Micron Pinholes in Evaporated Solid-Phase
Crystallised Poly-Si Thin-Film Solar Cells on Glass”,
Progress in Photovoltaics, 2009, v. 17, pp.35-46.
4.4.1.16 H. Cui, G. Jin, M. Wolf, P. Campbell, M. Geen,
“Enhanced Absorption of SPC Poly-Si Thin Films
on Aluminium Induced Textured (AIT) Glass with
Submicron Texture Feature Size”, Proceedings of
the 25th EUPVSEC, Valencia, Spain, 2010.
4.4.1.17 S. Varlamov, Y. Tao, J. Wong, O. Kunz, R. Egan,
“Crystallisation kinetics of e-beam evaporated Si
films and its effects on poly-Si film and solar cell
properties”, 25th EUPVSEC, Valencia, Spain, 2010.
4.4.1.18 Y. Tao, S. Varlamov, J. Wong, O. Kunz, R. Egan,
“Effects of SPC temperature on properties of
evaporated poly-si thin films and soalr cells”, 35th
IEEE PVSC, Hawaii, USA, 2010.

52

4.4.1.19 A. Blum, C.J. Feldmann, J. Non-crystall. Solids, 1972,
v. 11, 242.
4.4.1.20 C. Spinella, F. Priolo, “Crystal grain nucleation in
amorphous silicon”, Appl. Phys. Rev., 1998, v.84,
pp.5383-5414.
4.4.1.21 T.Matsuyama, M. Tanaka, S. Tsuda, S. Nakano, Y.
Kuwano, “Improvement of n-type poly-Si film
properties by solid-phase crystallisation method”,
Jap. J. Appl. Phys., 1993, v. 32, pp. 3720-3728.
4.4.1.22 P. Timans, J. Gelpey, S. McCoy, W. Lerch, S. Paul,
“Millisecond Annealing: Past, Present and Future”,
Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc., 2006, v. 912,
4.4.1.23 K. Ohdaira, T. Fujiwara, Y. Endo, S. Nishizaki, H.
Matsumura, “Formation of Several-Micrometer-
Thick Polycrystalline Silicon Films on Soda Lime
Glass by Flash Lamp Annealing”, Jap. J. Appl. Phys.,
47, p. 8239, 2008.
4.4.1.24 K. Ohdaira, T. Fujiwara, Y. Endo, S. Nishizaki,
H. Matsumura, “Explosive crystallisation of
amorphous Si films by flash lamp annealing” J.
Appl. Phys. 106, 044907, 2009.
4.4.1.25 Z. Ouyang, O. Kunz, M. Wolf, P. Widenborg, G.
Jin and S. Varlamov, “Challenges of Evaporated
Solid-Phase-Crystallised Poly-Si Thin-Film Solar
Cells on Textured Glass”, Proceedings of the
18th International Photovoltaic Science and
Engineering Conference & Exhibition, Kolkata,
India, 2009.
4.4.1.26 M. Werner, U. Schubert, C. Hagendorf, J. Schneider,
M. Keevers, R. Egan, “Thin film morphology, growth
and defect structure of e-beam deposited silicon
on glass”, Proceedings of the 24th EUPVSEC,
Hamburg, Germany, 2009.
4.4.1.27 A. Straub, R. Gebs, H. Habenicht, S. Trunk, R. A.
Bardos, A. B. Sproul, and A. G. Aberle, “Impedance
analysis: A powerful method for the determination
of the doping concentration and built-in potential
of nonideal semiconductor p-n diodes”, J. Appl,
Phys. 97, p. 083703, 2005.
4.4.1.28 K.A. Catchpole, A. Polman, “Plasmonic solar cells”,
Optics Express, 2008, v. 16, pp. 21794-21800.
4.4.1.29 P. Altermatt and G. Heiser, “Development of a
three-dimensional numerical model of grain
boundaries in highly doped polycrystalline silicon
ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
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and applications to solar cells”, J. Appl. Phys., 91,
p. 2002.
4.4.1.30 L. Carnel, I. Gordon, D. Van Gestel, G. Beaucarne,
J. Poortmans, A. Stesmans, “High open-circuit
voltage values on fine-grained thin-film polysilicon
solar cells”, J. Appl. Phys., 100, p. 063702, 2006.
4.4.1.31 J. Wong, J. L. Huang, O. Kunz, Z. Ouyang, S. He,
P. I. Widenborg, A. G. Aberle, M. Keevers, M. A.
Green, “Anomalous temperature dependence of
diode saturation currents in polycrystalline silicon
thin-film solar cells on glass”, J. Appl. Phys., 105, p.
103705, 2009.
4.4.1.32 J. Wong, J. Huang. B. Eggleston, M. Green, O.
Kunz, M. Keevers, R. Egan, “Lifetime limiting
recombination pathway in thin-film polycrystalline
silicon on glass solar cells”, J. Appl. Phys. V. 107,
123705.
4.4.1.33 J. Wong, J. Huang, M. Keevers, M. Green, “Voc-
Limiting recombination mechanism in thin film
silicon on glass solar cells”, Proc. 35th IEEE PVSC,
Hawaii, USA, 2010.
4.4.1.34 J. Wong, J. Huang, S. Varlamov, M. Green. R. Evans,
M. Keevers, R. Egan, “Structural inhomogeneities
in polycrystalline silicon on glass solar cells and
their effects on device characteristics”, Progress in
Photovoltaics, 2011, DOI: 10.1002/pip.1089.
4.4.1.35 M. Kittler, W. Seifert, K.W. Schroeder, “Temperature
dependent EBIC diffusion length measurements
in silicon”, Phys. Stat. Sol. (a), 2986, v. 93,
pp.K191-K104.
4.4.1.36 V. Kveder, M. Kittler, W. Schroter, “Recombination
activity of contaminated dislocations in silicon:
a model describing electron-beam induced
current contrast behaviour”, Phys. Rev. B, 63,
p. 115208 2001.
4.4.1.37 J. Huang, J. Wong, M. Keevers, M. Green,
“Cell performance limitation investigation of
polycrystalline silicon thin-film solar cells on glass
by transmission electron microscopy”, Proc. 25th
EUPVSEC, Valencia, Spain, 2010, pp.3565-3567.
4.4.1.38 J. Wong, J. Huang, S. Varlamov, M. Green, “The roles
of shallow and deep levels in the recombination
behaviours of polycrystalline silicon solar cells”,
Progress in Photovoltaics, 2011, in press.
53
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Recent improvements in independently confirmed

efficiency for small area (≤ 1cm2) organic solar cells
(extracted from Green et al. [4.4.2.2]).

Figure 4.4.2.1

4.4.2.1 Introduction phases. The scale of the phase separation

University Staff A new organic photovoltaic (OPV) research
• Dr Ashraf Uddin lab has been established at Level-10 in
• Prof. Martin Green the UNSW Chemical Science Building
• A/Prof. Gavin Conibeer to accommodate work on organic
semiconductor materials and OPV devices.
Senior Fellow
Today this lab is equipped with basic
Dr Dirk König facilities organised with support from an
ARC Discovery Grant, UNSW equipment
Research Fellow
grant, a family grant from the Green family,
Dr Shujuan Huang a Faculty grant and with the support of
the ARC Photovoltaic Centre of Excellence.
Research Assistant
Currently, the research team consists of
Xiaohan Yang
three academics, two research fellows, one
research assistant, 6 PhD, one M.Eng. and 8
Postgraduate Research Students
honours students.
• Lara Treiber
• Xiaohan Yang We have already produced some meaningful
• Miga Jung data from our research work. Two journal
• Xiaolei Liu papers, three conference proceeding
papers and one patent are already in
• Kim Taekyun
preparation. The nanoscale texture or thin
• Fred Oi
film morphology of the donor/acceptor
• Matthew Wright
blends used in most OPV devices is a
Undergraduate Thesis Students critical variable that can dominate both
the performance of new materials being
• Thoo Chee Hong
optimized in the lab and efforts to move
• Matthew Wright
from laboratory-scale to factory-scale
• Xinda Yang
production. Although OPV conversion
• Jizhong Yao
efficiencies (up to 8.3%) have improved
• Adam Sen Ann Ong
significantly in recent years, progress in
• Lihui Song
morphology optimization still occurs largely
• Buyi Yan
by trial and error, in part because much of
• Viren Nathoo
our basic understanding of how nanoscale
Taste of Research Student morphology affects the optoelectronic
properties of these heterogeneous organic
Solomon Freer
semiconductor films has to be inferred
indirectly from macroscopic measurements.
The morphology of the active film is a
very important factor in producing high
efficiency devices.
Films spin-coated from blend solutions
undergo separation of the donor/acceptor
depends on the solvent, solubility of the
materials and parameters of the spin-
coating process such as the spin speed
and temperature. If the morphology
could be controlled on a molecular
scale the efficiency of charge separation
and transport could be expected to be
substantially higher. Now we are working
for the morphology optimization of
organic films for OPV devices in respect to
fundamental issues such as light trapping,
control of electronic structure at films
interfaces, exciton dissociation and carrier
transport for photovoltaic operation to
achieve our goals.
The detailed physical understanding of OPV
devices still lags behind their application,
on account of fundamental differences in
the optoelectronic properties of organic
materials compared to conventional
semiconductors. This lack of understanding
limits the scope of material and device
design. Among those features that
distinguish OPV devices from inorganic
semiconductor based devices are: (i) the
charges and excited states are localized
on individual molecules or molecular
segments, with the result that charge and
energy transport processes are relatively
slow; (ii) the dielectric permittivity is low,
leading to stronger space charge effects;
(iii) the organic semiconductor materials
are electronically disordered, dispersing
the rates of charge transfer and transport
processes; (iv) the active layers are often
heterogeneous, either as multi-component
films or because of nonuniform molecular
ordering; and (v) the organic semiconductor
is usually not doped, thus precluding the
conditions that allow charge dynamics to
be linearized in the description of device
physics. The need for appropriate device

54

physics for organic semiconductor materials
is of particular relevance to the organic bulk
heterojunction solar cell.
4.4.2.2 OPV Conversion Efficiency
Interest in OPV with increasing conversion efficiency
has grown exponentially over recent years. The
key development in the OPV device is the bulk
heterojunction cell [4.4.2.1] obtained by blending
donor and acceptor layers, a device structure well
suited to the associated short excitonic diffusion
lengths. The workhorse for OPV research has
become polymer-fullerene bulk heterojunction
devices fabricated by coating a thin layer of
PEDOT:PSS on the top of cleaned ITO substrates
followed by a blend of PCBM/P3HT (or other donor
polymer), then by vacuum evaporation of Al and
annealing. Both packaging and cell efficiency had
improved by 2006 to the stage where independent
measurement of cell efficiency was both feasible
and warranted, with subsequent efficiency
improvements well documented, after review
by a team that includes one of the present team
members [4.4.2.2]. Using the above structure,
Konarka, USA established 4.8% efficiency for a tiny
0.14 cm2 cell in July 2005. Konarka increased this
to 5.15% in December 2006 with 5.24% posted
for a 0.7 cm2 cell in July 2007. Companies such as
Plextronics have reported roughly comparable
results using similar materials with 5.4% efficiency
confirmed in July 2007 for a 0.1 cm2 device, 6.0% in
August 2008 for an even smaller 0.04 cm2 cell and
2.0% as recently as 28 January 2009 for a 224 cm2
module. OPV device developer Solarmer Energy
achieved 7.9% efficiency in December 2009 [4.4.2.3].
In November 2010, Konarka achieved their highest
OPV efficiency 8.3%. The history of OPV conversion
efficiency is shown for small area (≤ 1cm2) cells in
Figure 4.4.2.1.
4.4.2.3 Standard OPV Structures
The fullerene based acceptor material (PCBM) is
interspersed with a donor polymer, commonly
P3HT, with line-bond diagrams for these materials
and the energy band diagram of the standard
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(a) The schematic band energy
structure of bulk-heterojunction
organic cell used to produce the
results of Fig. 4.4.2.1; (b) (left)
a schematic showing random
distribution of donor (P3HT) and
acceptor (PCBM) regions in the
blended bulk-heterojunction
organic solar cell, (right) a
schematic diagram of systematic
alignment of donor and
acceptor layers.
Figure 4.4.2.2
“bulk heterojunction” cell structure shown in Fig.
4.4.2.2(a). From this baseline device structure, the
Centre believes it has several strengths that will
allow it to contribute to the ongoing cell efficiency
evolution documented in Fig. 4.4.2.1 and to the
development of more stable and durable devices.
The challenge in the OPV is that absorbing light in
an organic donor material produces coulombically
bound excitons that require dissociation at the
donor/acceptor interface. The energy-level offset
of the heterojunction (donor/acceptor interface)
is also believed to play an important role for the
dissociation of bound excitons in OPV cells. An
efficient exciton separation into free charge carriers
at the interface of an acceptor and donor materials
will increase the photocurrent of the solar cell
[4.4.2.4]. The transport of excitons to the interface
also limits the conversion efficiency of OPV. The
details of the exciton transport mechanism in OPV
are still not well understood. There is a need for more
systematic study to gain in-depth understanding
of the mechanisms of light absorption, exciton
dissociation and charge transport, particularly their
relationships with molecular and morphological
structures of the materials as well as the nano-scale
architectural design of the devices. Figure 4.4.2.2(b)
shows the two examples of donor/acceptor blending
design (left) and systematic alignment of donor
and acceptor layers for bulk-heterjunction organic
solar cells.
We believe that the conversion efficiency of OPV can
be increased to over 10% for possible commercial
applications through in-depth understanding of
the light harvesting behaviour of organic materials
and by selecting suitable materials and new device
architectures.
4.4.2.4 Active Layer Annealing
Thermal annealing is an effective method that
increases the polymer crystallinity and improves
the phase segregation of donor and acceptor
domains. The surface morphology is also affected
by annealing as shown in Fig. 4.4.2.3. Usually,
as-cast P3HT:PCBM films have a featureless and
55
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AFM images of surface morphology
of P3HT layer on glass substrate (a)
as spin coated; and (b) annealed
at 140°C for 10 minutes. After
annealing the layer structure
become more clearly visible. The
surface roughness is also reduced
by annealing.
Figure 4.4.2.3
Voc and fill-factor (FF) of our OPV
cells, fabricated with different
donor type materials of P3HT.
Table 4.4.2.1
56
homogeneous surface,
while annealing produces a
coarser textured surface with
obvious phase segregation.
The majority of device studies
on P3HT:PCBM blends utilize
annealing to increase device
efficiency. This is believed to
be due to changes in both
the morphology of the active
layer whereby P3HT and PCBM
self-organize into nanoscale
domains as well as the better
intermolecular alignment of
the P3HT giving higher hole
mobilities.
In our studies, we have
found that annealing the
device after the application
of the cathode improves
the efficiency of the device
much more significantly that
annealing before the cathode
deposition. The reason for
this is believed to be reduced mobility of the PCBM
molecules under the increased confinement of the
cathode. In our studies we have explored a range
of anneal temperatures and find that the optimum
annealing temperature depends upon the blend
ratio, and in general lies in the range of 120°C to
150°C. The optimum anneal temperature for our
blend appears to be ~125°C (for 15 minutes) – a
value subsequently used in the remainder
of the optimization experiments detailed
below. An improved transport property
of the active layer is also observed which
leads to a reduced series resistance and in
turn a better device performance. Recently,
microwave annealing has been proposed
as an alternative thermal treatment
method [4.4.2.5].
Figure 4.4.2.4 shows the absorbance
spectra of the blended active layer of P3HT/
PCBM, annealed at different temperature and for
different durations. The absorbance spectra almost
(a) Annealing effects on the
absorbance of P3HT/PCBM
blended layers on glass substrate
(temperatures from 125°C to 145°C
for 5 to 15 minutes duration). (b)
Average absorbance compared for
different annealing temperatures
and duration. The optimum
annealing conditions were found
as 125°C for 15 minutes for the best
quality layer.
Figure 4.4.2.4
remain the same under all annealing temperatures
and times. However, the intensity of the spectra
changes. As mentioned, the optimum annealing
temperature was found as 125°C for 15 minutes for
the best quality layer.
We have started to fabricate our OPV cells with
average Voc ≈ 0.6 V, FF ≈ 70 % and Jsc ≈ 10 mA/cm2.
The average conversion efficiency is around 3 - 4%.
The measured Voc of our OPV devices as a function
of light intensity is shown in Figure 4.4.2.5.
We have used different types of P3HT to fabricate
our OPV cells. Their corresponding Voc and FF are
recorded in Table 4.4.2.1.
4.4.2.5 Light Trapping in OPV
Given the high absorption coefficient of organic
materials, 100 nm thick organic layers are typically
sufficient to absorb most of sunlight. The diffusion
length of excitons in the organic materials is
typically in the range of 5–10 nm. A partial
solution to the problem of low charge carrier and
exciton mobility is the reduction of the active
layer thickness, that also implies the loss of a large
fraction of the impinging light. The use of a light
trapping systems has been actively investigated to
increase the total path length of light into the active
material without needing to increase its physical
thickness. The concept is to induce sunlight to travel
a longer distance in the active layer by a multi-pass
path in order to exploit most of the radiation.
Many different light trapping schemes have been
proposed to enhance the quantity of light absorbed
in OPV cells such as metal gratings [4.4.2.6], buried
nanoelectrodes [4.4.2.7] and multireflection
structures [4.4.2.8]. However, the requirement that
the feature sizes of the scattering structures be
comparable to the film thickness of the OPV cells,
i.e., 50–300 nm, and at the same time larger than the
wavelength of light to effectively alter the photon
propagation direction is intrinsically contradictory.
The electrical properties can be negatively affected
by the introduction of light scattering elements in
direct contact with such thin active layers: defects
and shorts may easily occur. Alternate approaches
 100.00
Data
Voc
10.00 MPP
V_n1 fit
light intensity (Suns)
V_n1
1.00 Vx
0.10
0.01
0.00
0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80
Open circuit voltage (Voc) of OPV devices as a function
of light intensity. The Voc increases logarithmically
with light intensity as for conventional silicon solar
cells.
Figure 4.4.2.5
in improving absorption efficiency have exploited
the properties of surface plasmons (SPs). SPs are
electromagnetic surface waves confined to a metal-
dielectric interface by coupling to the free electron
plasma in metals [4.4.2.9]. The evanescent nature of
SPs permits the manipulation and enhancement of
optical fields below the diffraction limit, allowing
the use of thin OPV layers without sacrificing their
absorption potential. The integration of plasmonic
structures with OPVs has been previously examined
in the context of metallic nanoparticles, which can
be used to increase optical absorption. We have also
started working on the plasmonic light trapping
system to increase the efficiency of our OPV cells.
4.4.2.6 Simulation Work
The Centre has purchased an upgrade of the
Gaussian Density Functional Theory (DFT) program
package to Gaussian09. We can model larger
systems in the so-called ONIOM model which
consists of up to three model shells of different
accuracy. The highest accuracy is limited to the
molecule of interest, while the lower accuracy
regions are bigger and cover the electronic
environment of the species under investigation.
This can include neighbouring molecules for charge
transfer as well as electrodes. An improved tool for
calculating infrared- and Raman-spectra is included
as well, providing an important link to experimental
observations at the organic species. The present
strengths include a dedicated ab-initio molecular
simulation capability (Fig. 4.4.2.7) presently rated at
1080 gigaflops but with upgrading to 1.6 teraflops
planned for the near-term. To date, this facility
has been used for ab-initio modelling of silicon
quantum dots in a dielectric environment. The
extended capability for excited state modelling
should allow the screening of new candidate OPV
materials for both performance and durability.
Other strengths include past experience with a
number of engineered vertical junction structures
and with light-trapping, not yet fully exploited
in OPV devices. The Centre has pioneered light-
trapping in both wafer-based and silicon thin-
Fit
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Voc (V)
film devices, as well as the use of plasmonics
for light-trapping in thin, plane-parallel
photovoltaic structures [4.4.2.10].
The Centre is also particularly interested in
hybrid organic/inorganic systems as a way of
improving both performance and stability.
Some work in this area has already commenced
as reported below. Hybrid solar cells are a mixer
of nanostructures of both organic and inorganic
materials. They combine the unique properties
of inorganic semiconductor nanoparticles with
properties of organic/polymeric materials. Absorbance spectra of conventional
Inorganic semiconductor nanoparticles or quantum OPV cell (ITO/PEDOT:PSS/
dots may have high absorption coefficients and P3HT:PCBM/Al without TiOx spacer
particle size induced tunability of the optical band- layer and with TiOx layer.
gap. Band-gap tuning in inorganic nanoparticles Figure 4.4.2.6
with different nanoparticle sizes can be used for
realization of device architectures, such as tandem
solar cells in which the different bandgaps can
be obtained by modifying only one chemical
compound. Thus, the organic/inorganic hybrid
concept for photovoltaic solar cells is becoming
attractively interesting in recent years. The
solubility of the n-type and p-type components
is an important parameter in the construction of
hybrid solar cells processed from solutions.
4.4.2.7 Ordered Nanoparticle Arrays
For Hybrid Organic/Inorganic
Solar Cells
Experimental work on fabrication of highly
ordered arrays of nanoparticles as absorber
materials originally for hot carrier solar cells Dedicated Linux 64 bit cluster for
has been initiated as a potential means to realise ab-initio molecular simulations
ordered superlattice structures. In this work, the aim presently rated at 1080 gigaflops.
is to establish a fabrication system for depositing Figure 4.4.2.7
sequential monolayers of nanoparticles with
uniform shells.
We have installed a Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) system
for fabrication of highly ordered nanoparticle
monolayers as shown in Fig. 4.4.2.8. The LB
technique leads to the development of ordered
monolayers at an air-water interface while
exploiting the self-organization mechanism of
57
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Schematic of the LB apparatus used to fabricate a

monolayer of encapsulated nanoparticles. Si nanoparticle encapsulated with organosilanes.

Figure 4.4.2.8 Figure 4.4.2.9

is very attractive for organic and inorganic hybrid

device applications. Organic/inorganic hetero-
junctions have generated a great interest for their
potential in developing hybrid devices as well as
to understand organic semiconductors and their
interfacial properties. We are also investigating
the possibility of poly-Si/organic hybrid solar
cells. Figure 4.4.2.10 shows the absorption spectra
of poly-Si/PEDOT:PSS/P3HT on glass substrate
compared with the absorption spectra of c-Si/
PEDOT:PSS/P3HT structure.

Absorption spectra of poly-Si/
PEDOT:PSS/P3HT on glass substrate
compared with absorption spectra
of c-Si/PEDOT:PSS/P3HT structure.
Figure 4.4.2.10
colloidal dispersion. Compression of the monolayer
is monitored via measurements of surface pressure
and then controlled by a feedback loop. This unique
technique allows transfer of this ordered monolayer
onto a wide range of solid substrates such as
glass or Si wafers. By controlling the interspacing
between adjacent particles, i.e. the shell thickness,
by varying the molecular weight of capping species,
4.4.2.9 References
4.4.2.1 G. Yu, K. Pakbaz and A. J. Heeger, Appl. Phys. Lett.
64 (1994), p3422.
4.4.2.2 M.A. Green, K. Emery, Y. Hishikawa and W. Warta,
“Solar Cell Efficiency Tables”, Versions 26-34,
Progress in Photovoltaics, 2006-2009.
4.4.2.3 http://www.solarmer.com
4.4.2.4 A. Holzhey, C. Uhrich, E. Brier, E. Reinhild, P. Bauerle,
K. Leo and M. Hoffmann, J. Appl. Phys. 104 (2008),
p064510.

we can control the periodicity of the film - leading
to new optical and electrical properties.
Silicon (Si) nanoparticles are being used as core
materials. In order to control the interspacing
between the particles, the termination of Si
nanopaticles is carried out using organosilanes of
varying alkyl chain lengths, as shown in Fig. 4.4.2.9.
Progress to date is reported elsewhere [4.4.2.11].
Once the assembly approach is mastered, it
4.4.2.5 K. Lee, J. Y. Kim and A. J. Heeger, SPIE Organic
Photonic Materials and Devices VIII, San Jose, CA,
January 23-26, 2006.
4.4.2.6 L.S. Roman, O. Inganäs, T. Granlund, T. Nyberg,
M. Svensson, M.R. Andersson, J.C. Hummelen,
Advanced Materials 12 (3) (2000), p189–195.
4.4.2.7 M. Niggemann, M. Glatthaar, A. Gombert, A.
Hinsch, V. Wittwer, Thin Solid Films 451–452 (2004),
p619–623.
4.4.2.8 K. Tvingstedt, V. Andersson, F. Zhang, O. Inganas,
Applied Physics Letters 91 (2007) p123514.

should be possible to build up device structures
incorporating layers of quantum dots with the
doping in each layer individually controlled.
4.4.2.8 Poly-Si/Organic Hetero-
Junction Cell
Recently organic/inorganic hetero-junction thin
films solar cells have gained importance for their
cost-effective potential applications [4.4.2.12]. The
combination of hydrogenated amorphous (a-Si:H)
and/or poly-silicon (poly-Si:H) and organic materials
4.4.2.9 N.C. Lindquist, A. Lesuffleur, and S. Oh, Applied
Physics Letters 91 (2007), p253105.
4.4.2.10 S. Pillai, K.R. Catchpole, T. Trupke, and M.A. Green,
“Surface Plasmon Enhanced Silicon Solar Cells”,
Journal of Applied Physics 101 (2007), p093105.
4.4.2.11 L. Treiber, C. Bumby, S. Huang, G. Conibeer, 23rd
European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference,
Valencia, Spain (2008).
4.4.2.12 R. A. Halton, et al., Organic Electronics 10
(2009), p388.

58

Synthetic silicon. Portion of the Periodic
Table showing pathways to engineering
semiconductors with 4 valence electrons/atom.
Figure 4.4.3.1
4.4.3 Earth-Abundant Photovoltaic
Devices (CZTS)
University Staff
• Dr Xiaojing Hao
• Prof. Martin Green
Postgraduate Research Student
Xiaolei Liu
4.4.3.1 Strand Outline
All successfully commercialised non-concentrating
photovoltaic technologies to date are based on
silicon or the chalcogenides (semiconductors
containing Group VI elements, specifically Te, Se
and S). As indicated by Figure 4.4.3.1, the successful
chalcogenide materials, CdTe and CuInSe2, can be
regarded as “synthetic silicon” where the balance
between atoms in these materials provides the
same average number of valence band electrons as
in silicon.
Unfortunately Cd and Se are toxic “heavy metals”
while Te and In are amongst the 12 most rare
elements in the Earth’s crust, factors that would
seem to limit the long-term potential of the
established chalcogenide technologies. However,
as indicated in Figure 4.4.3.1, by investigating more
deeply into the Periodic Table, the compound
Cu2ZnSnS4 is uncovered with the same number of
valence band electrons on average but involving
earth-abundant, non-toxic elements.
Although the potential of this material is relatively
unexplored for photovoltaics, initial results have
been promising with a group at IBM reporting 9.7%
efficiency for small cells based on related materials
(alloy of the above sulphide and the corresponding
selenide). The appearance of the cells involved
(Fig. 4.4.3.2) is quite close to the appearance of
cells made using CIGS technology (CuInSe2 plus
CuGaSe2 alloy).
The Centre’s work in this new strand of activity
takes a different direction from most of the present
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international work in this area. The starting point is
a viable high throughput manufacturing process.
Efforts are to develop technology suitable for the
desired process rather than persevering with solution
growth processes that have given the best laboratory
results to date. Materials selection would be
guided by stable compositions formed in naturally
occurring minerals such as kesterite and stannites.
Another key area that is to be investigated in detail
is epitaxial relationships to silicon to investigate the
suitability for tandem cell stacks, including stacks
involving silicon as the lowermost layer.
4.4.3.2 Simplified fabrication of CZTS
thin film cells
Though various approaches have been applied
to fabricate CIGS solar cell, CIGS with the highest
efficiency (up to 20.3% so far) have been achieved
by the physical vapour deposition (PVD) approach,
with the first 10% efficient cell demonstrated in
1980, the first 15% cell in 1993 and the first 20% cell
in 2008. As a substitute for CIGS thin film solar cells,
CZTS has many similarities to CIGS as mentioned
above. As such, it is logical that the full potential
of high efficiency CZTS thin film solar cells will be
extracted using the PVD approach.
Though a major milestone was reached at the
end of 2009 with the demonstration of 9.7% CZTS
efficiency (some Se also in device) by a research
team at IBM by a “hydrazine-based solution”
approach [4.4.3.1], solution growth is believed
inherently incapable of giving the material control
required for best-possible performance. Evidence
for this arises in the similar case of CIGS where the
same IBM team holds the record of 12.2% efficiency
for solution-deposited CIGS (again hydrazine–
based) [4.4.3.2], while in contrast the PVD approach
gives 20.3% efficiency.
Evaporation and sputtering are the two most
important PVD techniques. The disadvantage of
evaporation is that it is very difficult to control the
Cu evaporation source; and the lack of commercially
available equipment for large area thermal
evaporation. In contrast, magnetron sputtering is
59
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SEM cross-section of CZTS-type cells (Todorov et al., Adv. Mater. 22,
E156, 2010).
Figure 4.4.3.2
a more attractive process because large area/high
rate sputtering is a better developed technique
than evaporation. In addition, sputtering has
commercially available equipment that gives good
uniformity over large areas. UNSW has considerable
experience in PVD techniques, such as the
achievement of the first silicon quantum dot solar
cell on quartz [4.4.3.3], a recent patent relating to
crystal Ge on Si wafer by a sputtering technique and
the polycrystalline silicon thin film solar cell on glass
by an evaporation technique [4.4.3.4].
Almost all of the methods that have been
attempted for CZTS fabrication involve two steps;
deposition of a metal/metal-sulfide precursor
and a subsequent anneal at high temperature
in a hydrogen sulphide or elemental sulphur
environment to incorporate more sulfur into the
film and evolve the correct phase [4.4.3.5-4.4.3.7].
It is reported that the H2S/sulphur anneal is a
destructive process that can potentially introduce
defects into the film due to the out-diffusion of
metals. In addition, for large scale production of
solar cells, a direct one-step, large area deposition
process is preferred.
Fortunately, reactive sputtering is a well suited
technique because of the above-addressed feature
of precise control on the stoichiometry of deposited
films over a large area with high uniformity at a
relatively low cost. The experience documented in
our patent of “A Method of Forming A Germanium
Layer On A Silicon Substrate And A Photovoltaic
Device Including A Germanium Layer”, where the
introduction of H2 gas into the in-situ deposited
60
germanium thin film by magnetron sputtering
results in the significant improvement of the
performance of germanium thin film, appears
highly relevant.
As such, the idea of one-step reactive sputtering
by in-situ introducing H2S gas into the deposited
CZT (Cu2ZnSn) film is a logical step to attempt a
better CZTS film quality. However, there have been
few attempts to date at such a simplified one-step
process by introducing the sulphide into the CZTS
film during in-situ deposition. In addition, this
process is not well understood and significantly
more effort is required in order to understand
growth mechanisms involved in the reactive
sputtering process. Comparison of reactively
sputtered films with 2-step sulphidisation processes
will provide the early emphasis of the Centre’s work.
4.4.3.3 References
4.4.3.1 T.K. Todorov, K.B. Reuter, D.B. Mitzi, Advanced
Materials 2010, 22, E156.
4.4.3.2 W. Liu, D.B. Mitzi, M. Yuan, A.J. Kellock, S.J. Chey,
and O. Gunawan, Chem.Mater., 2010, 22(3), 1010-
1014.
4.4.3.3 I. Perez-Wurfl, X.J. Hao, A .Gentle, D-H. Kim, G.
Conibeer, M.A. Green, Applied Physics Letters 95
(2009), 153506.
4.4.3.4 Z. Ouyang, S. Pillai, F. Beck, O. Kunz, S. Varlamov, et
al., Applied Physics Letters, 2010, 96 (26), 261109.
4.4.3.5 J.J. Scragg et al., Thin Solid Films, 517 (2009), pp.
2481-2484.
4.3.3.6 R. Schuee et al., Thin Solid Films, 517 (2009) pp.
2465-2468.
4.4.3.7 Hironori Katagiri et al., Thin Solid Films, 480-481
(2005), pp. 426-432.

Abstract
There has been approximately equal work on
the two major projects in Third Generation in
2010. These are the Group IV nanostructure
tandem cells project - the “all-Si” tandem cell
- and the Hot Carrier solar cell project, with
its continuing funding from GCEP (Global
Climate and Energy Project). There has also
been further work on Up-conversion and on
Plasmonics.
The Si nanostructure work has seen increased
understanding of the mechanisms for
transport and quantum confinement. More
sophisticated modelling of both has been
tied more directly to improved interpretation
of experimental results. This has led to
establishment of a predictive ‘equivalent circuit
modeller’ which will allow optimisation of Si
QD device parameters to maximise transport
4.5 Third Generation Strand –
Advanced Concepts ARC
University Staff:
• A/Prof. Gavin Conibeer (group leader)
• Dr Richard Corkish
• Prof. Martin Green
Senior Research Fellows:
• Dr. Dirk König
Research Fellows:
• Dr Shujuan Huang
• Dr. Ivan Perez-Wurfl
Lecturers:
• Dr Santosh Shrestha
Postdoctoral Fellows:
• Dr Supriya Pillai (part time)
• Dr Xiaojing “Jeana“ Hao
• Dr Sangwook Park (to Apr 2010)
Professional officers:
• Dr Tom Puzzer (part time)
• Dr Patrick Campbell (shared with Thin
Film)
• Mark Griffin (shared with Thin Film)
Research Associates:
• Dr Didier Debuf (adjunct fellow)
• Yidan Huang
• Lei “Adrian” Shi (from Sept 2009)
Higher Degree Students:
• Lara Treiber
• Pasquale Aliberti
• Yong-Heng So
• Robert Patterson
• Binesh Puthen Veettil
• Chao-Yang “Jeff” Tsao
and performance in the photovoltaic devices.
Improved models for the understanding
of doping effects in these materials have
also been established. Work on alternate
matrices for Si quantum dots, in both silicon
nitride and carbide, has seen development of
composite structures which have improved
transport in the growth direction, whilst
maintaining quantum confinement in the
plane, but which also increase the uniformity
of QD sizes. Work on Ge nanostructures has
also improved with high electrical p-type
conductivity established for Ge quantum
dots and excellent pseudo single crystalline
growth quality for Ge quantum wells in a
nitride matrix. Heterojunction photovoltaic
devices combining the advantages of two of
these different material types are now being
investigated.
PHOTOVOLTAICS
• Bo Zhang CENTRE OF
• Andy Hsieh EXCELLENCE
• Dawei Di 2010/11
• Zhenyu “Wayne” Wan
ANNUAL REPORT
• Craig Johnson
• Sammy Lee
• Haixiang Zhang
Casual Staff:
James Rudd (part time)
Visiting Researchers:
• Dr. Yukiko Kamikawa (AIST, Tsukuba,
Japan, June 2009 – Dec 2012)
• Prof. Bingqing Zhou (Inner Mongolia
Normal University, China, Sept 2009 –
Aug 2010)
• Dr. Mallar Ray (Bengal Eng. and Sci.
University, May 2010)
Undergraduate Students:
4th Year Thesis Projects:
• Yu Feng
• Tao Zhan
• Chen Pan
• Xi Li
• Yao Yao
• Linzhi Ma
• Lin Dong
Masters Project:
Chandraprasad Ramachandran
Visiting Practicum students:
• Stephan Michard (RWTH Aachen,
Germany, Aug 2009 – Feb 2010)
• Dolf Timmerman (Amsterdam
University, Oct – Dec 2010)
Hot Carrier cells have seen very significant
improvement in demonstrated resonance
in energy selective contacts using Si
nanostructure layers, as well as a development
of 2 and 3D modelling of transport in these
structures. Modelling of Hot Carrier efficiencies
continues to get more sophisticated with
application to real material systems such as
III-nitrides and inclusion of Auger processes
which become significant at high carrier
concentrations. Work on absorbers has
allowed modelling of the phononic properties
of a range of bulk materials, in conjunction
with time resolved photoluminescence
measurement of carrier cooling in some of
these materials. Also modelling of coherent
nanoparticle nanostructures, which emulate
the phononic properties required, has
developed into direct application to structures
grown directly. These structures include the
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Loss processes in a standard solar

cell: (1) non-absorption of below
band gap photons; (2) lattice
thermalisation loss; (3) and (4)
junction and contact voltage losses;
(5) recombination loss.

Figure 4.5.1

colloidal dispersion of Si nanoparticles, which cells, light trapping by these non-texturing methods
has seen coherent arrays successfully grown, is very important for third generation devices, which
and growth of III-V quantum dot structures with consist of very thin layers of material.
collaborators, with modelling and characterisation
This progress in all the main Third Generation
indicating their usefulness as absorbers. The
project areas is improving understanding and
parameters needed for a real hot carrier solar cell
allowing optimisation of modelling, structures
are now better defined, and candidates for its
and devices. Developments to come in the
structure are now being modelled in more detail.
next year will see significant advancement in
This will feed into fabrication and characterisation
these areas, with excellent prospects for good
of some candidate structures in the near future.
demonstration devices.
The up-conversion project in 2009 reported the
approach of use of porous-Si as a host material for 4.5.1 Third Generation Photovoltaics
an Erbium upconverter. This has the advantage
The “Third Generation” photovoltaic approach is
of much greater versatility in fabrication and
to achieve high efficiency whilst still using “thin
electrochemical doping with Er, compared to
film” second generation deposition methods. The
other host phosphors. Work in 2010 has further
concept is to do this with only a small increase
demonstrated up-conversion of below band gap
in areal costs and to use abundant and non-toxic
photons. The ease of control of porous-Si growth at
materials and hence reduce the cost per Watt peak
different refractive indices has also been exploited
[4.5.1]. Thus these “third generation” technologies
to create fully integrated multiple Distributed Bragg
will be compatible with large scale implementation
Reflectors. These allow a tuning of the forbidden
of photovoltaics. The aim is to decrease costs to well
photonic band such that regions just outside
below US$0.50/W, towards US$0.20/W or better, by
the bandgap (which have enhanced density of
dramatically increasing efficiencies but maintaining
photonic states) lie at the 1500nm absorption
the economic and environmental cost advantages
window of Er. This effectively concentrates light
of thin film deposition techniques (see Fig. 4.1.3
into this absorbance window and boosts up-
showing the three PV generations) [4.5.1, 4.5.2]. To
conversion quadratically. Enhancements of up
achieve such efficiency improvements such devices
to 80 are possible with multiple levels, with a
aim to circumvent the Shockley-Queisser limit for
consequent narrowing of the wavelength range
single band gap devices that limits efficiencies to
enhanced. Enhancements of 40 are very practical.
the “Present limit” indicated in Fig. 4.1.3 of either
This represents a big potential improvement for up-
31% or 41% (depending on concentration ratio).
conversion efficiency.
This requires multiple energy threshold devices
Plasmonics has previously been applied to both such as the tandem or multi-colour solar cell. The
first generation and second generation Si cells with Third Generation Strand is investigating several
very significant enhancements in absorbance of approaches to achieve such multiple energy
near band gap photons. Work in 2010 has applied threshold device [4.5.1, 4.5.3].
plasmonic silver nanoparticles to nanostructured
The two most important power loss mechanisms
Si QD layers. Again significant enhancements of
in single-band gap cells are the inability to absorb
photoluminescence (reciprocal with absorption)
photons with energy less than the band gap (1 in
have been absorbed, up to 16x for wavelengths
Fig. 4.5.1), and thermalisation of photon energy
just shorter than the effective band gap. Also
exceeding the band gap, (2 in Fig. 4.5.1). These
application to the rear of the layer is seen to be
two mechanisms alone amount to the loss of
better than the front because the reflection of the
about half of the incident solar energy in solar cell
silver particles themselves is beneficial rather than
conversion to electricity. Multiple energy threshold
parasitic. Just as with thin film second generation

62

A tandem photovoltaic cell using quantum confined QDs or QWs
to engineer the band gap of the top cell and potentially also the
lower cells. Short wavelength light is absorbed in the top cell and
longer wavelengths in lower cells, thus boosting the overall voltage
generated and hence efficiency.
Figure 4.5.2
approaches can utilise some of this lost energy.
Such approaches do not in fact disprove the validity
of the Shockley-Queisser limit, rather they avoid it
by the exploitation of more than one energy level
for which the limit does not apply. The limit which
does apply is the thermodynamic limit shown in
Fig. 4.1.3, of 68.2% or 86.8% (again depending
on concentration).
In the Third Generation Strand, we aim to introduce
multiple energy levels by fabricating a tandem cell
based on silicon and its oxides, nitrides and carbides
using reduced dimension silicon nanostructures to
engineer the band gap of an upper cell material.
We are aiming to collect photo-generated carriers
before they thermalise in the “Hot Carrier” solar cell.
Also we are investigating absorption of two below
bandgap photons to produce an electron-hole
pair in the cell by up-conversion in a layer behind
the Si cell using erbium doped host materials.
In order to optimise the requisite properties,
all these structures are likely to be thin hence
maximising absorption of light in thin structures
through light trapping is very important. Hence we
are also investigating localised surface plasmon
enhanced coupling of light into these Third
Generation devices.
4.5.2 Si nanostructure solar cells
4.5.2.1 The ‘‘all-Si’’ Tandem cell
Researchers:
Shujuan Huang, Ivan Perez-Wurfl, Dirk König,
Tom Puzzer, Xiaojing Hao, Sangwook Park, Bo
Zhang, Dawei Di, Yong-Heng So, Zhenyu Wan,
Sammy Lee, Yidan Huang, Gavin Conibeer,
Martin Green
We are developing a material based on Si (or other
group IV) quantum dot (QD) or quantum well
(QW) nanostructures, from which we can engineer
a wider band gap material to be used in tandem
photovoltaic cell element(s) positioned above a thin
film bulk Si cell, see Fig. 4.5.2.
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Previously we have demonstrated the ability to
fabricate materials which exhibit a blue shift in the
effective band gap as the QD or QW size is reduced,
using photouminescence [4.5.4] and absorption
[4.5.5] data [4.5.6]. A thin film deposition of a self-
organised QD nanostructure is achieved through a
sputtered multi-layer of alternating Si rich material
and stoichiometric dielectric [4.5.4]. On annealing
the excess Si precipitates into small nanocrystals
which are limited in size by the layer thickness,
thus giving reasonable size uniformity, as first
demonstrated by Zacharias [4.5.7]. Demonstration
of doping of these layers with both phosphorus
and boron to create a rectifying p-n junction has
resulted in devices with a photovoltaic open circuit
voltage of 490mV [4.5.6, 4.5.7, 4.5.8].
Formation of Si (or Ge or Sn) QDs through layered
thin film deposition of Si rich material which
crystallises into uniform sized QDs on annealing.
A cell based entirely of Si, or other group IV
elements, and their dielectric compounds with
other abundant elements (i.e. silicon oxide, nitride
or carbide) fabricated with thin film techniques, is
advantageous in terms of potential for large scale
manufacturability and in long term availability of
its constituents. Such thin film implementation
implies low temperature deposition without
melt processing, it hence also involves imperfect
crystallisation with high defect densities. Hence
devices must be thin to limit recombination due to
their short diffusion lengths, which in turn means
they must have high absorption coefficients.
For photovoltaic applications, nanocrystal materials
may allow the fabrication of higher band gap solar
cells that can be used as tandem cell elements on
top of normal Si cells [4.5.11, 4.5.12]. For an AM1.5
solar spectrum the optimal band gap of the top
cell required to maximize conversion efficiency is
~1.7 to 1.8eV for a 2-cell tandem with a Si bottom
cell [4.5.13]. To date, considerable work has been
completed on the growth and characterization of Si
nanocrystals embedded in oxide [4.5.7, 4.5.14] and
nitride [4.5.15, 4.5.16] dielectric matrices. However,
little has been reported on the experimental
63
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FMG scheme employed

for finding electronic
states and the
confined energy.

Figure 4.5.5

Si rich dielectric
2-5nm
Stoichiometric
dielectric, 2-5nm
Quartz or glass substrate
Substrate
 
Multilayer deposition of alternating
Si rich dielectric and stoichimetric
dielectric in layers of a few nm. On
annealing the Si precipitates out
to form small nanocrystals of a size
determined by the layer thickness.
Nanocrystal or quantum dot size is
therefore uniform.
Figure 4.5.3
Si3N 4
SiC
1.9 eV
0.5 eV
c-Si 1.1 eV c-Si 1.1 eV
0.9 eV
2.3 eV
Bulk band alignments between
silicon and its carbide, nitride
and oxide. Tunnelling probability
between QDs separated by d
depends exponentially on the
square root of the barrier height
(ΔE1/2) multiplied by d (e.g.
[4.5.19] p244).
Figure 4.5.4
properties of Si nanocrystals embedded For Si QDs in SiO2 the precipitation occurs according
in SiC matrix [4,5,17]. These are of to the following:
particular interest for application in
photovoltaic devices because of an
expected significant increase in carrier
transport due to a decrease in the barrier
Precipitation of excess Si from Si rich dielectrics in
height between adjacent nanocrystals
SiNx and SiC follows a similar crystallisation reaction
[4.5.18]. As a result, sufficient carrier
as Si precipitates from the amorphous matrix. The
mobility can be obtained to satisfy device
techniques has also been applied to growth of Sn
fabrication requirements.
and Ge QDs in SiNx in SiO2. Ge quantum dots can be
precipitated at substantially lower temperature, as
4.5.2.2 Fabrication of Si QD
discussed below.
nanostructures
Thin film techniques are used for nanostructure
4.5.2.2.1 Carrier tunnelling transport in Si
fabrication. These include sputtering and plasma QD superlattices
enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD).
Transport properties are expected to depend on
The deposition is a variation of the multi-layer
the matrix in which the silicon quantum dots are
alternating ‘stoichiometric dielectric / Si rich
embedded. As shown in Fig. 4.5.4 different matrices
dielectric’ process, shown in Fig. 4.5.3, followed
produce different transport barriers between the
by an anneal during which Si nanocrystals
Si dot and the matrix, with tunnelling probability
precipitate limited in size by the Si rich
heavily dependent on the height of this barrier.
layer thickness [4.5.12, 4.5.7]. The most
Si3N4 and SiC give lower barriers than SiO2 allowing
SiO2 successful and hence most commonly
larger dot spacing for a given tunnelling current.
used technique is sputtering, because
3.2 eV of its large amount of control over
deposition material, deposition rate
and abruptness of layers. A multi-target
c-Si 1.1 eV remote plasma sputtering machine with
two independent RF power supplies as The results suggest that dots in a SiO2 matrix would
well as dditional DC power supplies is have to be separated by no more than 1-2 nm of
4.7 eV
used in this work. matrix, while they could be separated by more than
RF magnetron sputtering is used to 4 nm of SiC. Fluctuations in spacing and size of the
deposit alternating layers of SiO2 and dots can be investigated using similar calculations.
SRO of thicknesses down to 2nm. [SRO It is also found that the calculated Bloch mobilities
refers to Si rich oxide, formed by co-sputtering Si do not depend strongly on variations in the dot
and SiO2 .] Deposition of multi-layers, consisting spacing but do depend strongly on dot size within
the QD material [4.5.18]. Hence, transport between
typically of 20 to 50 bi-layers, is followed by an
anneal in N2 from 1050 to 1150°C. During the anneal dots can be significantly increased by using
the excess silicon in the SRO layer precipitates to alternative matrices with a lower barrier height, ∆E.
form Si nanocrystals between the stoichiometric For the same tunnelling current the spacing of QDs
oxide layers. can increase for oxide to nitride to carbide matrix.

64
4.5.2.2.2 Modelling of quantum
confinement and tunnelling transport
Researchers:
Binesh Puthen-Veettil, Robert Patterson,
Dirk König
Band gap engineering for these Si nanostructure
materials requires a large number of almost
identical quantum dots (QDs), evenly distributed
in a dielectric layer. As the proximity of dots
increases, confined wavefunctions in the QDs
interact with one another to form mini-bands. It
is also seen that higher Si content in the Si rich
layer gives rise to bigger QDs, due to the tendency
of QDs to merge together and form bigger dots
during annealing [4.5.12, 4.5.20]. If the dielectric
layer is a good diffusion barrier for Si (such as the
nitride layer in Si/Si3N4 or Si3N4 interlayer samples,
see sections 4.5.2.3.1 and 4.5.2.3.2), this effect is
strongly reduced. For relatively thick layers in which
diffusion is not constrained, the shapes of these
QDs can differ greatly from an ideal spherical shape.
Calculation of confined energy in QD structures is of
interest since their electronic and optical properties
can be determined by determining the confined
energy levels in the structure.
Since these calculations are extremely difficult to
perform using ab-initio methods due to the large
memory and computation time requirements,
we have developed a model to quantitatively
analyse electronic states and their interactions in
a QD array, in the framework of the effective mass
approximation (EMA) calibrated by ab-initio DFT
calculations. This model is realized by solving the
three dimensional time independent discretized
Schrödinger’s equation in the EMA, employing a
modified Full Multi Grid method (FMG) [4.5.21] to
overcome the difficulty of computational intensity.
By using exact solution methods to solve the Eigen
equation for the coarsest grid, the non convergence
problems [4.5.22] arising from oscillatory
eigenvalues are eliminated. Since initial guesses
of the solution are very close to the approximate
solution, this method proves to be much faster than
other iterative methods. The flow diagram for this
process is shown in Fig. 4.5.5.
In order to demonstrate the conformity of results
from this model with experimental results,
ARC
we compared it with experimental results
for Silicon QDs in SiO2 dielectric grown using PHOTOVOLTAICS
sputtering methods and characterized using CENTRE OF
photoluminescence (PL) [4.5.20]. Figure 4.5.6 shows EXCELLENCE
the dependency of confined energy on the size 2010/11
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increases exponentially as QD size decreases.
Comparison shows that for larger QDs experimental
and theoretical values are similar, but for smaller
dots the experimental results for the confined
energy shows a lower degree of confinement
than the theoretical result. This difference can be
attributed to interface defects between Si and SiO2
and to defects within the SiO2 matrix but near the
interface. For QDs below a diameter of about 4 nm
these interface effects have a larger influence on the
confined energy level. This is because the ground
state electron density, which is concentrated at
the centre of the QD, is closer to these interface
defects for the smaller QDs and hence more
strongly influenced.
As an extreme example of irregularly
shaped QD, we have investigated
electronic states in aribitrarily
shaped QDs. Here we have used the
“horseshoe” morphology [4.5.24],
formed by lateral growth of Si QD
inside SiO2 dielectric shown in
Figure 4.5.7 (left). These states are
found to be very different from the
expected electronic energy levels
that are associated with spherical
QDs as shown in Fig. 4.5.7 (right).
The degeneracy in spherical QDs (3
in first excited level and 5 in second Simulation results – multigrid
method and Density Functional
excited level) is lost due to the asymmetric shape.
Theory (DFT) calculations [4.5.23]
The deviation from the expected confinement level compared with the experimental
becomes significant at higher confined levels. results for Silicon QDs in
SiO2 dielectric.
This thus indicates the importance of knowing
the regime of QD growth relevant for the material Figure 4.5.6
conditions. As shown in the TEM tomography of
Section 4.5.2.2.3, under appropriate conditions of
Si density and annealing, a spherical morphology
can be maintained and QD merging avoided,
thus giving greater control over the confined
energy levels.
First three modes of electronic
wave-functions in a “horseshoe”
shaped QD with high surface to
volume ratio (far left). The ground
state is located near the centre of
the dot and is approximately in a
spherical shape with zero nodes.
The number of nodes increases
with the increase in the energy
level. Energy levels associated with
a horseshoe shaped QD compared
with that of a 6nm diameter
spherical QD (left). The two
morphologies give energies which
are most similar for their ground
states, with the horseshoe shape
giving significantly lower energies
than spherical for higher confined
levels. The degeneracy in energy
levels is lost in the horseshoe
shaped dot.
FigurE 4.5.7
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Energy filtered TEM tomography images of Si QDs

in a SiO2 matrix formed as multilayers (left), and
top view of one Si QD layer (right).

Figure 4.5.8

The spectra fittings of the R and T data. The inset

shows the corresponding employed optical model in
the fitting of a 20 bilayer structure composted of 5 nm
SRN / 3 nm Si3N4.

Figure 4.5.9

4.5.2.2.3 3D EF-TEM tomography on Si

Real (ε1) and imaginary (ε2) parts
of the complex dielectric function
of Si QDs samples with various sizes
obtained from spectral fittings.
QDs embedded in oxide matrix formed
as multilayers (Collaboration with
Cornell University)
Researchers:
Xiaojing Hao, Shujuan Huang, Lena Fitting
Kourkoutis (Cornell University), Ivan
Perez‑Wurfl, Tom Puzzer
A significant challenge to the design of nano-scale
materials and devices arises from the difficulty
of characterising complex three-dimensional
structures on small length scales, which is
nonetheless critical in understanding the material
performance. Whilst a
number of techniques, such
as conventional transmission
electron microscopy,
provide sufficient two-
dimensional (2-D) resolution,
they have insufficient
depth sensitivity to obtain
internal three-dimensional
(3-D) structure. Electron
tomography can be applied
to obtain such information
by using high-angle dark-
field scanning transmission
electron microscopic
(STEM) tomography and
energy filtered transmission
electron microscopy (EFTEM)
tomography. We have applied
this EFTEM tomography to
investigate Si QDs embedded
in an oxide matrix formed
as multilayers, in order to
better understand the dot
size, shape and distribution for further optimization
of Si QD device performance. Fig. 4.5.8 illustrates
the ability of electron tomography to reconstruct
the morphology and internal structure of a Si QD
nanostructure. Fig. 4.5.8 (left) shows the aligned
“on-axis” reconstructed EFTEM tomography, and
Fig. 4.5.8 (right) shows a top-view of the Si QD size
and shape distribution in one Si QD layer. With such
information, we can confirm that inside the Si QD
layer, most of the Si QDs are reasonably spherical
and well separated from each other. This indicates
that individual QDs have not merged to form larger
particles under these conditions. This is important
in designing the optimum concentrations to
give minimum QD spacing whilst maintaining
individual QDs.
4.5.2.3. Different materials for
QD nanostructures
As described in section 4.5.2.2.1, different matrices
are useful to modify both the tunnelling probability
between adjacent quantum dots and the energy
levels in the quantum dots themselves. This
approach has been carried out for both Si QDs in
SiNx and in SiC. It is also possible to have asymmetric
superstructures in which quantum confinement
and hence enhanced band gap is maintained in
the plane, but in which tunnelling probability is
maximised in the direction normal to the plane such
that transport of carriers to contacts is maximised.
Interlayers use for such asymmetric structures
can also act as diffusion barriers enhancing size
uniformity of QDs.
Alternative group IV materials such as Ge offer the
possibility of lower temperature precipitation of
nanostructures and the potential for band gaps
lower than that of silicon should these be required
for tandem cell elements under a silicon cell. We
have investigated both QDs and QWs of Ge in either
SiO2 or SiNx matrices.

Figure 4.5.10

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(a) Normalized PL spectra of Si QDs samples (S3-S5)

with various sizes. (b) Comparison of band gap
expansion (ΔEg) of Si QD as a function of QD size.

Figure 4.5.11

4.5.2.3.1 Silicon QDs embedded in silicon

nitride matrix

Researchers:
Yong-Heng So, Shujuan Huang

(i) Size-dependent optical properties of Si

QDs in Si-rich nitride/Si3N4 superlattice
An approach similar to spectroscopic ellipsometry
analysis has been proposed to determine the size
dependent optical properties of silicon quantum
dots (Si QDs) in Si-rich nitride/silicon nitride
superlattice structure (SRN/Si3N4-SL) [4.5.26]. The
optical properties of Si QDs are modelled using
the Tauc-Lorentz (TL) model and Bruggeman
effective medium approximation that can yield the
energy bandgap of the Si QDs based on spectral
(ii) n-type conductivity of nanostructured XPS spectra of (a) Si 2p and (b) Sb
fitting of the reflection (R) and transmission (T) of
thin film composed of antimony-doped Si 3d3/2 for the undoped and 0.54
characterized samples, as shown in Fig. 4.5.9. A four- at.% Sb-doped Si-NC. (c) Fitting
phase optical model as shown in the inset of Fig.
nanocrystals in silicon nitride matrix
of Sb 3d3/2 spectrum by two peaks
4.5.9 was employed for the spectral fitting. Highly conductive thin films composed of antimony separated by ~0.8 eV in energy (δ1
(Sb)-doped Si nanocrystals (Si-NCs) embedded and δ2).
Figure 4.5.10 shows that the dielectric functions
in Si3N4 matrix were prepared by a co-sputtering Figure 4.5.12
of Si QDs are strongly size dependent. Sample S3,
technique. Results from structural characterizations
S4 and S5 correspond to SRN/Si3N4 thicknesses
suggest that doping with Sb concentration of 0.54
of 3/3 nm, 4/3 nm and 5/3 nm, respectively. The
at. % has negligible affect on the crystallization
suppressed imaginary dielectric function of Si QDs
properties of Si-rich nitride (SRN) films. The X-ray
exhibit a broad peak centred between transition
Photoelectron (XPS) data of Fig. 4.5.12(a) and (b)
energies E1 and E2 of bulk crystalline Si and which
show the Si 2p and Sb 3d3/2 spectra of the undoped
blue shift towards E2 as the QD size reduces.
and Sb-doped SRN films. The slight asymmetric Sb
Figure 4.5.11(b) shows that the band gap 3d3/2 peak was analyzed using a curve-fitting routine
expansion indicated by the TL model when the and could be decomposed into two components,
size of Si QD reduces is in good agreement with δ1 (537.0 eV) and δ2 (537.8 eV) as shown in Fig.
PL measurements (Fig. 4.5.11(a)). The bandgap 4.5.12(c). The two components δ1 and δ2 (~0.8 eV
expansion with the reduction of Si QD size is well apart) can be assigned to neutral Sb and positively
supported by the ab-initio calculations of confined charged donors, respectively.
energy levels from [4.5.25].
Thus, the appearance of δ2 suggests the presence
of Sb-Si bonds which implies that Sb stoms were
either incorporated within the Si-NCs or located at
the interface between the NCs and Si3N4 matrix.

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The temperature dependent conductivity data
of Fig. 4.5.13(a) indicate that the conductivity of
0.54 at.% Sb-doped SRN film (~2.8×10-2 S/cm)
is six orders of magnitude higher than that for
undoped material (~7.3×10-8 S/cm), which could be
attributed to an increase in carrier concentration.
Furthermore, n-type electrical behaviour with
carrier concentration of 2.4×1016 cm-3 and mobility
of 2.94 cm2/V s in the doped films as observed from
Hall measurements was attributed to free carrier
generation due to the effective Sb doping.
The temperature-dependent conductivities of
both undoped and Sb-doped samples are shown
in Fig. 4.5.13(b). As can be seen, doping of the
Si-NCs strongly influences the electronic transport
properties of the films. Arrhenius-like temperature
dependence is observed in the T range between
220 and 320 K, attributable to thermally activated
conduction. From the slope of the Arrhenius plot,
we found that the activation energy EA decreases to
0.182 eV for the Sb-doped Si-NCs film, suggesting
effective n-type doping of the Si-NCs. Nevertheless,
the extracted EA is much larger than that of bulk Si
with the same dopant. One possible explanation for
the large EA observed would be the deeper donor
level expected in Si-NCs. Also, it is possible that the
number of free carriers available for conduction
may be limited due to a trap density distributed
within the bandgap that is comparable to the
doping density.
Interestingly, the conductivity for the Sb-doped
sample at T < 220 K deviates from Arrhenius
behavior and is best described by the expression, σ
= σ0 exp [-(T0/T) 1/2] as illustrated in Fig. 4.5.13(c). The
charge transport mechanism can be explained well
by a percolation-hopping model.
68
(a) Conductivities measured
throughout the entire voltage
range. (b) ln(σ) vs 1/T1/2 plot
from 120 to 220 K, for the 0.54
at.% Sb-doped sample. The
solid line is least square fit
to the data. (c) Temperature-
dependent conductivities for
the undoped and 0.54 at.%
Sb-doped samples.
Figure 4.5.13
4.5.2.3.2 Si QDs in SiO2/Si3N4
hybrid matrix
Reserachers:
Dawei Di, Ivan Perez-Wurfl, Gavin Conibeer
To improve the current transport properties in the
vertical direction and to obtain better size control of
Si quantum dots, we proposed a new design based
on Si QDs embedded in a SiO2/Si3N4 hybrid matrix
[4.5.27, 4.5.28]. By replacing the SiO2 tunnel barriers
with the Si3N4 layers, the new material manages
to constrain the growth of doped Si quantum
dots effectively and enhances the apparent band
gap. Also electrical characterisation on Si QD/c-
Si hetero-interface test structures indicates the
new material possesses improved vertical carrier
transport properties.
Doped and undoped samples with different
barrier dielectrics (SiO2 and Si3N4) are compared.
Samples were fabricated using the co-sputtering
multilayer technique with layers containing excess
Si consisting of SRO for both materials, with an SRO
thickness of 4 nm. Samples were either undoped or
co-sputtered with either P2O5 or B for n- and p-type
doping respectively. After annealing at 1100⁰C
the crystalline properties were characterised by
X-ray diffraction (XRD), as shown in Fig. 4.5.14. For
samples with Si3N4 barriers, the measured Si NC
sizes are 4.3 nm when undoped, 3.5 nm when B
doped and 5.0 nm when P2O5 doped. For samples
with SiO2 barriers, grain sizes are 7.7 nm when
undoped, 7.2 nm when B doped, and 15 nm when
P2O5 doped. The Si NC sizes vary significantly
although all samples have the same silicon-to-
oxygen ratio in the SRO layers and the same as-
deposited layer thickness.
It can be observed from the experiment that
samples with Si3N4 barriers contain generally
smaller Si QDs than samples with SiO2 barriers.
This is because Si3N4, a denser and stiffer material
than SiO2, acts as a better diffusion barrier than
SiO2 [4.5.27]. It could also be thermodynamically
related to the interface free energy between
 10000 Samples with SiO2 barriers

9000 (111)
8000

7000
(220)
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Intensity (a.u.)

6000 (311)
P2O5 doped
5000
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4000

3000 undoped
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15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 ANNUAL REPORT
2 Theta (degrees)

10000 Samples with Si3N4 barriers

9000

8000

7000 (111)
Intensity (a.u.)

6000

5000 (220) (311) P2O5 doped

4000

3000 undoped
XRD patterns of (a) samples with SiO2 barriers, (b)
2000
samples with Si3N4 barriers.
1000 B doped
0
Figure 4.5.14
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
2 Theta (degrees)

1.0E+02 1.0E+01
B doped samples P2O5 doped samples

nitride barrier nitride barrier

1.0E+01 oxide barrier oxide barrier
Current density (A/cm )
Current density (A/cm )

2
2

1.0E+00

1.0E+00

1.0E-01
1.0E-01

1.0E-02 1.0E-02
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Bias voltage (V) Bias voltage (V)

the Si NC and the matrix dielectrics during the not related to carrier recombination. It can be Vertical current density
growth of the Si NCs. As a result, Si3N4 is able to clearly seen from the measurement that for B measurements on (a) B doped
samples, (b) P2O5 doped samples.
constrain the growth of Si NCs very effectively, doped materials, Si3N4 barriers result in a current
Insets show how barrier type and
within ±1 nm of the intended diameter (i.e. 4 nm, enhancement of approximately an order of NC dimension influence the vertical
the deposition thickness of SRO). In contrast, Si magnitude over those with SiO2 barriers (Fig. 4.5.15 current transport process (showing
NCs with SiO2 barriers are significantly larger than (a)). This can be qualitatively explained by [4.5.19]: dominant effect only in each case,
not to scale).
the as-deposited thickness of SRO - over 180%
larger for undoped and B doped and 375% for P2O5 Figure 4.5.15
doped. Hence, it can be noted that samples with
phosphorus (P2O5) dopants tend to form larger sized
Si NCs than undoped samples, while introduction
of boron doping tends to suppress this size increase (4.5.1)

and slightly reduces NC size. This phenomenon is where Te is the tunnelling probability between
more pronounced for samples with SiO2 barriers quantum dots, d is the barrier thickness or the
(Fig. 4.5.14 (a)) than those with Si3N4 barriers (Fig. separation between dots, m* is the effective mass of
4.5.14 (b)). electron, ħ is the reduced Plank constant, ΔE is the
Si3N4 barriers have lower band gaps (~5.3 eV) energy difference between the conduction band
than SiO2 (~9 eV) therefore they should be more edge of the barrier material and the conduction
transparent to charge carrier transport because band edge of the confined QDs.
of the larger tunnelling probability for electrons Although the difference in Si NC sizes would play an
and holes. To verify this hypothesis in practice, important role in the tunnelling event, the variation
we compared the current transport of SiO2 of ΔE is still the dominant factor for B doping. On
barrier structures with Si3N4 barrier structures the other hand, for the P2O5 doping, samples with
via the measurement of vertical currents under a Si3N4 and SiO2 barriers have similar currents (Fig.
bias voltage. 4.5.15 (b)). These apparently contradictory results
The current-voltage characteristics of these test can be explained by referring back to the XRD
structures are shown in Fig. 4.5.15. It should be results. The P2O5 doped sample with SiO2 barriers
noted that these samples are not PV devices. contains Si NCs with an average size of 15 nm, this
Therefore, the dark currents measured are primarily suggests that a single Si NC is physically penetrating
affected by the materials’ conductivities and are three thin layers on average (inset of Fig. 4.5.15 (b)).

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HRTEM image of annealed 2.0nm
UT-Si3N4 sample. The maintenance
of a layered structure and the
presence of Si-QDs can be seen.
Figure 4.5.17
XRD analysis and corresponding
grain sizes from the Scherrer
formula for all the Si3N4 barrier
thicknesses. Insert: Si (111) and SiC
(111) peaks of each sample.
Figure 4.5.18
70
(a) Raman spectra of SRC samples after RTA and (b) the
same samples with additional furnace annealing. (Bulk
Si wafer peak at 520.5 cm-1 for reference.)
Figure 4.5.16
This greatly reduces the number of barrier layers
that the carriers need to tunnel through. This size
effect becomes so significant that it effectively
competes with and largely cancels the increased
conductivity due to lower ΔE for the Si3N4 barrier
material.
This result is very promising for both QD size
control and increased vertical currnt transport in
these nitide barrier interlayer Si QD materials.
4.5.2.3.3 Silicon QD nanocrystals
embedded in silicon carbide matrix
Researchers:
Zhenyu Wan, Shujuan Huang, Gavin Conibeer
Silicon carbide (SiC) has a lower barrier height
than either Si3N4 or SiO2. Therefore it seems likely
that it should offer a higher tunnelling probability
between QDs and hence a higher conductivity
matrix than either. In previous work, we have
demonstrated that both Si and SiC have been
crystallised by high temperature annealing of a
single thick Si-rich SiC (SRC) layer or of a Si1-xCx/
SiC multilayer structure [4.5.28, 4.5.29]. We
believe that the formation of β-SiC nanocrystals
may hinder the formation of Si QDs. Also they
may cause current leakage via the SiC grain
boundary traps to increase the shunt current in
the solar cell. Therefore, the work in 2009 focused
on studying the mechanism of the crystallisation
of SiC and optimising the materials by comparing
the annealing methods of rapid thermal
annealing (RTA) and conventional furnace
annealing. We found that RTA annealed samples
revealed a better degree of crystallisation
of Si nanocrystals with a smaller residue of
amorphous Si [4.5.30]. The work in 2010 has been to
further improve the structure by reducing the stress
caused by RTA and by replacing SiC barrier layers
with thin silicon nitride layers in order to suppress
the growth of SiC crystals.
(i) Study of RTA induced stress
Two different annealing processes have been
applied on all SRC amorphous samples: furnace
annealing at 1100oC/1hr and RTA at 1100oC/30
sec. After annealing, Si and SiC nano-crystals were
clearly observed in TEM and XRD. The peak positions
of Raman spectra are down-shifted to lower
wavenumbers for RTA samples (Δ=5.4cm-1 from
bulk Si) as compared to furnace annealed samples
(Δ=2cm-1 from bulk Si), indicating greater tensile
stress in the Si nano-crystals, as shown in Fig. 4.5.16
(a). This is because of a different thermal expansion
coefficient for Si and SiC crystals and the fast
temperature ramping rate in RTA. In order to release
the stress in RTA samples an additional annealing
process was carried out. Raman analysis indicates
that after an additional furnace anneal at 1100°C for
30 min, all samples with different Si concentrations
could release most of their residual stress, as shown
in Fig. 4.5.16 (b). However, an additional RTA could
not release residual stress in low Si concentration
samples due to insufficient duration [4.5.31].
(ii) Si QDs embedded in SiC matrix with
Si3N4 barrier layers
Si3N4 is also considered preferable to SiO2 in term
of carrier transport. It has been proven as a good
diffusion barrier to suppress inter-diffusion between
silicon rich layers in multilayer structures during
annealing [4.5.27]. In 2010, we have successfully
introduced ultra-thin Si3N4 (UT-SiN) barriers (0.2nm-
2.0nm) into a Si-NC in SiC matrix structure using
sputtering followed by RTA. Crystallisation of the
SiC matrix has been greatly suppressed and a clear
layered superlattice structure can be observed as
shown in the TEM of Fig. 4.5.17. The nanocrystal
size of all samples was calculated using XRD peak
analysis to quantitatively investigate the optimum
thickness of the Si3N4 barrier layer required to
produce confined crystalline Si-QDs, as shown in
Fig. 4.5.18. It is seen that as the Si3N4 barrier layer
thickness increases, the β-SiC peaks decrease, such
that β-SiC-NCs almost disappear when the Si3N4
barrier thickness is over 0.8nm.

Absorption edge fitting for UT-SiN2.0 and UT-SiN0.2
samples respectively, (insert: band gap energy for
different Si3N4 thicknesses).
Figure 4.5.19
Optical characterization has been performed
to investigate quantum confinement effects for
different nanocrystal sizes. Optical analysis reveals a
blue shift in the strong absorption edge, consistent
with quantum confinement effects in small Si NCs
matching qualitatively calculated results using
effective mass theory from other groups, as shown
in Fig. 4.5.19.
Temperature dependent I-V measurements were
carried out to investigate the carrier transport
mechanism. The conductivity is best described
by the expression, σ = σ0 exp [-(T0/T) 1/2] when
the Si3N4 barrier thickness is greater than 0.5 nm,
as illustrated in Fig. 4.5.20. The charge transport
mechanism can be explained well by the
percolation-hopping model, similar to the result
found in Section 4.5.2.3.1 for Sb doped SiQDs in
Si3N4. Finally, we conclude that in future, a 0.5-0.8
nm thick layer of Si3N4 barrier layer would be
optimum to achieve both good Si-NC confinement
and minimal film resistivity for a candidate material
for photovoltaic applications.
4.5.2.3.4 Germanium Nanostructures
Although the main focus has been on Si
nanocrystals during the last decade, other group IV
nanocrystals have also been studied. Since Ge has
smaller electron and hole effective masses and a
larger dielectric constant than Si, the excitonic Bohr
radius of bulk Ge is larger than that of Si. This leads
to a more prominent quantum confinement effect
in Ge NCs. Furthermore the lower melting point of
Ge at 938.3oC implies that Ge NCs should be able
to form at lower temperatures than Si NCs. This is
indeed a significant advantage both for processing
compatibility and for processing costs, although
set against this are the greater cost and lower
abundance of Ge as compared to Si.
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Temperature-depentent conductitity of different Si3N4
barrier thickness.
Figure 4.5.20
4.5.2.3.4.1 Quantum Dots in SiO2
Researchers:
Santosh Shrestha, Bo Zhang, Pasquale Aliberti,
Gavin Conibeer
(i) Fabrication of Germanium
quantum dots
The current work builds on earlier work on Ge
nanocrystals carried out in our group [4.5.32]. The
new work uses a different approach to annealing of
the samples which gives a wider range of control Cross-section HRTEM image of a
of Ge NC formation. Ge NC samples have been
typical sample containing GeRO
layers between GeO2/SiO2 layers
fabricated by RF magnetron sputtering using a following annealing.
combination of a combination target comprising
a fused quartz disc and high purity Ge strips. Figure 4.5.21
Sputtering of the Ge-rich oxide (GeRO) layer is
achieved by sputtering with just an Ar background,
(a) Raman spectra and (b) GIXRD
whereas sputtering of the oxide layers, GeO2/ image of the as-deposited and
annealed films.
SiO2, is performed by reactive sputtering with O2.
These layers are alternately deposited to obtain Figure 4.5.22
the desired multilayered structure. A thick oxide
capping layer is deposited to prevent oxidation of
the GeRO layers during subsequent annealing. Post
deposition annealing of the samples was performed
under a low pressure (in-situ in the growth
chamber) during which Ge NCs are formed. Results
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Raman spectra of the samples annealed for Raman spectra of the samples annealed at
different durations. different temperatures.

Figure 4.5.23 Figure 4.5.24

from structural characterization using TEM, shows three sharp peaks at 27.12°, 45.13° o and
Raman, XRD and PL have been obtained. 53.21°, corresponding to the groups of planes {111},
{220} and {311} of crystalline Ge, respectively. This
Figure 4.5.21 shows a high resolution TEM
observation confirms good crystallinity of the Ge
image of a section of a typical sample
phase in the film and agrees well with our Raman
containing GeRO layers between GeO2/
results. The average size of the Ge NCs, calculated
SiO2. The sample was annealed at 650°C.
from the {111} peak broadening using the Scherer
Ge nanocrystals of about 5nm diameter
equation, is about 4.5 nm. This value is slightly
are evident. Although there is a slight
smaller than that estimated from the HRTEM image.
variation, the NCs appear to be spherical
The difference in Ge NCs sizes obtained from these
in shape. The clear lattice fringes observed
two methods may possibly be due to spatial non-
in the TEM image give direct evidence
uniformity of the Ge NCs size; with TEM probing
of the formation of the Ge NCs. It should
a much smaller sample region compared to XRD
be noted that the distance between the
Room temperature PL of a measurement. In addition, the penetration depth
lattice fringes is 3.3 Å, which is consistent
multilayer film containing Ge NCs in of the incident X-rays is larger than the thickness
GeO2/SiO2. with the lattice spacing of the {111} planes of the Ge
of our film, thus information obtained from XRD is
diamond structure.
Figure 4.5.25 averaged throughout the whole film.
Fig. 4.5.22 (a) shows Raman spectra of the as-
The crystallisation of Ge NCs with annealing
deposited and the annealed samples, including
duration has been investigated with Raman
those for bulk Ge as a reference. For these samples,
spectroscopy. Fig. 4.5.23 shows Raman spectra
the sputtering times for each GeRO layer and
for identical multilayer samples with each GeRO
GeO2/SiO2 layer were 8 minutes and 6 minutes,
and GeO2/SiO2 layer deposited for 6 minutes. The
respectively, and the post deposition
samples were annealed at 685°C for different
annealing was performed at 650°C for 40
durations as indicated in the diagram. The
minutes. A broad hump at around 270
crystallization of Ge is found to take place within
cm-1 is observed in the spectra of the
Growth Temp. the first few minutes of annealing. However, the
Intensity (arb. units)

445 oC as-deposited film which is attributed to

III noticeable broad hump, which is attributed to small
420 oC the non-crystalline Ge phase. But in the
NCs, suggests an early stage of the crystallization
400 oC annealed film, it is replaced by a sharp
process at this annealing duration. As annealing
II 380 oC peak at 300.5 cm-1, which is very close to
duration increases, Raman peaks become sharper
350 oC the Ge-Ge optical phonon mode for bulk
320 oC and narrower indicating an increase in Ge
I RT Ge (300.2 cm-1), indicating the formation
crystallinity. It is also observed that the peaks show
of Ge NCs with good crystallinity. Peak
150 200 250 300 350 400 negligible difference for annealing durations longer
R aman Shift (cm-1) broadening and an asymmetric shoulder
than 10 minutes.
on the lower frequency side can be
interpreted by the model of the optical The average size of NCs, as calculated from XRD
Raman spectra from Ge-NCs in
single layer samples grown at phonon confinement effect in nanocrystals data, increases with annealing duration. This is
different substrate temperatures. [4.5.33]. However, it seems that in our Ge system the consistent with the Raman results and agrees
high frequency side of the Raman peak does not well with the growth dynamics by diffusion of
Figure 4.5.26
show a shift to lower phonon frequencies which is neighbouring Ge atoms. Most importantly, the
usually the case for NCs. increase in the NCs size begins to level off after 15
minutes of annealing in this particular case. This is
Figure 4.5.22 (b) shows GIXRD patterns for this
similar to the size confinement effect observed for
sample. In the as-deposited film there are no
the growth of Si NCs in SiO2 matrix [4.5.7, 4.5.34].
obvious peaks but only two broad bands at around
In our superlattice structure, Ge NCs are confined
2θ = 26° and 2θ = 49°. After annealing, the sample
within the GeRO layers between GeO2/SiO2 layers,

72

which work as barrier layers to the crystal growth.
Hence, Ge tends to precipitate with a diameter
approximately equal to the thickness of the GeRO
layers. This control mechanism is more significant
for thin layers with thickness of a few nanometers,
within which there is 2D rather than a 3D growth.
Figure 4.5.24 shows the Raman spectra of the
samples annealed at different temperatures for 40
minutes, which is enough to complete the growth
process as discussed above. As expected, the small
nanocrystalline asymmetric hump is reduced with
the increase in annealing temperature within the
range of temperatures studied here, just as in
the case of annealing durations. The results also
illustrate the formation of Ge NCs in SiO2 matrix at a
temperature as low as 620 °C.
A sample with the identical process sequence as
those for structural characterizations was used for
photoluminescence measurements, except that
the film was deposited on quartz. Fig. 4.5.25 shows
results of room-temperature PL measurement.
The PL spectrum consists of a single broad band
centred at 1.77eV (corresponding to a wavelength
of 700 nm) which can be fitted with three Gaussian
distributions. Measurement on GeO2/SiO2 film
deposited on quartz under similar conditions
did not show any observable PL in the range of
wavelengths concerned. Thus the PL signal from the
multilayer sample can be attributed to Ge NCs in the
GeRO layers. Furthermore, a blue shift of PL energy
with NCs size has been shown in previous work
[4.5.32]. We tentatively consider that this is due to
the band gap increase induced by the quantum
confinement effect in Ge NCs [4.5.35].
(ii) Low temperature growth of
Germanium quantum dots
In this section, a low temperature growth of Ge
nanocrystals is discussed. This is advantageous
because of the potential for reduced processing
cost and suitability for cheaper substrates such
as soda-lime glass. Samples were grown with RF
magnetron sputtering as described earlier, except
in this case the substrate was heated during the film
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A High resolution TEM image of
multilayered Ge NCs in SiO2 matrix.
The sample was grown at 380°C.
Figure 4.5.27
growth and no post annealing process was used
[4.5.36].
Figure 4.5.26 shows Raman spectra for a single layer
GeRO film deposited at different temperatures as
indicated in the diagram. For clarity, the graph has
been divided into three different regimes. In regime
I, the samples grown below 350°C are shown.
In this case, the spectra show no Raman peaks
related to nanocrystalline Ge, instead broad bands
centred around 280 cm-1 are observed. The bands
are shifted toward higher frequency by about 10
cm-1 compared with that of amorphous Ge (α-Ge)
located at around 270 cm-1. This indicates that α-Ge
coexists with very small particles (1~2 nm) [4.5.37].
For the sample grown at Tg = 320°C, the observation
of a hump at ~ 280 cm-1 as well as a shoulder at ~
298 cm-1 implies an increase in the number and
size of small particles. The rapid growth of Ge NCs
is found to occur in Regime II, in which samples
grown at temperatures between 350°C and 400°C
are shown. The Raman peak corresponding to the
TO phonon mode of the crystalline Ge (c-Ge), near
300.4 cm-1, appears at Tg = 350°C and becomes
sharper with increase in the growth temperature.
This range of temperature is very close to the onset
temperature for Ge crystallisation reported in
[4.5.38]. However, when the growth temperature Tg
reaches 420°C (Regime III), a drastic degradation of
Ge-Ge peak intensity and shape is observed. These
phenomena indicate the absence of Ge crystallinity
in this temperature range.
Based on the Raman results discussed above, it is
expected that the growth temperature window is
between 350oC and 420oC, in which Ge atoms or
clusters can accumulate and eventually grow into
highly crystallised nanocrystals. These temperatures
are much lower than the usual post-deposition
annealing temperatures used for Ge NCs fabrication.
A HRTEM image of a multilayered sample consisting
of alternate layers of GeRO and GeO2/SiO2 films is
shown in Fig. 4.5.27. In this case the sample was
grown at Tg = 380oC without further post-deposition
thermal treatment. The TEM image shows close to
spherical Ge NCs with fairly uniform size, separated
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Schematic diagram of a Ge-NC/n:c-Si HJ diode.

Figure 4.5.28

by the barrier layers. The Ge NC sizes are in
the range of 4.8 - 5.8 nm which is consistent
with the average size (~ 4.8 nm) determined
from XRD. The image in the inset shows
clear lattice fringes inside one of the Ge-
NCs (indicated by the arrow). The fringes
are consistent with {111} planes of the Ge
diamond structure.
(iii) Electrical properties of Ge-NC
thin films
moderate amounts of Ga and Sb dopants was also
investigated. The doped films exhibit similar
conduction properties to the intrinsic films, which
means the films were still dominated by surface
state induced hole conduction and that the dopants
were not effectively activated. This is not surprising
if one realizes the screening of shallow dopants in
NCs due to the increase of binding energy and
ionization energy. This effect together with the
inherent hole generation effect can make it very
challenging to produce n-type Ge-NC thin films.

Ge-NC thin films about 250 nm ~ 300 nm

(a) The semi-logarithmic plot of
dark I-V curves of a typical i:Ge-NC/
n:c-Si HJ device in both polarities
at room temperature. (b) The
measured suns-Voc characteristics
of the HJ device. The red solid circle
indicates the 1-sun point.
Figure 4.5.29
were deposited. The coverage of Ge was ~
20% of the area of the composite target.
XPS has shown that this resulted in a Ge
atomic concentration of ~ 35% in the films.
Undoped, Ga-doped and Sb-doped Ge
targets were used. During the sputtering
process the substrates were intentionally
heated up to ~ 380 oC for in-situ growth of
Ge-NCs. Finally, RTA treatments at different
temperatures, including 650oC, 700oC, 750oC, 800oC
were carried out in nitrogen [4.5.39].
The current conduction characteristics of i:Ge-NC
thin films were measured using HP4140B pA Meter/
DC voltage source with tri-axial wires to eliminate
noise. The relatively high conductivity and carrier
concentration in the i:Ge-NC thin films is quite
surprising, taking into consideration that they were
not intentionally doped. Temperature dependent
measurement revealed a relationship,
suggesting a thermally activated nearest hopping
conduction mechanism in these films. The carrier
transport was considered to occur at the surface
state energy level and a theoretical calculation
predicts that the density of surface states of Ge can
provide sufficient free holes to explain the observed
conductivity. RTA treatments further increase the
film conductivity without changing much the
structural properties of nanocrystals. This
improvement was tentatively attributed to the
modification of surface structure of NCs and
reduction of oxygen-deficiency-related defects in
the SiO2 matrix. The effect of incorporating
(iv) Ge-nc/c-Si Heterojunction Devices
Heterojunction (HJ) devices employing Ge-NC thin
films on lightly doped n-type crystalline silicon
substrates with impurity concentration of ~ 1 x
1015 cm-3 (n:c-Si) were fabricated to evaluate the
compatibility of the nanostructured thin film and
investigate the design parameters required for its
application in photovoltaic devices. The schematic
diagram of the HJ device is illustrated in Fig. 4.5.28.
The total area of the device is 1 cm2. The thickness
of the Ge-NC layer is about 250 nm. The Ge-NC
thin films were post-annealed by RTA at 800oC in
order to achieve lower film resistivity and higher
carrier concentration. The Al front fingers and rear
contact were deposited by thermal evaporation. No
passivation or sintering process was performed on
the devices.
Figure 4.5.29 shows the dark I-V curves and suns
VOC of a typical i:Ge-NC/n:c-Si HJ device at room
temperature. The device shows good current
rectification of three orders of magnitude at ± 1.5
V. Since both front and rear electrodes were ohmic
contacts, the rectification effect can be attributed
to the junction. The apparent photovoltage was
detected from the illuminated device and the 1-sun
Voc was found to be ~ 314 mV. The best fitting to the
experimental data using a two diode model predicts
an effective ideality factor of ~1.01 throughout
the entire injection range, which is indicative of a
dominating bulk and surface recombination in the
heterojunction device. Whilst this HJ device does
not demonstrate photovoltaic behaviour of the Ge
NC material it does show good rectification and is

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XRD spectra of Ge QDs of various Ge content in Ge-rich nitride layer with a fixed substrate temperature of 600 ºC (left) and
TEM image of 40 vol% Ge self-assembled at 600 ºC (right).

Figure 4.5.30

encouraging as a starting point for using Ge-NC in
true photovoltaic applications.
4.5.2.3.4.2 Germanium QW and QD
nanostructures embedded in silicon
nitride matrix
Researchers:
Sammy Lee, Jian Chen, Shujuan Huang,
Martin Green
As discussed above in section 4.5.2.3.1, a silicon
nitride matrix (Si3N4) should increase tunneling
probability and hence increase conductivity of Ge
nanostructure materials. In addition a nitride will
strongly suppress the possibility of oxidation of Ge.
Ge QDs and QWs were fabricated by co-sputtering
followed by post-annealing and self-organisation by
substrate heating.
(i) Ge QDs embedded in silicon
nitride matrix
Using a very similar approach to our previous work
on Ge QDs in oxide and Sn QDs in nitride matrices,
alternating layers of germanium-rich nitride (GRN)
layers and Si3N4 layer were alternately co-sputtered
on a heated substrate of either a silicon wafer
or quartz slide. The Ge QDs crystallise due to
minimisation of surface energy and the Si3N4 layer
deposited on top of the GRN layer truncates crystal
growth. The temperature of the substrate and the
Ge content in GRN layers were the dominant factors
in controlling the size of the NCs. The structure of
the NCs was studied by GIXRD, Raman spectroscopy
and TEM, and the optical properties were studied
with transmittance and reflectance measurements
analysed using a Tauc-plot.
Figure 4.5.30 shows the XRD spectra of samples of
various Ge content in GRN. The Bragg peaks of {111},
{220} and {311} planes sharpen with increasing Ge
content, indicating the increase of the nanocrystal
sizes. Using the Scherrer equation the size of the
nanocrystals was estimated as shown in Table 1,
with sizes in agreement with the NC size observed Ge vol% ∆(2Ө) of (111) NC Size (nm)
in TEM images. 30 5.62 NA
40 3.85 2.22
Figure 4.5.31 summarises the band gap engineering
trend with the size of Ge QDs. The absorption edge
50 2.41 3.54
60 2.38 3.59
shows a tendency to shift to high photon energy 70 1.92 4.45
when Ge nanocrystal size decreases. The absorption
coefficient was calculated by a simplified equation; Ge NC size estimation from XRD.
Table 4.5.1
where T and R are the transmission and reflection
and d is the thickness of the film. With
decrease in Ge content in the GRN layer,
and hence in the diameter of the QDs, the
absorption edge appears to increase by up
to ~1.0 eV, as estimated with the Tauc-plot
method. However, these data should be
considered as indicative of the trend only
as there is error in quantitative values for
the shift in absorption edge due to
uncertainty in extrapolating back to the
energy axis.
(ii) Ge QWs with silicon nitride
barriers Absorption edge observed from
transmission and reflectance
With a similar approach to the Ge QD fabrication,
measurements.
Ge QWs were fabricated by co-sputtering of
Figure 4.5.31.
alternating GRN and Si3N4 layers and followed by
furnace annealing or RTA. The Ge content in GRN
was higher in this case in order to give continuous
layers. It was varied between 60vol% to 100vol%
and the annealing temperature in N2 was also varied
from 600ºC to 900ºC for 1 hour. The structural and
optical properties were studied by GIXRD, Raman
spectroscopy, TEM and transmission and reflectance
measurements.
Fig. 4.5.32 shows the continuous Ge layer with
its QW-like-structure between amorphous Si3N4
barriers. Highly ordered lattice planes can clearly
be seen in these Ge QW, indicating formation
of large single crystal type structures. Based on
TEM image of the sample
Raman and XRD characterisation, the crystallisation
containing 60 vol% Ge and furnace
temperature shows a significant dependence annealed at 900ºC.
on the thickness of either Ge QW or Si3N4 barrier
Figure 4.5.32

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bilayers bilayers bilayers

Wa
P doped SRO bilayers with
sheet resistance Rsheet
Non-uniform current
injection
Quartz substrate

Schematic diagram of the of the fabricated inter-

digitated Si QD in SiO2 devices, with B and P doping
to create the p-n junctions and illustrating the effect
of current crowding due to high lateral resitnce to the
back contact.

Figure 4.5.33

layers, varying from 700ºC to 900ºC. The absorption
coefficient estimated from the transmittance and
reflectance measurements also shows an apparent
increase in band gap by up to 1.1eV when the
thickness of the Ge QWs is 1.5nm.
Both Ge QDs and QWs nanostructures in Si3N4
show evidence of band gap enhancement. Further
work will investigate electrical properties and the
possibility of device fabrication.
4.5.2.4 Silicon nanocrystal devices on
quartz substrates
Researchers:
Ivan Perez-Wurfl, Xiaojing Hao, Dawei Dai,
Adrian Shi
As previously reported in the 2008 and 2009
annual reports devices have been fabricated
using the SiQD in SiO2 materials, with p-n junction
formation using B or P of multilayers, respectively
[4.5.9, 4.5.10, 4.5.40]. The fabricated p-n diodes
consisted of sputtered alternating layers of SiO2
and SRO onto quartz substrates with in-situ
boron and phosphorus doping. The top B doped
bi-layers were selectively etched to create isolated
p-type mesas and to access the buried P doped
bi-layers. Aluminium contacts were deposited by
evaporation, patterned and sintered to create ohmic
contacts on both p and n-type layers. The fabricated
interdigitated solar cells have an effective area of
up to 0.12cm2. The devices exhibit rectification and
a photovoltaic response with VOC up to 493 mV, but
with as yet very small currents and bad fill factors.
These are partly due to the very high resistance
of the material and in particular to the relatively
long lateral paths to contacts at the back contact,
necessitated by groth on an insulating quartz
substrate. The device structure with appropriate
contacting is shown schematically in Fig. 4.5.33.
This also shows the current crowding effect which
results from the high lateral resistance.
4.5.2.4.1 Equivalent circuit model of
nanocrystal devices on quartz substrates
In order to better understand the limitation
imposed by the device on the solar cell
performance, it is necessary to find a good
equivalent circuit model specific to our devices.
The high resistivity of the base layer makes it
imperative to consider the two dimensional effects
of current flow [4.5.41]. In order to analyse the I-V
characteristics of these diodes we first generalised
the model to include any number of diodes in
series. The series connection of diodes is used
to explain the ideality factors higher than two
normally observed in our structures. We believe this
is a reasonable model as the ideality factor observed
is almost independent of the diode current. This
type of behaviour has also been observed in
multi quantum well laser diodes [4.5.42], where
it has been proven to arise from an unintended
series combination of diodes. Based on this series
combination of diodes, it is possible to obtain an
expression relating temperature dependent I-V
measurements to the band gap [4.5.9]. It is further
possible to linearise the expression around an
average measuring temperature, Tavg, as follows:
(4.5.2)
where k is Boltzmann’s constant, q is the electron
charge, Tnom is the temperature at which the
saturation current, Ioi , is defined, ni is the diode
ideality factor, and αi is the saturation current
temperature exponent. Notice that this equation
shows that the I-V characteristics are related to a
sum of band gaps.
As the current flows from the base contact to
the emitter, a linear voltage drop along the base
and under the diode isolation mesa causes an
exponential change in the diode current. This
crowding of the current at the edge of the diode

76
mesa, depicted in Fig. 4.5.33, can be modelled
adding a current dependence on the series
resistance. This series resistance, RS, can be
expressed as the sum of a current independent, Rext
and a current dependent series resistance Rint arising
from current crowding:
(4.5.3)
The value of this resistance can be found by
numerically solving the following transcendental
equation:
(4.5.4)
Within this mathematical framework it is then
possible to extract the value of the series
resistance, remove its effect from the measured
I-V characteristics to extract the actual ideality of
the diode current. We normally observe an ideality
factor of 3. Based on the proposed model of at least
two diodes in series, without any assumptions, it
is only possible to establish that the value of the
band gap extracted from temperature dependent
I-V measurements corresponds to a sum of the band
gaps (or activation energies) of these diodes.
An interesting behaviour observed in these
devices was the apparent lack of correspondence
between the dark and light I-V characteristics. The
series resistance extracted from the diode dark I-V
characteristic is too small to explain the limited
short circuit current as well as the low fill factor
measured under a simulated 1-sun condition. A
more complete circuit model is necessary to explain
this discrepancy. We have proposed a model where
the observed behaviour is due to two distinct
areas in the fabricated devices. The photocurrent is
produced only in a small area of the device, this area
being proportional to a fraction of the normalized
diode area. In a Spice circuit model this area is given
a value smaller than 1, that we denote as fraction.
This will be a fitting parameter to reproduce the
measured dark and illuminated I-V characteristics.
Figure 4.5.34 shows the circuit proposed.
A relatively large percentage of the device area
is responsible for the measured characteristics in
the dark. The current in this area is caused by the
diffusion of minority carriers caused by the applied
voltage (V1 in Fig. 4.5.34) from the p or n side to
the opposite region. This current is expected to
be large due to the low lifetime of the minority
carriers (mostly recombination current in the
depletion region). The observed series resistance
will be proportional to the total series resistance,
Rtot, and inversely proportional to the area, R2=Rtot/
(1-fraction), where the diffusion current occurs. The
dark I-V behaviour is modelled by the top branch of
the circuit depicted in Fig. 4.5.34. D_QD1 and D_Sch
represent the series connection of diodes whose
band gaps are extracted using Eq. (4.5.2). The series
resistance, R2, has the temperature and current
dependence detailed in Eqs. (4.5.3) and (4.5.4).
Only a small part of the diode area may have a large
enough lifetime to produce a photocurrent. As this
photocurrent flows only through this fractional
area, the series resistance is inversely proportional
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the reduction of ISC as the fraction, f, is varied from
99% to 1% of the total diode area.
With the circuit model described, it will be possible
to extract complementary information from dark
and illuminated I-V measurements.
In view of these simulations, it is clear that the
electrical characterisation of our devices needs
to take into consideration previously overlooked
limitations. For example, great care should be
taken when interpreting the Quantum Efficiency
extracted from a spectral response measurement
as the assumed condition of short circuit current
may be incorrect even if the device is externally
short circuited (internally, the diode
may be forward biased). Moreover,
as the current is proportional to the
photon flux, and the flux is generally
different at each wavelength tested,
the internal bias of the device can be
different at each point of the spectrum
investigated.
4.5.2.4.2 Demonstrator program
for Si nanostructure devices
Using the approach described in
Section 4.5.2.4.1, a device simulator Equivalent Spice circuit
has been developed in an MS Excel spreadsheet. representation of the
The Demonstrator is a 2D simulator of the diodes fabricated devices.
fabricated from Si QD nanostructures. It is based on Figure 4.5.34
a simple diode model with a few fitting parameters
and uses the method in section 0 and in [4.5.9].
There are three areas which the user can modify:
1. Measured parameters: these come from
measured properties of the fabricated diodes.
The base resistivity and its temperature
dependence are measured. The
device geometry is known. The
default values are representative
ones for the devices.
2. J0, ideality factor, band gap and XTO
can be varied to give flexibility in
fitting to a specific diode properties. f=0.01
3. The variation parameters are Current f=0.03
and Temperature.
f=0.1
The outputs are:
1. The I-V curves for the range of
temperatures chosen, in both log-lin f=0.31
and lin-lin output.
2. The variation of the ideality
f=0.99
factor with current for
various temperatures.
3. The series resistance
with temperature.
Spice simulations of 1-sun I-V
4. The extracted band gap, using either a
characteristics based on the circuit
calculation incorporating a series resistance
depicted in Fig. 4.5.34. The fraction,
correction or with both a series resistance and a f, represents the normalized area of
current modification term. the diode where the photocurrent
is produced.
Figure 4.5.35
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Some example outputs, using the default parameter
settings, follow:
Figure 4.5.36 shows that a reasonable diode
characteristic is shown, with good turn-on and
rectification.
Figure 4.5.37 shows the increase in the ideality
factor with current is as expected with a
diode transiting from domination by radiative
recombination (n=1) to being dominated by
Shockley Read Hall recombination (n=2). But the
large regime in which n=3 and then region where
it goes to much higher values, are indicative of
a non-physical aspect to the model. The most
likely explanation is that rather than two diodes
in series there are actually several, probably a
variable number in different parts of the device, the
combination of which lead to a composite ideality
factor.
The demonstrator is useful as an iterative tool used
to simulate the real measured data from a device.
The parameters used for such a fit then define the
values of the circuit elements in the EC model.
Attachment of physical meaning to these elements
will then require further development and interface
with the EMA/quantum mechanical model.
4.5.2.5 Doping in Si QD nanostructures
Fabrication of a PV device from the Si QD materials
requires a control of work function such as to allow
separation of photogenerated electron-hole pairs.
Methods by which this can be achieved include
fabrication of a grown or diffused p–n junction
or p–i–n junction with the Si QD multilayers as
the i-region. These require careful control of
the work functions of the p and n-regions. P-n
junction devices have been fabricated and doping
demonstrated. Progress on the theory explaining
these doping effects using conventional dopants
and the possibility of other modulation doping
approaches has been made.
As discussed in Section 4.5.2.4, rectifying p-n and
p-i-n structures can be fabricated with ‘conventional’
78
Dark I-V curves.
Figure 4.5.36
Local ideality factor.
Figure 4.5.37
doping by incorporation of B and P during
sputtering growth [4.5.9, 4.5.10]. Also, formation of
p- and n-type materials is clearly demonstrated in
the Si QD nanostructure materials with Si nitride
interlayers doped with either P or B discussed in
Section 4.5.2.3.2; in the Sb doped n-type Si QDs in
Si3N4 in Section 4.5.2.3.1; in the p-type Ge QD in
SiO2 material in section 4.5.2.3.4; and in MOS type
devices doped with either P or B by a diffusion
anneal discussed in [4.5.43].
However, the doping mechanisms taking place
in these structures are not well understood.
Theoretical work has shown that direct doping of
the QDs is prevented by segregation of impurity
atoms from the perfectly crystalline QDs [4.5.44,
4.5.23]. Experimentally this is supported by data
on the free electron density in Si nanocrystals
using Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR),
which show that 95% of P atoms are segregated
to the surface of the nanocrystals and that their
contribution to doping is at least an order of
magnitude lower than the atomic concentration
[4.5.45]. Further evidence that doping causes
electronic changes comes from the quenching of
luminescence on the incorporation of P (or Au) in
Si nanostructures [4.5.46] and also from a small
enhancement of luminescence observed at low
P doping levels followed by quenching at higher
levels [4.5.47]. This latter being explained by the
passivation of QD surface states by low levels of P
increasing luminescence and then the saturation of
this mechanism by excess P. This also explains the
non-monotonic behaviour of activation energy seen
in P doped nanostructures [4.5.10].
If direct doping of the QDs is not occurring,
then another possibility is modulation doping
of the matrix SiO2, as is commonly used in III-V
nanostructures; but this is ruled out because of
the very high ionisation energies of about 5eV that
would be required for the resultant deep defects
in a dielectric matrix [4.5.48]. These clearly will
not occur at room temperature, or even at higher
temperatures.
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Stoichiometric
dielectr ic, 2-5 nm a) b)

Two models for doping of Si QD nanostructures. (a)

An extended sub-oxide region surrounding the Si QDs
allows doping by P or B at relatively shallow levels. These
then can provide carriers to be captured by the QDs
through a modulation doping mechanism. (b) QD size
enhancement (suppression) by P (B) doping results in a
type I heterojunction between P and B doped material.
This facilitates carrier separation due to the much greater
mobility of electrons – the Dember effect [4.5.49].

Figure 4.5.40

4.5.2.5.1 Doping mechanisms in

Si QD nanostructures

Researchers:
Dawei Di, Xiaoming Hao, Ivan Perez‑Wurfl,
Gavin Conibeer

As there is clear evidence for doping by P and B,

a third possibility is that it is the sub-oxide QD/
matrix interface region, with its shallower doping
defect levels, that is doped by the P or B atoms, thus
providing free carriers to be captured by the QDs
[4.5.49]. As shown in Fig. 4.5.38, ab-initio calculation
of the levels associated with B atoms associated
directly with the interface region on the surface of
a Si QD indicate that there are no shallow or deep
levels introduced by the B within the effective band
gap (HOMO-LUMO gap). The reason is that the
strong affinity of B for O results in very strong B-O
bonds, effectively splitting any available OMOs and
UMOs a long way apart and well inside the already
existing density of states.
However, this approach considers the interface
between Si QD and SiO2 matrix to be very abrupt.
due to an amorphous region around the Si QDs. An Ab-initio calculation using
explanation for the band gap of this being larger GAUSSIAN: (a) the density of states
for a Si83/84OH62 oxide terminated QD
than bulk Si is if this region consists of sub-oxide
with and without a B atom at the
material. If this region were doped with B or P, it interface; (b) the optimised Si QD,
could provide free carriers to be captured by the consisting of Si83B-OH62, with the B
QDs in a modulation doping mechanism, thus atom at top centre (in pink).
giving rise to the p- or n-type behaviour observed. Figure 4.5.38
(This is illustrated schematically in Fig. 4.5.40 (a).)
An alternative explanation for the rectifying
Wavelength (nm)
character of the junctions obtained can 300 400 500 600 700 800
25
be based on the modification to the Si QD 4.8
4.4

crystalisation discussed in Section 4.5.2.3.2, 4.0

Energy (eV)

In fact there is highly likely to be an extended 20

3.6

transition region of a sub-oxide around the QD. If for P and B doping of Si QDs in oxide with 2.4
Absorption (106cm-1)

2.2

this region is a sufficiently extended silicon sub- nitride interlayers [4.5.49]. The fact that P (B) 15
2.0
1.8
m=2
m=1/2

oxide (SiOx) it could provide flat Bloch bands able doped material produces larger (smaller) 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
O/Si ratio
1.2 1.3

to be doped in a pseudo bulk-like regime. In order
that B and P doping levels are shallow enough to
be ionised in such a region, x would need to be less
than about 0.5. Such a region would be amorphous
and hence not able to be modelled with ab-initio
methods. But the presence of such regions can be
determined from absorption measurements.
There is some support for this theory in the
absorption data for Si QDs in SiO2 [4.5.5] shown in
Fig. 4.5.39. This shows a region of strong absorption
with an absorption edge which blue shifts as
the O to Si ratio increases, which translates to an
increase in QD size. But there is also an additional
weakly absorbing tail which extends well into the
effective band gap region. This tail is likely to be
QDs means that its confined energy levels 10
SiO0.86/SiO2
and hence effective band gap will be smaller
SiO1.00/SiO2
(larger) than undoped material under 5 SiO1.30/SiO2
otherwise similar conditions. Thus a junction
between a P and a B doped region will 0
5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5
actually be a type-I heterojunction between Energy (eV)
small and large band gap materials,
respectively, as illustrated in Fig. 4.5.40 (b).
Room temperature absorption
It is also very likely that the mobility of electrons co-efficient of annealed SiOx/
in these materials, whilst not big, will still be much SiO2 multilayer films with various
x (1100oC, 1hour). The inset is
greater than that of holes. Hence photogenerated
an estimate of the approximate
electrons near the junction would experience a optical band gap (filled squares:
drift field sweeping them into the P doped material strong absorption; empty circles:
with its lower conduction band edge, whilst holes absorption tail) [4.5.5].
with their very limited mobility would be immobile. Figure 4.5.39
This would result in electrons accumulating in the P

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material and being collected in the external circuit
as if from an n-type material, with electrons injected
back into the device through the B doped material
where they would recombine with the immobile
holes, thus making the B material appear p-type.
This qualitatively mirrors the behaviour observed,
but will require corroboration. As it relies on the
difference in electron and hole mobilities, it is
essentially the same as the Dember effect, which
is known to produce a photovoltaic effect through
carrier separation, albeit not very efficiently.
It is also possible that both the sub-oxide doping
effect and the mismatched QD size effects operate
in the device. The fact that both mechanisms act
in the same direction is fortuitous as both could
therefore contribute to the observed rectifying
photovoltaic behaviour. Differentiation between
these or a determination of the relative strengths
Spatial distribution of 4s and 3d
electronic states of Sc (upper) and
will require further study on the effects of doping,
energetic arrangement of 4s and 3d interlayers and band alignments. These will also
states (lower). further optimisation of the devices and lead to
better photovoltaic performance from these Si QD
Figure 4.5.41
nanostructure devices.
4.5.2.5.2 Ab-initio modelling of
modulation doping possibilities in
Si QDs nanostructures
Researchers:
Dirk König, James Rudd, Daniel Hiller (IMTEK,
University of Freiburg, Germany)
As discussed in Section 4.5.2.5, direct doping of
QDs by dopants is thermodynamically very unlikely.
The alternative of modulation doping of the SiO2
matrix is also not feasible due to the strong anionic
nature of O leading to very deep ionisation energies
[4.5.48]. We have concentrated recently on possible
candidates for more efficienct acceptor doping
of Si QDs. Modulation acceptors must have an
energetic position below the confined hole level,
they must not introduce defect levels in the QD
band gap if located at the interface as an active
dopant and as a completely saturated foreign
80
Electronic density of states (DOS) of Si10 QD in 2 ML
SiO2 (dotted black), fully oxidised nanocrystal (grey)
and Si10 QD in 2 ML SiO2 with Sc replacing Si atom in
the SiO2 shell at the outermost position (top). DOS of
Sc-doped approximants split into α (spin up, red) and
β (spin down, blue) DOS because of non-even number
of electrons within the approximant due to acceptor
state of Sc. The b-highest occupied molecular orbital
(HOMO) 1193 indicated in magenta can take up 0.07
electrons from the Si10 QD over two 2 ML (6 Å) of perfect
SiO2. The β-lowest unoccupied MO (LUMO) 1194 shown
in green can take up a much bigger proportion of an
electron if the Si QD is slightly bigger (e.g. Si35, dQD =
11 Å). The Sc-doped nanocrystals are shown with the
iso-density plots of 1.35×10−3 e/Å3 for β-HOMO 1193
(lower left) and β-LUMO 1194 (lower right). The atoms
of the Si10 QD and the Sc atom are highlighted in cyan.
Si atoms in SiO2 are grey, O atoms are red, H-atoms
terminating the outermost O-bonds are white. All DFT
computations carried out with a Hartree-Fock 3-21G(d)
optimisation and B3LYP/6-31G(d) electronic structure
calculation [4.5.23].
Figure 4.5.42
atom, and they must have one single oxidation
number. The transition metal scandium (Sc) fulfils
the last two requirements. It also has a very suitable
valence state configuration which consists of a
full (doubly occupied) 4s shell and one electron
in the 3d1 state located within the 4s shell. On the
energy scale, the 4s electrons have a higher binding
energy as compared to the 3d1 and 3d2 states. This
provides the 3d1 and 3d2 states with an electrostatic
screening which results in a higher binding energy
of these states. Thereby an unoccupied 3d2 state
exists at a high binding energy which is able to take
up an electron from a nearby source such as a Si QD,
see Fig. 4.5.41.
Ab-initio Density Functional Theory calculations
on a Si10 QD in 2 mono layers (MLs) of SiO2 have
been carried out, with a Si atom at the outermost
position with full O termination replaced by a Sc
atom. The Si10 atom cluster is the smallest size which
still behaves as a Si QD [4.5.23]. Such a nanoparticle
allows us to directly observe the electronic structure
of Sc as a modulation acceptor in SiO2 in the
proximity of a Si QD, see Fig. 4.5.42.
Figure 4.5.42 shows that 0.07 electrons stemming
from the Si10 QD (dQD = 7.3Å) are localized at
the Sc atom over two 2 ML (6 Å) of perfect SiO2.
Technological relevant QD sizes start at dQD ≈ 20Å,
with a much lesser degree of quantum confinement
as compared to a 7.3Å QD. It is thus reasonable to
assume that a Si QD with dQD ≥ 20Å will be positively
ionized to a much greater extent, ensuring that
holes are majority carriers in a Si QD super lattice
(SL) embedded in SiO2. Experimental verification
of this doping mechanism is being carried out. The
difference to conventional acceptor modulation
doping as used in III-V electronic devices is the
way the Si or Ge QDs are ionised by Sc in SiO2. As
Sc induces a deep acceptor level in SiO2 it cannot
be thermally ionized from the SiO2 valence band.
Instead, the Sc acceptor state takes up the electron
directly from the initially occupied state at a lower
binding energy presented by a nearby QD, see Fig.
4.5.43. This requires the Sc acceptor to be within
50Å of the Si QD in order to exploit field emission

which is a consequence of the energy difference
between the QD HOMO and the Sc acceptor state.
Acceptor modulation doping of SiO2 can be
accomplished by incorporation of a small amount
of Sc, say one monolayer of Sc, into the SiO2 barriers
between the SRO QD array layers. During the
segregation anneal, Sc is incorporated into the
SiO2 matrix and thereby activated as an acceptor.
Ab-initio calculation indicates that Sc attached
to the Si QD does not create any levels within
the HOMO-LUMO gap of a Si84(OH)64 QD. We can
therefore assume that a Sc atoms bonded onto a
Si QD does not result in a detrimental change in
its electronic structure. This concept is now being
investigated experimentally.
4.5.2.6 Summary of Group IV
nanostructures for tandem cell elements
In 2010, significant progress has been made on
understanding the transfer of growth parameters
of Si QDs to other matrices. The use of anisotropic
structures both to provide diffusion barriers
to excessive QD growth and to provide higher
conductivity paths in the transport direction, has
shown the validity of these approaches both for
Si3N4 and for SiC matrices. Knowledge of Ge QD
nanostructures has improved significantly with
clear p-type behaviour of Ge QD s in SiO2 and very
successful growth of Ge QWs in Si3N4 matrix. The
increase in sophistication of modelling of confined
energy in these structures now matches reasonably
well with experimental data.
Improved modelling of confined levels in
irregular shaped particles also matches well
with experimental data of other groups. Higher
level device modelling is now able to describe
the anomalous effects due to high lateral series
resistance in devices and consequent current
crowding. This is now being used to optimise
nanostructure growth and device design, so as to
push beyond the current open circuit voltages of
490mV. Part of this is an understanding of doping.
This has progressed with greater knowledge and
control over the effects on QSD size of introduction
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Acceptor modulation doping:
Conventional example with GaS
QD in AlAs matrix and electron
thermally emitted into acceptor
(Mg), such that holes are captured
by the QD (left). In SiO2, charge
transfer occurs directly as the
Sc state is too deep within the
band gap to be thermally ionized.
Instead, the acceptor state is
ionised directly from the QD by
field emission of an electron into
the Sc acceptor state.
Figure 4.5.43
of P and B dopants, and modelling of possible
doping mechanisms based on modified modulation
doping and these size effects. Alternative
modulation dopants are being modelled with
scandium as an acceptor looking like a strong
candidate. Further work will build on this increased
understanding of anisoptropic structures, growth of
different materials and understanding of doping to
improve materials and devices further.
4.5.3 Hot Carrier cells
Researchers:
Shujuan Huang, Santosh Shreshtha, Dirk
König, Robert Patterson, Pasquale Aliberti,
Binesh Puthen Veettil, Lara Treiber, Ivan
Perez-Wurfl, Andy Hsieh, Yu Feng, James
Rudd, Stephan Michard, Martin Green,
Gavin Conibeer
Hot carrier solar cells offer the possibility of very
high efficiencies (limiting efficiency above 65% for
unconcentrated illumination) but with a structure
that could be conceptually simple compared to
other very high efficiency PV devices – such as
multi-junction monolithic tandem cells. For this
reason, the approach lends itself to ‘thin film’
deposition techniques, with their attendant low
costs in materials and energy usage and facility to
use abundant, non-toxic elements.
An ideal Hot Carrier cell would absorb a wide range
of photon energies and extract a large fraction
of the energy to give very high efficiencies by
extracting ‘hot’ carriers before they thermalise to
the band edges. Hence an important property of a
hot carrier cell is to slow the rate of carrier cooling
to allow hot carriers to be collected whilst they are
still at elevated energies (“hot”), and thus allowing
higher voltages to be achieved from the cell and
hence higher efficiency. A Hot Carrier cell must also
only allow extraction of carriers from the device
through contacts which accept only a very narrow
range of energies (energy selective contacts or
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(a) Schematic representation
of energy and particle fluxes
interactions used in the model
(Particle fluxes - full line arrow,
energy fluxes- dotted line arrow).
(b) HCSC efficiency as a function
of carrier extraction energy level.
Parameters used are: thermalisation
time = 100 ps, concentration =
1000, lattice temperature = 300K
and absorber layer thickness = 50
nm. [J, F and E are current density
and particle and energy fluxes
as denoted by subscripts for A
absorption, E emission and IA
Auger processes.]
Figure 4.5.45
Carriers transmission probability
versus energy for (a) ideal ESC, (b)
non-ideal ESC.
Figure 4.5.46
82
Band diagram of the Hot Carrier cell. The device has
four stringent requirements:
Figure 4.5.44
ESCs). This is necessary in order to prevent cold
carriers in the contact from cooling the hot carriers,
i.e. the increase in entropy on carrier extraction is
minimized [4.5.50]. The limiting efficiency for the
hot carrier cell is over 65% at 1 sun and 85% at
maximum concentration – very close to the limits
for an infinite number of energy levels [4.5.1, 4.5.51,
4.5.52]. Fig. 4.5.44 is a schematic band diagram of a
Hot Carrier cell illustrating these two requirements.
a) To absorb a wide range of photon energies;
b) To slow the rate of photogenerated carrier
cooling in the absorber;
c) To extract these ‘hot carriers’ over a narrow range
of energies, such that excess carrier energy is not
lost to the cold contacts;
d) To allow efficient renormalisation of carrier
energy via carrier-carrier scattering.
In 2010 modelling of Hot Carrier efficiencies has
progressed with implementation of real
material properties to give more realistic
efficiencies for InN which include Auger
processes and more realistic contact
structures. Significant progress has been
made on demonstrating resonance in
double barrier selective energy structures.
Further work on triple barrier double Si
QW structures has been carried out for
rectifying ESCs. This is complemented by
improvements in 2/3D modelling of transport in
these ESC structures. For absorbers, modelling of
nanocrystals superlattice arrays has
bee applied to real material systems.
The growth of such systems in both
III-V QD superlattices with collaborators
and with colloidal Langmuir-Blodgett
dispersion of Si nanocrsystals has
produced structures which are
now being characterised for their
modulation of phononic properties.
Also meausurement of carrier cooling
rates has been extended to other large
phononic gap bulk materials including
InN, demonstrating the importance of
material quality. Design of structures
for hot carrier cells which should be
practical and realisable has developed, with the
device properties more carefully specified and plans
for fabricating such structures in real devices.
4.5.3.1 Modelling of Hot Carrier Solar Cell
Efficiency
Researchers:
Pasquale Aliberti, Yu Feng, Santosh Shrestha, Gavin
Conibeer, Martin Green
Collaboration with:
Yasuhiko Takeda (Toyota Central Research
Laboratories, Nagoya)
Previous work was focused on developing a new
model to calculate limiting efficiency of a real HCSC
based on an Indium Nitride (InN) absorber layer. InN
has been chosen as a potential material because of
its narrow electronic band gap for absorption of a
wide range of photon energies, whilst also having a
wide phonon band gap. This is good for suppression
of phonon decay, and hence for slowing carrier
cooling [4.5.53, 4.5.54].
Calculation of limiting efficiency was performed
taking into account real optical and electronic
properties of InN, removing most of the ideality
assumptions used in other models [4.5.51, 4.5.52,
4.5.55, 4.5.56]. The detailed band structure

(a) HCSC efficiency as a function of extraction width
of ESCs for different extraction energies ΔE. (b) HCSC
efficiency as a function of extraction energy ΔE for
different ESCs energy width. Thermalisation time is
100 ps, lattice temperature is 300 K. Absorber layer
thickness is 50 nm.
Figure 4.5.47
of wurtzite bulk InN has been considered in
performing computation of carrier densities,
pseudo-Fermi potentials and II-AR time constants
[4.5.57]. Results have been calculated considering
ideal energy selective contacts for the HCSC, which
means that contacts have a very high conductivity
and a discrete energy transmission level.
Recently the limiting efficiency for the hot carrier
InN solar cell has been calculated considering
non-ideal ESCs. In this case the carriers are not
extracted on a single energy level, but in a finite
energy window. Calculations have been performed
taking into account contact resistance and entropy
generation effects.
The flux of current travelling through the ESCs
towards the cold metal electrodes can be described
using the following relation.
(4.5.5)
The current density in this case is proportional to
the occupation probability at the two sides of the
ESC. Equation (4.5.5) has been derived assuming no
correlation of energy of electrons in three different
directions as shown in (4.5.6). This assumption is
acceptable if there is a parabolic dispersion relation
at minimum energy point along the three different
directions.
(4.5.6)
Based on the energy and carrier conservation, Δμ
and TC at steady state are calculated.
(4.5.7)
[quantities as defined in Fig. 4.5.45 (a).]
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The maximum efficiency has been found for a ΔE
between 1.15 eV and 1.2 eV with a transmission
energy window δE of 0.02 eV. The value of limiting
efficiency is 39.6% compared to 43.6% calculated
in the previous section using ideal ESCs. The drop
in efficiency is mostly due to the decrease of open
circuit voltage related to the decreased extraction
level, equation (4.5.7). This is partially compensated
by an increase in extracted current due to increased
II rate.
Figure 4.5.47 (a) shows calculated efficiency as a
function of for several values of extraction energy. In
all the curves two different trends can be identified.
If the value of δE is too close to zero, the efficiency
is very low due to low carrier extraction, thus a very
small value of short circuit current. The conductivity
of the contact in this case is indefinitely large.
Enlarging δE, the number of carriers available for
extraction increases, improving JSC, and so the
maximum efficiency. In general the efficiency peak
has been found for values of δE from 0.02 eV to 0.1
eV depending on the extraction energy ΔE. For the
configurations which show higher efficiencies, ΔE
< 1.35 eV, the optimum value of δE goes from 0.02
eV to 0.05 eV. This optimum value for δE of between
is very close to kTRT. This represents the variation
in energy in the contacts such that approximately
the kTRT will inevitably be lost anyway by carriers
thermalising within the contacts. Thus it sets a
lower limit on a reasonable δE. Therefore this result
indicates that the transmission energy range has
to be very small and confirms once again the high
selectivity requirements of ESCs for HCSC [4.5.58].
In Fig. 4.5.47 (b) the value of maximum efficiency as
a function of ΔE is reported for different values of
δE. It can be observed that for small transmission
energy window the extraction energy which allows
maximum efficiency is lower compared to the one
calculated using ideal ESCs. This effect is related
to the higher occupancy at lower energies, which
increases the value of JSC for contacts with a small
transmission window.
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Peak at 1.205eV of the conductance vs. energy plot for

different values of σ for configurational disorder (left).
Conductance vs. energy plot with peak at 1.573 eV for
different values of σ for morphological disorder (right).
Conductance given in units of 2e2/h.

Figure 4.5.48

During fabrication of the quantum dots in a

Planar view of the double barrier
structure formed by Si QDs in SiO2
matrix, with SiC barriers of 2nm
width (left). Mean diameter of QDs
is 1.8nm. I-V characteristics for the
double barrier structure with SiO2
and SiC barriers at temperature 10K
and 300K (right).
Figure 4.5.49
4.5.3.2 Energy Selective Contacts
The requirement for a narrow range of contact
energies can be met by an energy selective
contact (ESC) based on double barrier resonant
tunnelling. Tunnelling to the confined energy levels
in a quantum dot layer embedded between two
dielectric barrier layers, can give a conductance
sharply peaked at the line up of the Fermi level on
the ‘hot’ absorber side of the contact with the QD
confined energy level. Conductance both below
this energy and above it should be very significantly
lower. This is the basis of the current work on
double barrier resonant tunnelling ESCs.
4.5.3.2.1 Modelling of QD structures
Researchers
Binesh Puthen-Veettil, Dirk König,
Gavin Conibeer
We developed a robust 2 dimensional model
for describing the transport properties through
quantum dot structures and have used this model
to understand the filtering characteristics of Energy
Selective Contacts (ESCs). In this way we are able
to compute the effective filtering in 2 dimensions
by running numerical simulations. The model is
developed from a discretized Schrödinger equation
by considering the sample volume as a collection
of discrete points and using an effective mass
approximation method over the entire volume.
dielectric matrix for selective energy contacts,
different kinds of irregularities can be present
in the structure, the major disorders being
configurational (disorders in the position of the
dots) and morphological (disorders in the size of
the dots). The extent to which configurational and
morphological disorders determine the electrical
properties of the overall structure is investigated
using simulation runs of the model. The disorders
are assumed to follow a normal distribution from
the mean position and size. The results show the
outcome of an average of 1000 simulation runs with
different standard deviation (σ) values.
Figure 4.5.48 shows the simulation results for
resonance in 2.6nm Si dot in SiO2 matrix under
different orders of configurational disorders. As
the disorders increases from σ =0 to σ =1 the
conductance decreases by 53%, but the resonant
energy remains the same at 1.205eV. This shows
the confined energy in the QDs does not change
as their size is fixed but the effective filtering
reduces dramatically. Figure 4.5.49 shows the
simulation results for a 2.2 nm Si dot in a SiO2
matrix under different orders of morphological
disorders. As the disorder increases from σ =0 to
σ = 1, the conductance decreases by 60% and the
resonant peak remains the same at 1.573eV. But
the morphological disorders cause major impact
compared to configurational disorders because of
the widening of the energy selection window. This
is due to the distribution in size of the QDs, since
QDs with different sizes have different resonant
energies which are slightly different from the mean
resonant energy, the average of them all increase
the spread of the resonant peak thus reducing the
efficiency of the double barrier structure as energy
selective contacts.
A planar representation of the double barrier
structure is shown as in Fig. 4.5.49 (left). The barriers
are usually high band gap dielectric materials like
SiO2, Si3N4 or SiC. SiC barriers have advantages
over SiO2 barriers that SiC barriers in double barrier
structure makes a very good diffusion barrier
for silicon during processing, which can yield a

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600 – 650 nm 650 – 700 nm 700 – 750 nm

Principle of oa-IV, shown for electron injection into the sample

(left). If free carriers obtain additional energy by a massive
photon flux significantly above the band gap, a smaller bias field
is required to reach a resonant condition. Sample stage of oa-IV
(right); wavelength range indicated. Every 50 nm spectral range
has a photon flux of approximately 50 Suns.

Figure 4.5.50

structure with uniform QD size in the transport
direction thus ensuring sharp resonances at the
resonant energies of the structure. Since the
conductance of the structure is more in the case of
SiC barriers because of the lower barrier height of
SiC, thicker barriers can be used to give the same
conductance as SiO2, for which the very thin barriers
are difficult to fabricate.
Figure 4.5.49 (right) shows the I-V characteristics for
the double barrier QD structure with SiO2 dielectric
and SiC barriers at temperature 10K and 300K.
As can be seen, the structures with SiC potential
barriers have higher current density at both low
temperature and at room temperature. As the
temperature increases, the current density as well as
the width of the resonant peak increases. Also, the
negative differential resistances appear at slightly
lower voltage in structures with SiC barrier than
that in structures with SiO2 barrier. This is due to the
increased leakage and thus the lower confinement
energy for the SiC.
4.5.3.2.2 Characterization of Energy
Selective Contacts using ‘Optically
assisted I-V’
Researchers:
Dirk König, Stephan Michard (RWTH Aachen,
Germany), Binesh Puthen-Veettil
Collaboration with:
Daniel Hiller (IMTEK, University of
Freiburg, Germany)
Optically assisted IV (oa-IV) is a new characterisation
method which investigates an energy selective
contact (ESC) fabricated on a Hot Carrier Absorber
material with optical excitations in a pre-defined
wave length range. If a very large optical generation
rate Gopt exists adjacent to the ESC, it can probe this
HC population immediately next to the contact.
Alternatively, if the HC population within the
absorber is known, the ESC can be tested for its
energy selectivity. The basic principle is to provide
free carriers with additional energy
by optical means, see Fig. 4.5.50. The
resonant level of the ESC can then
be reached by carriers at a lower bias
field, shifting the tunnelling resonance
of the ESC – here a QD array – to lower
bias voltages Vbias.
Samples based on Si were provided
by the University of Freiburg, see
Fig. 4.5.51. Si is very far from being
an ideal Hot Carrier Absorber due to
the complete lack of a gap between
optical and acoustic phonon modes
and hence no propensity to slow
carrier cooling. Furthermore, Si
has an indirect band gap in the
spectral range of optical excitation
which renders the interpretation
of measured data rather complex
due to the absorption coefficient aSi Sample structure for oa-IV (upper).
Contact area on QD array is 1
changing over two orders of magnitude. However,
mm2, with ≈ 1010 QDs. Optical
for initial proof of concept it is adequate providing
generation rate Gopt within
the excitation of hot electron-hole pairs in the
ballistic transport range
material is sufficiently large and collection can be
to the ESC and its relative
made from very close to the ESC.
change for photon wave
A Xenon (Xe) arc lamp is a continuous light source length intervals used in
with one of the most constant photon fluxes Fhn in oa-IV (middle). For these, the
the spectral range 1000 to 500 nm. Nevertheless, absorption coefficient of c-Si
there are significant deviations in particular in the aSi and the photon flux of the
long wavelength region (> 800 nm). We therefore Xe arc lamp Fhn were used
compare oa-IV curves which have the same Vbias (lower). Full green rectangles
for the current transition from forward to reverse show range of measurements
direction, Vbias(j → 0), indicating a constant carrier which can be compared.
product (constant quasi-Fermi level positions) at Dashed green rectangles show
the ESC. Under these conditions, the current density measurements which cannot
as a function of quasi-Fermi level position can be be compared, but approach
assumed to be identical for these curves and this the high optical injection limit.
current density can be treated as a constant offset Please note breaks on left
for each Vbias value. ordinate in both graphs.
For liquid nitrogen (LN2, T = 77 K) measurements, Figure 4.5.51
resonant tunnelling behaviour (negative differential
resistance – NDR) was detected for all spectral
ranges. With the method mentioned above, only
the oa-IV curves from 800 – 750 nm and 650 –

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oa-IV results of a typical sample
with optimum barrier thicknesses
and QD size at LN2 temperature
(upper) and at room temperature
(lower). Curves in the wave length
intervals from 800 to 600 nm can
be compared due to their identical
offset of Vbias to absolute zero Vbias.,
showing the free carrier product to
be constant. Curves for 550 – 250
nm and 1000 to 500 nm show
maximum optical injection limit.
Both curve groups printed in bold.
Figure 4.5.52
86
600 nm with Fhn ≈ 50 Suns for
each interval could be directly
compared to each other. In
addition, we evaluated the curves
with optical excitations in the
range of 1000 – 500 nm (Fhn ≈ 600
Suns) and 550 – 250 nm (Fhn ≈
140 Suns). The former is near the
practical high concentration limit
for solar cells of 1000 Suns.
As shown in Fig. 4.5.52, for the
curves in the 800 to 600 nm
region at LN2 temperature, the
potential difference between Vbias(j
→ 0) and the average voltage of
the resonance (VRes,avg) shows a
decrease of 48 mV with increasing
photon energy (decreasing
λ range). As carrier densities
(quasi-Fermi level positions) are
identical for these curves, this
potential drop corresponds to an
increase in free hole energy of
48 meV. As this energy difference
is equal to the effective kT, it can
be interpreted as an increase
in carrier temperature of DT = 560 K when going
from 800 – 750 nm (1.55 – 1.65 eV) to 650 – 600 nm
(1.91 – 2.06 eV). Even at Fhn ≈ 50 Suns, this effect
is small. This is due to Si being a very unsuitable
absorber material, further corroborated by the ratio
of peak to valley current densities (quality factor of
NDR – QFNDR) dropping from 2.2 to 1.5. Si does not
have a phononic band gap so that optical phonons
undergo a rapid decay which tremendously
accelerates carrier cooling.
For the 1000 – 500 nm and 550 – 250 nm ranges,
the QFNDR increases significantly to 4.1 and 3.2,
respectively. The potential difference Vbias(j → 0) –
VRes,avg is shifted by 365 and 200 mV, respectively;
a quantitative comparison of both curves to each
other or to the curves in the spectral range from
800 – 600 nm is thus not feasible. However, it shows
that the energy selectivity may increase under high
concentration Fhn.
Schematic representation
of time resolved
photoluminescence
arrangement.
Figure 4.5.53
For all oa-IV curves, a tunnelling feature for electron
extraction can be seen at 760 mV forward bias.
However, the background current density is much
higher than the tunnelling portion of the current
density in this forward bias range, so no NDR can
be seen.
At room temperature (T = 300 K), NDR was detected
only for λ ranges ≤ 600 nm, while the impact of
resonant electron injection is still visible for curves
in the 800 – 600 nm range. The background current
density in the bias range around the tunnelling
event increases by about an order of magnitude
when going from LN2 to room temperature.
This is due to thermal activation of trap states
and increased thermal scattering during carrier
transport through the QD array. It has the same
effect on NDR suppression as explained above for
electron injection under forward bias.
The QD arrays were processed by segregation
anneals, comprising some 1010 QDs as ESCs
under the contact pad. It is very encouraging to
see resonant tunnelling transport even at room
temperature in a material system which was not
grown epitaxially. At LN2 temperature (77 K), an
increase in carrier temperature of DT = 560 K was
detected when increasing the photon energy from
1.6 ± 0.05 eV to 1.985 ± 0.075 eV under a constant
photon flux of Fhn ≈ 50 Suns. More suitable Hot
Carrier Absorber materials will be investigated.
4.5.3.3 Hot Carrier Absorbers: slowing of
carrier cooling
Researchers:
Robert Patterson, Gavin Conibeer, Santosh
Shreshtha, Dirk König, Pasquale Aliberti,
Shujuan Huang, Yukio Kamikawa, Lara Treiber,
Martin Green
Carrier cooling in a semiconductor proceeds
predominantly by carriers scattering their energy
with optical phonons. This builds up a non-
equilibrium ‘hot’ population of optical phonons
which, if it remains hot, will drive a reverse reaction
to re-heat the carrier population, thus slowing
further carrier cooling. Therefore the critical
factor is the mechanism by which these optical
phonons decay into acoustic phonons, or heat in
the lattice. The principal mechanism by which this
can occur is the Klemens mechanism, in which the
optical phonon decays into two acoustic phonons
of half its energy and of equal and opposite
momenta [4.5.59].
The build up of emitted optical phonons is
strongly peaked at zone centre both for compound
semiconductor due to the Frölich interaction
and for elemental semiconducotrs due to the
deformation potential interaction. The strong
coupling of the Frölich interaction also means that
high energy optical phonons are also constrained
to near zone centre even if parabolicty of the bands
is no longer valid [4.5.60]. This zone centre optical
phonon population determines that the dominant
optical phonon decay mechanism is this pure
Klemens decay.
4.5.3.3.1 Suppression of phonon decay in
bulk materials
In some bulk semiconductors, with a large
difference in their anion and cation masses, there
can be a large gap between the highest acoustic
phonon energy and the lowest optical phonon
energy, possibly large enough to block operation
of this Klemens mechanism, which can be termed
a ‘phononic band gap’. Work previously presented
[4.5.61] using a simple 1D force constant model and
complemented by high accuracy DFT computation
[4.5.62] indicated that GaN, InN and InP all have
large phononic band gaps, which are close to those
found experimentally [4.5.63]. We are using time
resolved photoluminescence (tr-PL) to investigate
the carrier cooling rates in these materials.
4.5.3.3.2 Time resolved
photoluminescence measurements of
bulk phononic band gap materials
Researchers
Pasquale Aliberti, Dirk König, Santosh
Shrestha, Gavin Conibeer, Martin Green
Collaboration with:
Raphael Clady, Murad Tayebjee, Tim Schmidt
(University of Sydney), Nicholas Ekins-Daukes
(Imperial College)
The potential efficiency boost, which can be
achieved by Hot Carrier solar cells, is directly
related to the possibility of extracting high
energy carriers from the absorber layer before
thermalisation, increasing the voltage and hence
the conversion efficiency. The poor conversion
efficiency of photons with energies above the band
gap of the absorber is the main loss mechanism
in conventional single junction solar cells. The
investigation of thermalisation time constants of
hot carriers is a crucial step towards the engineering
of Hot Carrier cells. The efficiency of an InN based
hot carrier solar cell has been calculated using a
complex theoretical model, see Section 4.5.3.1. I
was found that the limiting efficiency is strongly
related to hot carriers relaxation velocity in the
ARC
absorber [4.5.57].
PHOTOVOLTAICS
A comparison of femtosecond time resolved CENTRE OF
photoluminescence (tr-PL) spectroscopy between EXCELLENCE
InP and GaAs was reported in last year’s annual
2010/11
report and is also now published [4.5.64]. This
ANNUAL REPORT
showed a distinctly longer carrier cooling time
constant for the wide phononic gap InP as
compared to almost zero phononic gap of GaAs.
It also showed further evidence for excitation
into higher side valleys for both GaAs and InP for
appropriate excitation wavelengths. In 2010 the
hot carrier cooling in InN has been investigated
using tr-PL. The wide gap between optical and
acoustic branches in the InN phononic dispersion
relation (wider than that for InP) prevents the
Klemens decay of optical phonon into acoustic
phonons. This can lead to slower carrier cooling due
to “Hot Phonon Effect” [4.5.65]. The decay of hot
carriers for different excitation wavelengths InN has
been investigated.
Tr-PL experiments have been performed
on InN samples using the measurement
configuration shown in Fig. 4.5.53. In this
technique a laser pulse acts as a switching
gate relating the photoluminescence
signal to the time domain. The PL signal
is collected from the sample, after a
femtosecond laser excitation, and focused
in a non linear crystal. The gate signal
is generated from the same laser and is
focused on the same crystal after passing
through an optical delay stage. The signal
is detected using a monochromator and
a PMT. Our system configuration provides
150 fs pulses with tunable wavelength
3D representation of InN time
over a range of 256 nm (4.84 eV) to 2.6 µm (0.48 eV). resolved PL data.
Figure 4.5.54 is a three dimensional representation Figure 4.5.54
of PL as a function of time for all the probed
wavelengths. It can be observed that the PL sharply
rises when the carriers are photo-excited by the
laser pulse. The fast decay of the PL shows the
thermalisation of carriers towards respective band
edges. The decay is faster for highly energetic
carriers compared to carriers closer to the bandgap.
Thus the carrier population quickly degenerates
towards the band edges during the thermalisation
process. In InN the thermalisation is most probably
due to interaction of highly energetic electrons and
holes with LO phonons [4.5.66].
To investigate the rate of the carrier cooling
process, the effective temperature of the carrier
population has been calculated fitting the high
energy tail of the PL spectrum for every single
time during the cooling transient. The PL has been
fitted assuming that carriers form a Boltzmann-like
distribution in a femtosecond time scale using the
following equation.
L(ε) represents the measured PL intensity at
energy ε, α(ε) is the measured sample absorption
coefficient, EG is the InN energy gap, 0.7 eV in this
87
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Carrier relaxation curves for InN.
The photoexcited carrier density
is 1.5 x 1019 cm-3. The blue dashed
curve is a single exponential fit.
Figure 4.5.55
Schematic of the simple hexagonal
superlattice of InAs QD disks,
showing their relative dimensions.
The red square indicates
orthorhombic repeat unit for the
simple hexagonal system.
Figure 4.5.56
88
Some images of the structure as grown and modelled.
(Left) the near-perfect stacking of the structure is
shown. (Centre) in-plane InAs QD arrangement.
(Right) simple hexagonal superlattice structure
showing stacking. The QDs are similar to flattened
disks with in plane dimensions of 4050 nm and
heights of 7 nm.
Figure 4.5.57
case, and kB is the Boltzmann constant.
TC is the fitted parameter and represents
the hot carrier temperature. Figure 4.5.55
shows the carrier temperature transient,
which seems to follow an exponential
behaviour quite well (blue line – fit).
The fitting of the calculated temperature
data has been performed using a
single exponential.
Here τTH represents the carriers thermalisation
time constant, whereas C and K are two constant
parameters. The fitted value for τTH is 7 ps. This
long cooling constant can be attributed to the hot
phonon effect due to the long lifetime of the A1(LO)
phonon [4.5.64,4.5.66]. This hot carrier relaxation
velocity is still too high to achieve a considerable
efficiency gain in an InN hot carrier solar cell.
However, it has been demonstrated that, for InN,
the carrier cooling velocity is strictly related to the
quality of the material and slower carrier cooling
constants compared to the ones calculated in this
chapter have been reported in the literature [4.5.67].
4.5.3.3.3 Nanostructures for absorbers
Nanostructures offer the possibility of modification
of the phonon dispersion of a composite material.
III-V compounds or indeed most of the cubic and
hexagonal compounds can be considered as very
fine nanostructures consisting of ‘quantum dots’
of only one atom (say In) in a matrix (say N) with
only one atom separating each ‘QD’ and arranged
in two interpenetrating fcc lattices. Modelling of
the 1D phonon dispersion in this way gives a close
agreement with the phonon dispersion for zinc-
blende InN extracted from real measured data for
wurtzite material.
Similar ‘phonon band gaps’ should appear in
good quality nanostructure superlattices, through
coherent Bragg reflection of modes such that gaps
in the superlattice dispersion open up [4.5.61]. There
is a close analogy with photonic structures in which
modulation of the refractive index in a periodic
system opens up gaps of disallowed photon
energies. Here modulation of the ease with which
phonons are transmitted (the acoustic impedance)
opens up gaps of disallowed phonon energies.
4.5.3.3.3.1 Force constant modelling of
III-V QD materials by SK growth
Researchers:
R. Patterson, Y. Kamikawa, G. Conibeer
Collaboration with:
Yoshitaka Okada – University of Tokyo
3D force constant modelling, using the reasonable
assumption of simple harmonic motion of atoms
in a matrix around their rest or lowest energy
position, reveals such phononic gaps [4.5.68].
The model calculates longitudinal and transverse
modes and can be used to calculate dispersions in
a variety of symmetry directions and for different
combinations of QD sub-lattice structure and super-
lattice structure.
III-V Stranski-Krastinov grown QD arrays of InAs in
InGaAs and InGaAlAs matrices are fabricated at the
University of Tokyo using MBE. We are investigating
these for evidence of phonon dispersion
modulation and potential slowed carrier cooling.
In order to understand the expected phonon
dispersions these are being modeeled using the 3D
force constant technique.
Lattice matched and strain compensated material
pairs that may produce large phonon bandgaps are
of interest. Previous iterations in the design of these
structures indicated the importance of separating
“light” and “heavy” atoms to different parts of the
nanostructure. Initially, the lightest atom in the
system, As, was present in both the QD and the
matrix. This meant that the reduced mass of both
regions (proportional to the sum of the inverses

of each atomic mass) was very similar as the light
element dominates in this case.
On this iteration structures with an In0.5Ga0.5-xAlxAs
matrix (with x=0.4) and InAs QDs were grown.
Significant Al content was introduced into these
structures with the expectation that this light
element, segregated to the matrix material,
might produce appreciable phonon bandgaps. A
schematic of the structure is shown in Fig. 4.5.56.
Some images derived from characterisation of
the structure are presented in Fig. 4.5.57. The
superlattice of QDs has a simple hexagonal
structure. Extraordinary periodic out-of-plane
stacking is achievable and largely defect free
structures can be grown on the order of microns.
Force constant modelling of this structure predicts
an appreciable phonon bandgap, as shown in
Fig. 4.5.58 and Fig. 4.5.59. This bandgap is due
almost entirely to the presence of the Al in the
system. A small bandgap is present due to the
mass difference between In, Ga and As, but it is
less than a quarter of the size shown in Fig. 4.5.58
and Fig. 4.5.59. Due to computational constraints
the size of the QDs is quite small, only about a
nanometre in diameter. While actual sizes for these
structures are too computationally intensive to
model without extreme effort, recent modelling
with gradually increasing size suggests that the
dispersion relations scale linearly with size. That
is, once the discrete distances (bond lengths) are
small relative to the superlattice unit cell dimension,
the dispersion should look exactly the same
when scaled such that the relative dimensions are
preserved. This will be investigated in greater detail
in further work.
Dispersion curves for InAs QDs in
a simple hexagonal SL. The matrix
is In0.5Ga0.5-xAlxAs with (x = 0.4).
There is a large phonon bandgap
present in the system due to the
presence of Al. The gap seems
very tolerant to Al location. (Far
left): <100>, (Centre): <110>, (Left):
<111> directions.
Figure 4.5.58
Densities of states (DOS) for the
dispersion curve immediately to the
left. Note small changes in the DOS
could be due to pseudo-random
locations of the Ga and Al particles
or to differences in crystalline
direction. (Far left): <100>,
(Centre): <110>, (Left): <111>
directions respectively.
Figure 4.5.59
4.5.3.3.3.2 Fabrication and
characterisation of highly ordered
nanoparticle arrays for Hot
Carrier absorber
Researchers:
Lara Treiber, Shujuan Huang,
Gavin Conibeer
As demonstrated by the work on
modelling phonon modulation,
periodic core-shell QD arrays offer
a way to significantly change the
phonon modulation in a superlattice
Langmuir-Blodgett set-up for
because the core and shell can be of materials of
film fabrication with surface
very different force constant, directly leading to a functionalized Si NPs.
strong phonon confinement. Deposition methods
Figure 4.5.60
are being investigated to fabricate such highly
ordered QD arrays.
The Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) technique fabricates
thin films from colloidal dispersions of quantum
dots (QDs). The LB technique allows for controllable,
uniform film formation and subsequent transfer
onto a solid substrate, such as quartz [4.5.69].
Through surface passivation of the QDs,
interparticle spacing can also be controlled. Figure
4.5.60 illustrates the set-up of the LB apparatus and
the functionalized QDs.
In 2010 work has focused on fabrication of periodic
thin films of Si nanoparticles (NPs) provided by
the University of Minnesota. The Si NPs under
investigation are surface passivated with dodecane
(C12H26), a long chain hydrocarbon rendering the
surface hydrophobic. The particles were dispersed
in chloroform and investigated using TEM, UV-vis
spectroscopy and photoluminescence (PL). Using
TEM imaging the average diameter was found to be
3.0 ±0.5 nm. Fig. 4.5.61 shows a droplet of solution
(dispersed in chloroform) and the inset highlights
the lattice fringes confirming the presence of silicon (Upper) TEM images of Si NPs dried
on a grid. (Lower) TEM image of
- a 3.14 Å lattice spacing corresponding to the
Si NP monolayer deposited at 50
{111} planes. mN/m of SP.
Figure 4.5.61
89
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60mN/m
ANNUAL REPORT

absorption (a.u)
65mN/m
collapse

0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5

Energy (eV)

(Left) Optical absorption of Si monolayers deposited at

various surface pressures (SP). (Right) PL of Si NP films
at varying SP, as compared to the Si NP solution.

Figure 4.5.62

 
 
 
 
Conceptual Integrated Device
Figure 4.5.63
nanostructures for Hot Carrier cells
External contact
Selective energy contact:
double (or triple) barrier QD resonant tunnelling
Slowed carrier cooling absorber layer: due to modified phonon dispersion, then a way
§ Periodic QD array tuned to block optical phonon
decay by Klemens mechanism;
§ Core shell QD for ease of tuning;
§ Must also allow renormalization of carrier energy by
e-e & h-h scattering.
Proof of concept with MOVPE/MBE III-V QD array.
Transfer to thin film or self-assembled QD array.
Selective energy contact:
selecting opposite carrier type
External contact
Monolayer structures of Si NPs have been
successfully deposited using the LB method and
characterisation has been on-going using TEM, UV-
vis, PL and Raman spectroscopy. Figure 4.5.61 (right)
illustrates TEM image of the Si films fabricated at 50
mN/m surface pressures (SP) of the water trough.
As noted, high contrast is difficult to achieve due to
the small density difference of Si and the carbon-
passivating chain. As a result, to further quantify
the coverage and regularity, computer recognition
software is required; on which work is on-going. It is
difficult to see for this reason, but Fig. 4.5.61 (right)
appears to show a dense packing of Si NPs.
UV-Vis spectroscopy was used to study the optical
absorption of the films. As illustrated in Fig.
4.5.62 (left) for single layers of Si NPs at varying
compression surface pressures (SP), the absorption
clearly increases when SP increases, corresponding
to higher packing densities of Si NPs. The PL spectra
of the above films show narrow and symmetric
peaks at 1.6 ~1.7 eV, as shown in Fig. 4.5.62 (right),
which are in good agreement with the estimated
bandgap using the ‘effective mass approximation’.
The red shift in emission energy from Si NP films
as compared to the solution corresponds to the
electronic energy transfer from small particles to
larger ones when they are closely packed [4.5.70].
4.5.3.3.3.3 Implementation of
In order to use a nanoparticle array as a Hot Carrier
absorber, and hence utilise slowed carrier cooling
to fabricate a complete structure with ESCs must
be established. A structure in which nanoparticles
are arranged in a uniform 3D array should give the
required phononic band gap. The degree to which
this needs to be ordered is still under investigation.
Certainly a large difference between masses is
beneficial between the nanoparticles and the
matrix and this can be best achieved in an array of
‘core shell QDs’ in which the core and shell have very
different acoustic impedance in order to promote
coherent reflection and hence confinement of
phonons [4.5.61]. The matrix in which such an array
is embedded needs to allow transport of carriers to
contacts and also electron-electron and preferably
hole-hole scattering to renormalise carrier energies.
Such a structure should also have a narrow
electronic band gap so as to absorb a wide range
of photon energies. This combination of properties
is challenging but not mutually exclusive because
phononic properties are largely independent of
electronic properties. Energy selective contacts
are also required for such a structure. These would
most likely be arranged at the top and bottom of
the absorber. (A hole contact might not need to be
selective because the hole population only contains
a small fraction of the hot carrier energy and hence
thermalisation of holes is less important.) These
ESCs would be QD or QW double barrier structures.
(Addition of an extra layer to give double QD/QW
triple barrier structures should also give rectification
at the contact.) Such a QD array / double barrier QD
ESC structure is shown schematically in Fig. 4.5.63.

Investigation of the electronic and phononic

properties of the monolayer and multilayer
structures are on-going using low-wavenumber
Raman and time resolve PL spectroscopy.

90
Physical picture of the ND HC Solar
Cell (upper) with a carrier diffusion
field (core/shell thickness ratio
not to scale), embedded into a
wide band gap solar cell [4.5.71].
Iso-valent impurities provide an
energy selective level for electrons.
Band diagram of the ND HC Solar
Cell matched to the physical
structure (lower). Direct generation
of hot exciton (1), energy selective
extraction of hot electron from Hot
Carrier absorber (2), thermionic
emission/diffusion of holes over
the barrier (3), electron-electron-
scattering with renormalization
of carrier energies and possible
energy loss by phonon emission
(4), free carrier re-absorption (5),
impact ionization (6) and carrier
generation in the wide band gap
matrix (7).
Figure 4.5.64
Nanoparticle cell design incorporating
ESCs and absorber
Researcher:
Dirk König
A full Hot Carrier cell requires control of optical,
electronic and phononic properties in the same
structure. One possible approach is the ‘nano-dot
(ND) Hot Carrier cell’ embedded into the i-region of
a wide band gap solar cell as shown in Fig. 4.5.64.
Hot Carrier solar cells must have a continuous
electronic density of states (DOS) to maximise
maximum photon absorption and elastic electron-
electron scattering. The latter refills the depleted
electronic energy levels from which electrons are
extracted through the ESC. On the other hand, if
they do not have a phononic band gap themselves
the NDs must not be much bigger than the ballistic
mean free path in order to prevent inelastic
scattering by which carriers cool down rapidly.
However, optical phonons can be confined in the
nanocrystals as mentioned in Section 4.5.3.3.3
by arranging for a mismatch between optical
phonon energies in the two materials. Core shell
nanocrystals can be used to realise this [4.5.61,
4.5.62]. In addition the shell can be doped with
iso-valent impurities which form split-off subbands
within the electronic band gap of the material,
such as boron replacing gallium in gallium nitride
(GaN) [4.5.71]. Such an ESC would only work for
one carrier type as co-doping of a thin nano-shell
appears not to be technologically feasible. For some
III-V compounds with a very high effective mass
ratio between holes and electrons such that most of
the excess energy during optical generation is taken
up by the electron, thermalisation of holes does not
represent a large loss in energy. Hence thermionic
emission of holes over a low barrier can be used
to transport holes into the bulk of the device to be
collected by the junction with little loss in efficiency.
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4.5.3.3.4 Hot Carrier Absorber:
Choice of Materials
Researchers:
G. Conibeer, R. Patterson, P. Aliberti, S. Huang,
Y. Kamikawa, D. König, Binesh Puthen-Veettil,
S.Shrestha, M.A. Green
The properties required for a good hot carrier
absorber material are listed below in order
of priority.
1. Large phononic band gap (EO(min) - ELA) - in
order to suppress Klemens decay of optical
phonons this must be at least as large as the
maximum acoustic phonon energy. Hence a
large mass difference (or large force constant
difference) between constituent elements is
required [4.5.61].
2. Narrow optical phonon energy dispersion (ELO -
EO(min)) – in order to minimise the loss of energy
to TO phonons by Ridley decay. This requires
a high symmetry atomic or nano-structure,
preferably cubic with degenerate optical
phonon energies at zone centre.
3. Small electronic band gap – to allow a wide
range of photon absorption. This should be less
than 1eV. For 1 sun concentration the optimum
is 0.7eV - as a band gap below this energy
gives no advantage in the balance between
absorption and emission. As the concentration
ratio increases this optimum band gap decreases
to zero at maximum concentration [4.5.1].
4. A small LO optical phonon energy (ELO). This
reduces the amount of energy lost per LO
phonon emission, requiring a greater number
to be emitted for a given energy loss [4.5.62].
However, it is difficult to have both a small ELO
and the large phononic gap required in 1. This
condition requires further investigation, but
does still argue for a small ELO.
5. An absolute small maximum acoustic phonon
energy (ELA). This maximises the phononic gap if
ELO is also small. A small ELA requires a large mass
for the heavy atom and/or small force constant
for its bonds.
6. Good renormalisation rates in the material,
i.e. good e-e and h-h scattering (e=electron,
91
 IIA IIIA IB IIB IIIB IVB VB VIB
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Ba La Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po

Er

Use of the periodic table to analyse possible analogue compounds of InN

based on atomic mass combination and electro-negativity.

Figure 4.5.65

h=hole). This requires a reasonable DOS at
all energies above Eg, or at least only very
narrow gaps between energy levels, ≤
kT300K. This in turn requires a good overlap
of wavefunction for carriers through the
material, i.e. poor electronic confinement
or a reasonable conductor. This condition is
met in all inorganic semiconducotrs quite
easily, with e-e scattering rates of less than
100fs for reasonable carrier concentrations.
It may not be met in organic
semiconductors or in nanostructures with
large barrier heights.
7. Good carrier transport in order to allow
transport of hot carriers to the contacts.
This is similar to 6, except that it only
need be in the direction of the contacts,
probably the z growth direction. A
reasonably low resistance is probably good.
8. It should be possible to make good quality,
highly ordered, low defect material.
Preferably it should be easy and cheap to
do this.
9. Earth abundant and readily available and
processable constituent elements and
processes.
10. No or low toxicity of elements, compounds
and processes.
[(ELO , EO(min) & ELA are the maximum optical,
minimum optical and maximum acoustic
phonon energies respectively.]
InN has most of these properties, except 4, 8 &
9, and is therefore a good model material for a
hot carrier cell absorber.
Analogues of InN
As InN is a model material, but has the
problems of abundance and bad material
quality, another approach is to use analogues
of InN to attempt to emulate its near ideal
properties. These analogues can be II-IV-nitride
compounds, large mass anion III-Vs, group IV
compounds/alloys or nanostructures.
II-IV-Vs: ZnSnN; ZnPbN; HgSnN; HgPbN
With reference to Fig 4.5.65, it can be seen that
replacement of In on the III sub-lattice with
II-IV compounds is analogous and is now quite
widely being investigated in the Cu2ZnSnS4
analogue to CuInS2 [4.5.72].
ZnGeN can be fabricated [4.5.73] and is most
directly analogous with Si and GaAs. However,
its band gap is large at 1.9eV. It also has a small
calculated phononic band gap [4.5.74]. ZnSnN
has a smaller electronic gap (1 eV) and larger
calculated phononic gap [4.5.74]. It is however
difficult to fabricate, and also its phononic gap
is not as large as the acoustic phonon energy
making it difficult to block Klemens decay
completely. HgSnN or HgPbN should both
have smaller Eg and larger phononic gaps.
These materials have not yet been fabricated
[4.5.75].
Large mass cation:
The Bi and Sb compounds have large
predicted phononic gaps and Bi is a relatively
abundant material, with only low toxicity
[4.5.75]. BiB has the largest phononic gap
but AlBi, Bi2S5, Bi2O3 (bismuthine) are also
attractive. Similarly SbB has a large predicted
phononic gap. That for AlSb is the same size
as the acoustic phonon energy and its band
gap is 1.5eV, making it marginal as an absorber
material and similar to InP.
Group IIIA III-Vs
LaN and YN both have large phononic gaps
whilst that for ScN is too small.
The Lanthanides can also form III-Vs. ErN and
other RE nitrides can be grown by MBE. The
phononic band gaps of the Er compounds are
predicted to be large, because of the heavy
Er cation, but its discrete energy levels make
it not useful as an absorber, although the
combination of properties in a nanostructure
could be advantageous.
Group IV alloy/compounds:
All of the combinations Si/Sn, Ge/C or Sn/C
look attractive with large gaps predicted in
1D models. However being all group IVs they
only form weak compounds. Unfortunately
SiC, whether 3C, 4H or 6H, has too narrow
a phononic gap. Nonetheless GeC does
form a compound and is of significant
interest [4.5.76].
There are also several other inherent
advantages of group IV compounds/alloys all
of which are associated with the four valence
electrons of the group IVs which result in
predominantly covalent bonding:
a) The elements form completely covalently
bonded crystals primarily in a diamond
structure (tetragonal is also possible as in
βSn). However for group IV compounds
the decreasing electronegativity down the
group results in partially ionic bonding.
This is not strong in SiC and whilst it tends
to give co-ordination numbers of 4, can
nonetheless result in several allotropes of
decreasing symmetry: 4c, 4h, 6h. However,
as the difference in period increases for the
as yet theoretical group IV compounds, so
too does the difference in electronegativity
and hence also the bond ionicity and the
degree of order. For a hot carrier absorber
this is ideal because it is just such a large
difference in the period which is needed
to give the large mass difference and
hence large phononic gaps. All of GeC,
SnSi, SnC (and the Pb compounds) have
computed phononic gaps large enough
to block Klemens decay, and should also
tend to form ordered diamond structure
compounds.
b) Because of their covalent bonding, the
group IV elements have relatively small
electronic band gaps as compared to their
more ionic III-V and much more ionic II-VI
analogues in the same period: e.g. Sn
0.15eV, InSb 0.4eV, CdTe 1.5eV. In fact to
achieve approximately the same electronic
band gap one must go down one period
from group IV to III-V and down another
period from III-V to II-VI: e.g. Si 1.1eV, GaAs
1.45eV, CdTe 1.5eV. This means that for
group IV compounds there is greater scope
for large mass difference compounds

92

Cross-sectional electron micrograph of a 30-bilayer
porous silicon distributed Bragg reflector.
Figure 4.5.66
whilst still maintaining small electronic
band gaps. A small band gap of course
being important for broadband absorption
in an absorber - property 3 in the desirable
properties for hot carrier absorbers listed
above.
c) The smaller Eg would tend to be for the
larger mass compounds of Pb or Sn. Which,
to give large mass difference, would be
compounded with Si or Ge. This trend
towards the lower periods of group IV also
means that the maximum optical phonon
and maximum acoustic phonon energies
will be smaller for a given mass ratio - the
desirable properties 4 and 5.
d) Furthermore, unlike most groups, the
group IV elements remain abundant for the
higher mass number elements – desirable
property 9. Property 10 is also satisfied
because the group IVs have low toxicity.
Nanostructures:
As discussed in section 4.5.3.3.3 QD
nanostructures can be viewed in the same
way as compounds. Their phononic properties
can be estimated from consideration of their
combination force constants. Hence it is
possible to ‘engineer’ phononic properties in
a wider range of nanostructure combinations.
Of the materials discussed above the Group IVs
lend themselves most readily to formation of
nanostructures instead of compounds due to
their predominantly covalent bonding, which
allows variation in the coordination number.
Therefore the nanostructure approaches of
section 4.5.3.3.3 are consistent with a similar
description as analogues of InN, whether it be
III-V QDs, colloidally dispersed QDs or for core
shell QDs.
4.5.3.3.5 Summary of Hot Carrier
solar cell research
2010 has seen significant development in
most areas of Hot Carrier solar cell work.
The modelling of efficiencies not only now
includes real material parameters for highly
promising absorber materials such as InN,
but also is now extended to Energy Selective
contacts of finite width. The transport across
such contacts is further modelled for a range
of QD matrix combinations. Work on ESCs has
seen further more detailed demonstration
of the necessary resonance in double barrier
resonant tunnelling structures, with additional
evidence for hot carrier populations, albeit
very small, from illuminated I-V measurements
with the ‘optically assisted I-V’ technique.
Measurement of InN with time-resolved PL
has indicated some evidence for slowed
carrier cooling, further corroborating the
importance of a large phonon band gap
to block optical phonon decay, but also
highlights the importance of material
quality. Modelling of nanostructures for
absorber materials has focussed on real III-V
QD structures, showing phonon bandgaps
which will soon be measured in phonon
dispersion measurements. Progress on the
Langmuir-Blodgett approach to ordered
nanoparticle arrays has seen development of
ordered single layer arrays of Si nanoparticles.
The potential application of nanostructures
to fully integrated devices has started to
be investigated conceptually, with various
designs considered. Similarly the possibility
of absorber materials which are analogous
to InN is also being investigated. These many
aspects of Hot Carrier cells will see further
development and consolidation in 2011
with recent success in significant additional
funding.
ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE
2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT
4.5.4 Up-conversion
Researchers:
Craig Johnson, Gavin Conibeer
Collaboration with:
Peter Reece (Physics, UNSW)
Up-conversion in novel silicon-based
materials
Up-conversion (UC) in erbium-doped
phosphor compounds (particularly NaYF4:Er)
has been shown to be a promising means
of enhancing the sub-band-gap spectral
response of conventional Si solar cells without
modification of the electrical properties of the
cell [4.5.77]. In this scheme, a layer containing
the phosphor is applied to the rear of a high-
efficiency bifacial cell. After absorbing two
long-wavelength (~1500nm) photons - which
are transmitted by the cell - the excited Er
ions can relax by emitting a photon with an
energy greater than the Si band gap, thereby
increasing the current that can be extracted
from the cell.
While phosphors have demonstrated
high-efficiency UC behaviour, their use
presents particular challenges with regard
to fabrication and cost. Our work in the last
year has focused on the development of
Er-doped porous Si (PSi:Er) as an alternative
UC material. PSi is unique in that its porosity -
and hence the material refractive index - can
be varied as a function of depth, allowing for
the elaboration of high-quality monolithic Si
optical structures such as distributed Bragg
reflectors (DBRs). A cross-sectional electron
micrograph of such a structure is shown in Fig.
4.5.66. Its porous substructure also allows for
deep infusion of dopant atoms via techniques
such as electroplating.
93
 ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
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ANNUAL REPORT

Simulated reflectivity spectra of

PSi DBRs with varying numbers
of bilayers; layer thicknesses
were adjusted to fix the short-
wavelength stop band edge
at 1550nm (marked with red
dashed vertical line).

Figure 4.5.68

changes abruptly between transmission and

Band structure in the neighborhood
of the fundamental band gap of
an infinite 1D photonic crystal
(left) and group velocity in the
material (right).
Figure 4.5.67
We have previously reported room-temperature UC
luminescence from Er-doped nanoporous Si when
excited at very high power densities with a 1550nm
laser. In the past year we have focused on increasing
the efficiency of this UC luminescence by modifying
the PSi structure as described above.
The dependence of the efficiency of the UC process
on irradiance is non-linear in the range of “sun-
like” incident power. That is, the concentration
of the incident radiation into a small Er-doped
region results in greater efficiency than for non-
concentrated radiation over a proportionally large-
area device. Typically, concentration is achieved
using lenses or non-imaging optics, but we have
examined an analogous electromagnetic field
enhancement in the vicinity of optically-active Er
ions by the excitation of slow-light modes in these
PSi:Er DBRs.
Field enhancement in 1D PSi:Er
photonic crystals
Though their use preceded the advent of the
photonic crystal concept, DBRs can be described
as one-dimensional photonic crystals. The regular
variation of the optical thickness of multiple
alternating layers results in wavelength-dependent
interference behaviour manifesting as discrete
bands of allowed and disallowed electromagnetic
modes, as shown in the left panel of Fig. 4.5.67. The
“edge” of a photonic band is a spectral region in
which the effect of coherent scattering processes
reflection of incident photons as determined by
the superposition of Bloch waves. Insofar as the
group velocity vg of an incident wave can be said
to transition between “positive” and “negative”
values - implying energy propagation into and out
of the structure, respectively, in bands of strong
transmission and strong reflection - there exists an
inversion point at which vg is zero, corresponding to
a standing wave established by the superposition of
scattered Bloch components. As can be seen in the
right panel of Fig. 4.5.67, group velocity is drastically
suppressed across a broad region near the zero-
point. For steady-state equilibrium conditions,
this slowing of energy propagation requires a
proportional increase in energy density, that is,
an enhancement of the electromagnetic field
strength within the structure. It can be shown that
the efficiency increase for a two-step UC process is
proportional to (c/nvg – 1)I0, where c is the speed of
light in vacuum, n is the average refractive index of
the multilayer material, and I0 is the incident field
intensity [4.5.78]. In this way the slow-light mode
acts to augment the interaction that converts
energy from the field into atomic potential energy,
resulting in a boost in the efficiency of the process
until saturation is reached.
Simulation of field enhancement in 1D
PC structures
Using a 1D transfer matrix calculation, we simulated
the reflectivity characteristics of a series of PSi DBRs
with 10, 20, 30 and 40 high-/low-porosity bilayers.
As shown in Fig. 4.5.68, the reflectivity characteristic
of a DBR contains a wide photonic stop-band.
The structural parameters were tuned slightly in
each case as the number of bilayers increased to
produce a short-wavelength band edge minimum
at 1550nm, the excitation wavelength of interest
(marked with a dashed red line).
Maximum transmission of ~1550nm light into the
structure is clearly required for efficient coupling
into the Er ions. From Fig. 4.5.68 it is evident that
an increased number of layers “compresses” the
reflectivity characteristic, resulting in a steeper

94
 ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE
2010/11
Intensity-valued mode profile in DBRs
with varying numbers of high/low-
ANNUAL REPORT
porosity bilayers for a leading band edge
fixed at ~1550nm. All intensities are
normalized to the incident field intensity
and each plot is independently color-
scaled to show maximum detail. The air
and substrate interfaces with the DBR are
indicated by the dashed black (upper)
and red (lower) lines, respectively.

Figure 4.5.69

band edge and a narrower transmission window 4.5.5 Plasmonics for 3rd
between the stop band and the neighboring Generation structures
interference fringe.

Figure 4.5.69 shows the calculated field intensity

Researcher:
profile for these DBRs in the spectral region Supriya Pillai
between 1500 and 1600nm. The results have
been normalized to the incident field intensity
Plasmonics is the study of the interaction of light
and each plot is independently colour-scaled to
on a thin metal dielectric interface resulting in
show maximum detail. They clearly demonstrate
the collective oscillation of the free electrons in
that considerable field enhancement is possible
the metal. This gives rise to exciting properties
throughout the depth of such a multilayer structure,
that are very different from the bulk metal. It is
with peak relative intensities of more than 11 for
an emerging area of technology for photovoltaic
the 30-bilayer structure and more than 18 for the
applications with potential for light management
40-bilayer structure. However, it is also clear that the
at the nanoscale. Ever since our proof-of
regions of enhancement are increasingly narrowly-
concept results were published in 2007 [4.5.79],
concentrated as the number of bilayers increases.
there has been a huge increase in interest in
This is due to the additional interference fringes
incorporating nanoparticles on solar cells due
in the reflectivity characteristic of the DBR that
to their demonstrated light trapping properties.
arise with additional layers, as is apparent from Fig.
The large optical polarisation associated with the
4.5.69. Calculations for more than 40 layers show
nanoparticles results in a strong enhancement of
that enhancements of up to 80 are possible for a
the electric field around the vicinity of the particles
large number of bilayers though the peak narrows
along with strong scattering. This optical property is
to less than 1nm wide for 100 bilayers.
being utilised for improving light trapping in thin-
film solar cells.
Conclusion
The scattering or near field enhancement is
These simulations show that drastic field intensity
strongest at the surface plasmon resonance (SPR)
enhancement is in principle achievable in Er-doped
frequency and this can be tuned by changing the
PSi DBRs. Our current work is focused on the
size, shape, dielectric medium around the particles.
fabrication of suitable samples by anodic chemical
SPR tunability offers control in manipulating light
etching, electroplating, and high-temperature
in the regime where the absorption of the solar
annealing. Angular-dependent room temperature
cells are weak. Our recent work (see section 4.4
photoluminescence studies are underway to
Thin Film) has shown the benefits of having the
probe the effect of the photonic band edge on the
particles on the rear as opposed to previous work
efficiency of UC in the optically-active Er ions within
with front located particles [4.5.80]. By having the
the structures. This Si-based approach to efficient
particles on the back of the cell any potential loss
up-conversion is conceptually promising and by
due to absorption in the metal or losses due to
optimising our fabrication techniques to improve
sub-resonance photocurrent suppression resulting
the quality of our optical structures we expect it will
from destructive interference of the scattered and
prove to be valuable work.
transmitted light into the semiconductor layer
can be avoided [4.5.81]. An additional advantage
is that because the scattering plasmonics layer
is electrically decoupled from the cell, the
antireflection layer on the front and the plasmons

95
 ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE Increasing order of wavelength
2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT
Decreasing order of bandgap energy
of the semiconductor
can be optimised independently of each other. Our
recent work has also made use of an additional
reflecting layer (paint) along with the nanoparticle
layer on the rear side of the cell to maximise the
randomisation of light and to ensure no light is
lost [4.5.80].
In this study we focus our interest on the use of
plasmonics for low-dimensional structures like
quantum dot structures for possible applications
in tandem solar cells. PL measurements were
used to characterise the samples. The analysis
is based on the reciprocity of light that a good
absorber can be a good emitter and the proof-
of concept established with EL measurements
in an earlier study [4.5.82]. Hence the PL
enhancement would be synonymous to an
increase in photocurrent for an optimised QD cell.
The tunability of plasmon resonance allows the
possibility of increasing the photocurrent of each
cell in a tandem cell configuration. Optimising
the nanoparticle parameters can help achieve
wavelength dependent light trapping which will
be an encouraging step towards increasing the
performance of a tandem solar cell. Figure 4.5.70
shows one way of achieving the SPR tunability by
varying the size of the nanoparticles in a tandem
cell configuration.
The sample under study is a 4nm single layer silicon
QD structure in an oxide matrix with a 6nm capping
oxide layer with an emission wavelength of 930nm
(~1.3eV). Mass thicknesses of 10, 14, 18 and 22 nm
silver were deposited and the particles annealed
at 200°C in nitrogen for an hour. A 532nm, 10mW
Nd:YAG laser was used to illuminate the samples
for both the front (incident on QD layer) and rear
side (incident on the quartz slide) locations of the
silver nanoparticles and the PL plots studied. PL
measurements were carried out on these samples
and the effect of different size particles were
investigated both before and after the deposition of
the nanoparticles.
The self assembly techniques of nanoparticle
fabrication give a varied size and shape distribution
very suitable for a broadband response. This is
96
Increasing order of particle size
Schematic representation showing
an example of surface plasmon
resonance tunability by varying the
of size of the metal nanoparticles
for wavelength dependent light
trapping in a tandem solar cell.
Figure 4.5.70
particularly noted for particles corresponding to
thicker Ag layers as can be seen from the PL plots in
Fig. 4.5.71. The red-shift of the enhancement peaks
with larger particles are also clearly evident. More
details of this work has been reported in [4.5.83].
Rear located nanoparticles perform better than
front located nanoparticles, consistent with the
results from thin-film cells. We believe this is
because of the change in scattering cross-section of
the nanoparticles due to the changes in the driving
field and also due to the change in the mode of
excitation (from air for front located nanoparticles
and from Si for rear located nanoparticles) for
the two different locations on the samples. More
work need to be done to better understand the
mechanism. Further work will also concentrate
on using alternate approaches for tuning the
resonance position close to the band-edge
(emission wavelength for PL) to increase the
scattering properties and hence absorption in the
weakly absorbing range.
4.5.6 Concluding remarks for the Third
Generation section
In 2010 work has proceeded significantly in all the
areas of Third Generation research, with improved
fabrication and characterisation of materials and
complexity of modelling which together give an
overall better understanding and optimisation
of devices.
Group IV based nanostructure materials have seen
significant improvement in device design. With
interlayers, in both SiNx and SiC matrices, used to
effectively control both the uniformity of size of Si
QDs and carrier transport in the growth direction.
Modelling now allows the confined energy levels
of complex QD shapes to be calculated and their
overlap to form mini-bands estimated in more
detail. At the same tiome improved characterisation
is giving a much clearer idea on the shape and
distributions of Si QDs and is now allowing choice
of growth parameters to give uniform size spherical
QDs to be grown. Ge nanostructure materials have
seen improved control of p-type conductivity in
 7
no MNP (a) Front 1.0
10nm Ag
6 14nm Ag 0.9

5
18nm Ag 0.8 ARC

PL enhancement
22nm Ag
0.7
PHOTOVOLTAICS

PL (a.u)
4 0.6

3
0.5 CENTRE OF
0.4
2 0.3
EXCELLENCE
1
0.2 2010/11
0.1
0 0.0
ANNUAL REPORT
600 700 800 900 1000
Wavelength (nm)
3.2
20 no MNP PL plots from a 4nm single
(b) Rear
18 Ag reflector 2.8
10nm Ag layer QD structure in an oxide
16 14nmAg
2.4 matrix with a 6nm capping
18nm Ag
PL Enhancement

14 22nm Ag oxide layer (right axis) along

2.0 with the corresponding
12

PL (a.u)
1.6 enhancement plots (left axis)
10
with silver nanoparticles
8 1.2 corresponding to 10, 14, 18
6 and 22 nm mass thickness of
0.8
4 silver for (a) silver nanoparticles
0.4 on the front and (b) silver
2
0 0.0 nanoparticles on the rear.
600 700 800 900 1000
Wavelength (nm) Figure 4.5.71

Ge QDs and very highly crystalline growth of Ge
QWs. Homojunction Si nanostructure devices
have demonstrated improved conduction, there
has been continued demonstration of rectifying
properties for heterojunctions with c-Si and
heterojunctions between two nanostructured
materials are now starting to exploit the advantages
of both.
Hot carrier cells have seen further development
of efficiency modelling which now not only
includes material parameters such as Auger
coefficients for real promising absorber materials
such as InN, but also includes the effects of real
non-ideal energy selective contacts. There has
been significant improvement in measurement
of negative differential resistance in Si QD based
energy selective contacts is now allowing and this
overlaps well with continuing improvement in
modelling the transport through such structures
in various matrices. Carrier cooling measurements
on the candidate absorber material InN have
shown evidence for phonon bandgaps building on
the slowed carrier cooling seen in InP previously.
Modelling of analogues of these materials in
nanostructures now predicts the phonon properties
of rea lIII-V QD arrays grown by collaborators. In
addition colloidally dispersed Si nanoparticles
have now been fabricated as coherent single layer
nanoparticle arrays and are progressing towards
multi-layer structures. Theoretical work on the
potential materials for absorbers with controlled
phon dispersion and hence slowed carrier cooling
has progressed on approapratie analogues for
InN and devices involving various nanostructure
configurations are being analysed conceptually.
Up-conversion has seen a further significant
development of the use of porous-Si as a host for Er
up converting species. The porosity of porous-Si can
be controlled to give layers of alternating refractive
index which can be used as distributed Bragg
reflectors to modifiy the photonic density of states
such that there is strong enhancement of photonic
modes at the critical Er absorption at 1500nm.
This has been demonstrated and can lead directly
to large increase in the up-conversion efficiency,
thus tackling one of the key problems of rare earth
up-conversion that it is inherently non-linear and
dependent on concentration.
Plasmonics, whic has previously been shown to
enhance emission and absorption from both 1st
and 2nd generation cells, has now been applied
to the Si annostructured layers of 3rd generatrion
materials. This has shown significant enhancement
in luminescence demonstrating the strong potential
to achieve local concentration with a global 1 sun
illumination. This is particularly useful for several of
the non-linear 3rd generation approaches.
The development of all the 3rd generation projects
in 2010 now allows much greater understanding
of the materials and devices. Work in 2011 will see
consolidation of this into improved devices. Several
new areas of funding will contribute to this and also
allow development of new project areas.
References:
4.5.1 M. A. Green, “Third Generation Photovoltaics:
Ultra-High Efficiency at Low Cost” (Springer-
Verlag, 2003).
4.5.2 J. Nelson, “The Physics of Solar Cells”, Imperial
College press, 2003.
4.5.3 G. Conibeer, “Third Generation Photovoltaics”,
Materials Today, 10 (11) (2007) 42-50.
4.5.4 E-C. Cho, S. Park, X. Hao, D. Song, G. Conibeer,
S-C. Park, M.A. Green, “Silicon quantum dot/
crystalline silicon solar cells”, Nanotechnology, 19
(2008) 245201
4.5.5 Hao X J, Podhorodecki A, Shen Y S, Zatryb G,
Misiewicz J, Green M A, “Effects of Si-rich oxide
layer stoichiometry on the structural and
optical properties of Si QDs/SiO2 multilayer film”,
Nanotechnology 20, 485703 (2009).
4.5.6 M.A. Green, G. Conibeer, D. König, I. Perez-Wurfl,
A. Gentle, S. Huang, D. Song, X.J. Hao, F. Gao, S.
Park, C. Flynn, Y. So, B. Zhang, D. Di, P. Campbell,
Y. Huang and T. Puzzer, “Progress with All-Silicon
Tandem Cells On Glass Using Silicon Quantum
Dots in Silicon-Based Dielectric Matrices”, 24th
European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference,
Hamburg, Germany, 21-25 September 2009.
4.5.7 M. Zacharias, J. Heitmann, R. Scholz, U. Kahler, M.
Schmidt, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80(2002) 661.
4.5.8 X.J. Hao, I. Perez-Wurfl, G. Conibeer, M.A. Green,
19th PVSEC, Korea, Nov 2009.

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 4.5.9 I. Perez-Wurfl, X. Hao, A. Gentle, D. Kim, G.
Conibeer, M.A. Green, “Si nanocrystal p-i-n
ARC diodes fabricated on quartz substrates for third
PHOTOVOLTAICS generation solar cell applications,”Applied Physics
Letters, 95 (2009) 153506.
CENTRE OF
4.5.10 X.J. Hao, E-C. Cho, G. Scardera, Y.S. Shen, E.
EXCELLENCE Bellet-Amalric, D. Bellet, G. Conibeer, M.A. Green,
2010/11 “Phosphorus-doped silicon quantum dots for
ANNUAL REPORT all-silicon quantum dot tandem solar cells”, Solar
Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 93 (2009) 1524.
4.5.11 G. Conibeer, M.A. Green, R. Corkish, Y.-H. Cho, E.-C.
Cho, C.-W. Jiang, T. Fangsuwannarak, E. Pink, Y.
Huang, T. Puzzer, T. Trupke, B. Richards, A. Shalav,
K.-L. Lin, Thin Solid Films 511/512 (2006) 654.
4.5.12 E.-C. Cho, Y.H. Cho, T. Trupke, R. Corkish, G.
Conibeer and M.A. Green, Proc. 19th European
Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Paris, (June
2004), p. 235.
4.5.13 F. Meillaud, A. Shah, C. Droz, E. Vallat-Sauvain,
C. Miazza, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 90,
29522 (2006).
4.5.14 T. Arguirov, T. Mchedlidze, M. Kittler, R. Rölver, B.
Berghoff, M. Först, B. Spangenberg, Appl. Phys.
Lett. 89 (2006) 053111.
4.5.15 T.-W. Kim, C.-H. Cho, B.-H. Kim, S.-J. Park, Appl. Phys.
Lett. 88 (2006) 123102.
4.5.16 Y.-H. Cho, E.-C. Cho, Y. Huang, C.-W. Jiang, G.
Conibeer, M.A. Green, Proceeding of 20th
European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference,
Barcelona, Spain, June 6-10, 2005, p.47.
4.5.17 Y. Kurokawa, S. Miyajima, A. Yamada and M.
Konagai, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 45, L1064 (2006).
4.5.18 C.-W. Jiang, M.A. Green, J. Appl. Phys. 99
(2006) 114902.
4.5.19 K. Boer, “Survey of Semiconductor Physics”, van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1990.
4.5.20 Aliberti, P., et al., “Study of silicon quantum dots
in a SiO2 matrix for energy selective contacts
applications”, Solar Energy Materials and Solar
Cells. 94(11): p. 1936-1941 (2010).
4.5.21 E.A.B.Cole, “Mathematical and Numerical
Modelling of Heterostructure Semiconductor
Devices: From Theory to Programming”. 2009:
Springer. 406.
4.5.22 Grinstein, F.F., H. Rabitz, and A. Askar, “The
Multigrid Method for Accelerated Solution of
the Discretized Schrodinger Equation”. Journal of
Computational Physics, 1983. 51: p. 423-443.
4.5.23 D. König, J. Rudd, M.A. Green, G. Conibeer, “Role of
the interface for the electronic structure of silicon
quantum dots”, Physical Review B, 2008. 78(3):
p. 035339.
4.5.24 Yurtsever, A., M. Weyland, and D.A. Muller,
“Three-dimensional imaging of nonspherical
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4.5.25 L.-W. Wang and A. Zunger, J. Phys. Chem. 98,
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4.5.26 Y-H. So, M.A. Green, G. Conibeer, S. Huang, A.
Gentle, “Size dependent optical properties of Si
quantum dots in Si-rich nitride/Si3N4 superlattice
synthesized by magnetron sputtering”, Applied
Physics Letters, accepted Feb 2011.
4.5.27 D. Di, I. Perez-Wurfl, G. Conibeer, M.A. Green, Solar
Energy Materials & Solar Cells 94 (2010) 2238-2243.
4.5.28 G. Conibeer, M.A. Green, D. Konig, I. Perez-Wurfl,
S. Huang, X. Hao, D. Di, L. Shi, S. Shrestha, B.
Puthen-Veettil, Y. So, B. Zhang and Z. Wan, “Silicon
quantum dot based solar cells: addressing the
issues of doping, voltage and current transport”,
Progress in Photovoltaics: Res. Appl. 18 (2010) In
press, Published online in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/pip.1045,
accepted Sept 2010
4.5.28 D. Song, E. Cho, Y. Cho, G. Conibeer, Y. Huang,
S. Huang, MA. Green, “Evolution of Si (and SiC)
98
nanocrystal precipitation in SiC matrix”, Thin
Solid Films 516 (2008) 3824–3830, doi:10.1016/j.
tsf.2007.06.150
4.5.29 D. Song, E-C. Cho, G. Conibeer, Y. Huang, C. Flynn,
MA. Green, “Structural characterization of annealed
Si1-xCx/SiC multilayers targeting formation of Si
nanocrystals in a SiC matrix”, Journal of Applied
Physics, 103 (2008) 083544.
4.5.30 Z. Wan, S. Huang, M.A. Green, G. Conibeer, Physica
Status Solidi C, “Residual stress study of silicon
quantum dot in silicon carbide matrix by Raman
measurement”, EXCON ‘10 Proceedings special
issue, accepted September 2010.
4.5.31 Zhenyu Wan, Shujuan Huang, Martin Green
and Gavin Conibeer, Rapid thermal annealing
and crystallization mechanisms study of silicon
nanocrystal in silicon carbide matrix, Nanoscale
Research Letters, 7541289134788882, accepted
January 2011.
4.5.32 F. Gao, M.A. Green, G. Conibeer, E-C. Cho, Y. Huang,
I. Perez-Wurfl, C. Flynn, “Fabrication of multilayered
Ge nanocrystals by magnetron sputtering and
annealing”, Nanotechnology, 19 (2008) 455611.
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G. Conibeer, M.A. Green, Solar Energy Materials
& Solar Cells, “Synthesis and characterization of
boron-doped Si quantum dots for all-Si quantum
dot tandem solar cells”, 93 (2009) 273–279.
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“Introducing dopants by diffusion to improve the
conductivity of silicon quantum dot materials
in 3rd generation photovoltaic devices”, Physica
Status Solidi, accepted Sept10
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M. A. Green, “Doping of Si-Based Dielectrics
for Providing Majorities to Si Quantum Dots:
Acceptors in SiO2”, Proc. 24th European PVSEC,
(Hamburg 2009).
4.5.49 G. Conibeer, M.A. Green, D. Konig, I. Perez-Wurfl,
S. Huang, X. Hao, D. Di, L. Shi, S. Shrestha, B.
Puthen-Veettil, Y. So, B. Zhang and Z. Wan, “Silicon
quantum dot based solar cells: addressing the
issues of doping, voltage and current transport”,
Progress in Photovoltaics: Res. Appl. 18 (2010) In
press, Published online in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/pip.1045,
accepted Sept 2010.
4.5.50 Santosh K. Shrestha, Pasquale Aliberti, Gavin J.
Conibeer, Energy selective contacts for hot carrier
solar cells, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells,
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dispersion relations of zinc-blende and wurtzite
InN”, Physical Review B, 69 (2004) 165204.
4.5.55 Y. Takeda, T. Ito, T. Motohiro, D. König, S.K. Shrestha,
G. Conibeer, “Hot carrier solar cells operating under
practical conditions”, Journal of Applied Physics,
105 (2009) 074905-10.
4.5.56 Wurfel, P., A.S. Brown, T.E. Humphrey, and M.A.
Green, Particle conservation in the hot-carrier solar
cell”, Progress in Photovoltaics, 13 (2005) 277-285.
4.5.57 P. Aliberti, Y. Feng, Y. Takeda, S.K. Shrestha, M.A.
Green, G.J. Conibeer, “Investigation of theoretical
efficiency limit of hot carrier solar cells with bulk
InN absorber”, Journal of Applied Physics, 108
(2010) 094507-10.
4.5.58 G. Conibeer, C.W. Jiang, D. König, S.K. Shrestha, T.
Walsh, M.A. Green, “Selective energy contacts for
hot carrier solar cells”, Thin Solid Films, 216 (2008)
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Guillemoles, D. König, S. Shrestha, R. Clady, M.
Tayebjee, T. Schmidt, M.A. Green “Hot Carrier solar
cell Absorbers”, 24th European PVSEC, Hamburg
(Sept. 2009).
4.5.61 G. Conibeer, N.J. Ekins-Daukes, J-F. Guillemoles, D.
König, E-C. Cho, C-W. Jiang, S. Shrestha and M.A.
Green, “Progress on Hot Carrier Cells”, Solar Energy
Materials and Solar Cells, 2009, 93, 713.
4.5.62 D. König, K. Casalenuovo, Y. Takeda, G. Conibeer, J.F.
Guillemoles, R. Patterson, L.M. Huang, M.A. Green,
“Hot Carrier Solar Cells: Principles, Materials and
Design”, Physica E, 42 (2010) 2862-2866.
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Ekins-Daukes, G.J. Conibeer, T.W. Schmidt, M.A. PHOTOVOLTAICS
Green, “Interplay between Hot phonon effect and CENTRE OF
Intervalley scattering on the cooling rate of hot
carriers in GaAs and InP”, Progress in Photovoltaics, EXCELLENCE
accepted March 2011. 2010/11
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H.W. Lin, S. Gwo, “Direct measurements of the
lifetimes of longitudinal optical phonon modes
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90 (2007) 3.
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carrier dynamics in InN epilayers”, Journal of
Crystal Growth, 269 (2004) 10-14.
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Konig, M.A. Green, G. Conibeer, Sol. Ener. Mats. And
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conversion luminescence enhancement in
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99
 ARC
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4.6 Photonics and device
characterisation
4.6.1 Photoluminescence based
characterisation of silicon
University Staff
A/Prof. Thorsten Trupke
Project Scientists and
Technicians
Allen Yee
Undergraduate Students
Matthias Juhl
Postgraduate Students
• Yael Augarten
• Henner Kampwerth
• Bernhard Mitchell
• Li Hua
External Collaborators
• Ron Sinton, Sinton Consulting
• BT Imaging Pty Ltd
• Otwin Breitenstein, Jan Bauer, Max
Planck Institute for Microstructure
Physics, Halle, Germany
100
4.6.1.1 Background
In photoluminescence (PL) imaging an intense
light source is used to illuminate large area
samples such as silicon bricks, wafers or
complete solar cells homogeneously with
typically one-sun equivalent illumination
intensity. A CCD camera captures a high
resolution picture of the luminescent light
that the sample emits. Figure 4.6.1.1 shows a
schematic diagram of a luminescence imaging
system. The power supply that is shown on
the bottom left can be used as an excitation
source in electroluminescence (EL) imaging
experiments on finished cells [4.6.1.3] and also
for applications in which a solar cell is held
at specific operating points under external
illumination, such as the series resistance
imaging methods that were introduced by our
group [4.6.1.4-4.6.1.6].
High resolution (typical one megapixel)
luminescence images can be captured
within seconds or even fractions of a second,
allowing very fast and detailed studies of
specific material and device properties.
Over the last five years PL imaging has seen
the development of a range of specific
applications and also rapid adoption by the
PV community. Specific applications that
are applicable across the PV value chain
are now available and the number of these
applications is growing rapidly. Examples
include series resistance imaging and
diffusion length imaging on fully processed
cells. The research of the PL group at UNSW
continues to contribute significantly to these
developments. This year the research by our
group was focussed on the application of the
photoluminescence intensity ratio method
for measurements of the bulk lifetime on
silicon bricks (Section 4.6.1.2), proof of concept
studies on an application of luminescence
imaging for measuring the emitter sheet
resistance on diffused wafers (4.6.1.4) and on
analysing local shunt or defect currents from
PL images on metallised and non-metallised
samples in a quantitative fashion (4.6.1.5).
The commercialisation of PL imaging by
UNSW spin-off company BT Imaging Pty
Ltd has also made significant progress, with
a growing number of leading wafer and
cell manufacturers and research institutes
worldwide now using the BTi-R1 R&D tool
that was introduced into the market in 2008.
In addition, as-cut wafer inspection with PL
imaging (see Section 4.6.1.3) is increasingly
recognised as an ideal tool for incoming
wafer inspection in solar cell production
or for outgoing quality control in wafer
manufacturing [4.6.1.2, 4.6.1.7-4.6.1.8].
New in-line PL imaging tools that are fast
enough to keep up with typical production
line throughput at full one megapixel image

resolution were introduced by BT Imaging in 2010
and are currently entering the market.
4.6.1.2 PL imaging on Si bricks
Photoluminescence imaging is an ideal tool for
fast characterisation of silicon bricks, giving instant
information about the position of low lifetime
regions that are commonly observed near the
bottom and top of a brick and also exposing areas
of high structural defect density. This information
can be used as valuable feedback during the
production of silicon wafers. Initial work on
luminescence imaging on bricks showed excellent
qualitative correlation between the as measured PL
intensity and for example μ-PCD effective minority
carrier lifetime maps [4.6.1.9]. More recently we
also demonstrated a quantitative interpretation
of the PL signal in terms of the bulk minority
carrier lifetime mb. The bulk lifetime is a more useful
parameter than the effective lifetime, especially in
unpassivated samples, where the measurement
result is strongly influenced by surface
recombination. PL imaging thus has advantages
compared to other measurement techniques such
as μ-PCD, which have commonly been used to date
for the characterisation of bricks in production, and
which report only effective lifetime values.
In our previous approach to measure bulk lifetime
from PL images we converted the measured PL
intensity form a single PL image into bulk lifetime
using a pre-determined tool specific transfer
function. While that approach proved to be a
reliable approach for obtaining bulk lifetime on
a number of samples and without the need for
additional calibration, one disadvantage is the
fact that it requires a separate doping density
measurement. The PL intensity in low injection
conditions is given as PL~Dn∙ND, i.e. it is proportional
to both the effective lifetime and the background
doping density ND. Normalising the measurement
for doping variations is required in order to obtain
information on Dn and thereby the lifetime.
Recent work in the Photoluminescence Group
focussed on a modified approach for bulk lifetime
ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
Schematic diagram of a
EXCELLENCE
luminescence imaging system. In 2010/11
photoluminescence (PL) imaging an ANNUAL REPORT
intense laser is used to illuminate
the entire sample and a sensitive
IR camera then captures the
luminescent emission from the
sample. In PL imaging the sample
can be a brick prior to wafering,
an as-cut or partially processed
wafer or a fully processed solar
cell (as shown). A power supply
is used in electroluminescence
imaging on finished solar cells
and in combination with the
light source in series resistance
imaging techniques.
Figure 4.6.1.1
measurements on silicon bricks, which avoids
the need for a separate resistivity measurement.
The method is based on analysing the
photoluminescence intensity ratio (PLIR) between
two PL images taken with different spectral filters
mounted in front of the camera [4.6.1.10-4.6.1.11].
It is equivalent to the diffusion length imaging
method proposed and first demonstrated at
UNSW by Peter Würfel on finished solar cells using
electroluminescence imaging [4.6.1.12]. In fact, the
elimination of voltage variations from a diffusion
length image that is achieved in the PLIR method
on cells is in perfect analogy to the elimination
of doping density variations when applying this
method to PL images on bricks. Silicon bricks
represent an ideal test case for the PLIR method,
since uncertainties associated with variations in
surface texture and with the optical and electronic
properties of the rear surface are almost completely
avoided. In cells and wafers these uncertainties can Bulk lifetime images obtained from
lead to large experimental errors. a single doping density normalised
PL image (upper) and from the PLIR
Figure 4.6.1.2 shows a comparison of two (lower), see text for details.
bulk lifetime images obtained from a doping
Figure 4.6.1.2
normalised PL image and from the PL intensity
ratio, respectively. The latter image was obtained
using a transfer function that was calculated
taking into account sample temperature
and the exact spectral properties of the
measurement system.
Deviations are observed near the low
lifetime edges at the bottom and top,
where the PLIR overestimates the bulk
lifetime (see also Fig.4.6.1.3, showing a
comparison of cross sections through
the two bulk lifetime images). Defect
luminescence contributions, which become
more noticeable in the low lifetime regions
with reduced band to band luminescence
signal is currently believed to cause those
deviations. Spectral PL measurements
Cross sections through the bulk
currently under way will shed more light on this lifetime images from Fig. 4.6.1.2,
issue. Several approaches to mitigate the impact showing good agreement in the
of the above measurement errors in the PLIR centre and artefacts near the
bottom and top regions.
near the bottom and top regions are currently
under investigation. Figure 4.6.1.3
101
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ANNUAL REPORT

PL images of two multicrystalline

silicon wafers. (a) Centre wafer with
low dislocation density, (b) Centre
wafer with high dislocation density,
(c) bottom wafer with low lifetime
across the entire wafer area, (d)
corner wafer with low dislocation
density [4.6.1.2].

Figure 4.6.1.4

Correlation of cell performance
data (normalised) with the
defect density obtained from
the PL images on the as-cut
wafers [4.6.1.1].
Figure 4.6.1.5
Very good quantitative agreement
is observed between the two
measurements in the central part,
i.e. across the majority of the brick.
This region is the section of the brick
that is supposed to be used for wafer
manufacturing (the very low lifetime
top and bottom regions are supposed
to be removed from the ingot).
4.6.1.3 Raw wafer inspection
Wafer quality in industrial
manufacturing of silicon solar cells
varies substantially and can have a
strong impact on the efficiency of
solar cells, particularly in the case
of multicrystalline silicon. As-cut
wafer inspection of incoming quality
control (IQC) in solar cell production
is therefore indispensable in order
to maintain high efficiencies at high
yield in production. To date IQC in
production typically includes optical
inspection for cracks and large chips, thickness
and total thickness variation, surface morphology,
resistivity measurements and in some cases
μ-PCD lifetime scanning. A problem with these
techniques is that the electrical cell performance
does not correlate sufficiently strongly with the
data resulting from these measurements. One main
reason is surface recombination dominating total
recombination (and thus effective lifetime) in as-cut
wafers. Only wafers with very low bulk lifetime
(<10 ms) or specific areas exhibiting very low bulk
lifetime show up sufficiently strongly in average or
spatially resolved lifetime. While this complicates
the analysis of spatially averaged lifetime values
and makes correlation with final cell efficiency less
reliable, particularly for wafers with overall high
lifetime, it is beneficial since such areas are generally
expected to also have the strongest impact on
final cell efficiency. In other words, features that
are visible with significant contrast in effective
lifetime images are very recombination active and
have bulk lifetime of only a few ms or below one ms
The dominant spatial features that are commonly
observed in mc-Si as-cut wafers are dislocation
networks, recombination active grain boundaries
and impurity rich regions in edge/corner and top/
bottom wafers. Figure 4.6.1.4 shows four typical
examples, (a) a wafer from a center brick with low
dislocation density, (b) a wafer from a center brick
with high dislocation density, (c) a wafer from the
impurity rich area at the bottom and (d) a wafer
from a corner brick with low dislocation density
[4.6.1.2]. All spatial features that appear dark in
these images are indicative of highly recombination
active regions within the wafers. Automated image
processing methods allow determining wafer
quality metrics that are related to the area fraction
of those features and finally correlation with cell
efficiency parameters such as Isc and Voc [4.6.1.1,
4.6.1.7, 4.6.1.13]. An example for such correlation
is shown in Fig. 4.6.1.5, showing the correlation
between the cell efficiency, Voc and (given in
relative numbers, normalised to unity) and the
dislocation density as measured on the as cut
wafers for a number of cells. A strong correlation
is observed.
The observed correlation of these metrics with
cell performance data, which will depend on the
detailed processing conditions, can then be used
for a range of actions, all aiming at higher yield,
and higher average efficiency in production: (i)
wafer rejection, (ii) wafer quality based pricing, (iii)
wafer quality specific processing, or (iv) assignment
of specific types of wafers to specially tuned
production lines. Separating specific wafers for
high efficiency processing lines such as a selective
emitter line, which requires higher quality wafers
to realise the full efficiency potential and may not
be as robust against specific types of defects as the
common screen printed process, is one specific
example for that latter application.
The PL intensity emitted from as-cut silicon wafers
is extremely low, a result of the strong dominance
of surface recombination, resulting in luminescence
quantum efficiencies on the order of 10-8 (i.e. one
luminescence photon is emitted for 100 million
incident photons). This low photoluminescence

102

response of as-cut wafers makes inline applications
with a throughput of up to 3600 wafers per hour,
a significant experimental challenge. BT Imaging
recently presented the W1 (see Fig. 4.6.1.6), the
first inline PL imaging system capable of taking
PL images on as-cut wafers with a throughput of
2400 wafers per hour and using automated image
processing to identify a range of relevant specific
defect metrics. Using these tools, application in
production of the above concepts, which so far has
only been proven off-line on relatively small sample
sets, will demonstrate the value of using PL imaging
for IQC.
4.6.1.4 Emitter sheet resistance imaging
In solar cell production, the value of the emitter
resistance typically needs to be maintained within
tight specifications in order to avoid subsequent
problems with contact formation such as junction
shunting or high contact resistance. Previous work
in the PL group focussed on luminescence based
emitter sheet resistance imaging measurements
on fully processed metallised solar cells. In a new
approach, the aim is to measure the emitter sheet
resistance in a contactless fashion from PL images
on non-metallised samples, which would allow
application of that method immediately after the
emitter diffusion in production. Since the emitter
sheet resistance is not expected to exhibit lateral
variations over short distances, a method with
comparatively low spatial resolution is sufficient.
Here we investigated the principle of using a PL
image for a coarse measurement of the emitter
sheet resistance, providing a single average data
point for a large area.
The measurement principle is to take a PL image
with non-uniform illumination and obtain the
emitter sheet resistance information from the
resulting PL intensity variation, in combination
with theoretical modelling. A 1-inch circular long
pass filter is placed in close proximity to the sample
during the PL imaging measurement. The filter
blocks effectively all (>99.9 %) incident light form
the area underneath the filter and transmits >98%
of the luminescence that is emitted from that area.
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BT-Imaging W1 PL imaging system,
with integrated automated image
processing algorithms and a current
throughput of up to 2400 wafers
per hour with full one megapixel
image resolution.
Figure 4.6.1.6
The luminescence from the non-illuminated area
is generated by lateral flow of excess carriers from
the illuminated into the non-illuminated parts of
the wafer, in other words, electroluminescence
is generated in a contactless fashion from that
region, as reported previously elsewhere [4.6.1.14].
The illumination intensity and the emitter sheet
resistance have a strong impact on the carrier
redistribution via lateral carrier flows and thereby
on the steady state excess carrier concentration,
the latter reflected in the luminescence intensity.
Combined with theoretical modelling this allows
interpretation of the luminescence intensity
distribution in terms of the emitter sheet resistance.
An example of a PL image taken on a diffused PL image of a diffused silicon
wafer with 60 Ω/sq is shown in Figure 4.6.1.7. The wafer taken with a 1-inch circular
circular filter is visible in the centre of the wafer. long pass filter located in close
proximity to the wafer surface. The
The luminescence signal from underneath the luminescence signal emitted from
filter represents contactless electroluminescence underneath the filter is caused
as described above. Figure 4.6.1.8 shows three by lateral current injection from
PL intensity profiles from the centre of the filter the illuminated wafer area via
the emitter.
to the outside region taken on three different
samples with emitter sheet resistivities ranging Figure 4.6.1.7
between 30 Ω/sq and 100 Ω/sq. With increasing
emitter resistance the PL intensity decays with a
steeper slope towards the centre of
the non-illuminated region, which is
a result of the limited ability of the
emitter to transport current laterally.
An analytical model for that relative
PL profile was developed and used
to fit the measured data within the
non-illuminated part of the image.
Resulting emitter sheet resistance
values were found to agree with eddy
current measurements of the emitter
sheet resistance.
The analytical model so far describes
only the PL profile in the non-
Cross section of the normalised
illuminated filter region. Further work
PL intensity from the centre of the
will aim to extend that model to the illuminated filter (x=0) to the outside region
part of the wafer, resulting in increased accuracy. through PL images as shown in Fig
The impact of the wafer background doping density 4.6.1.7 for different samples with
variable emitter sheet resistance.
on the measurement results is another topic for
further work. Figure 4.6.1.8
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0.5 cm
(a) (b)
PL images taken on a test structure. An external
resistor is connected in parallel to the structure using a
contact probe (visible in the bottom right). The images
show the impact of a large resistance (mild shunt,
left) and a small resistance (strong shunt, right) on the
PL image.
Figure 4.6.1.9
4.6.1.5 Luminescence based shunt
imaging
Qualitative shunt detection from luminescence
images has been demonstrated in the past by the
UNSW PL group (amongst others) [4.6.1.15-4.6.1.17].
The vicinity of shunted areas typically appears as a
blurred region of reduced luminescence intensity
in both PL and EL images. This blurring is caused by
voltage drops associated with lateral current flow
through the emitter and the front surface grid.
A luminescence imaging based method for
determining quantitative shunt values in silicon
solar cells from open circuit photoluminescence
images has been developed and demonstrated
in collaboration with the Max Planck Institute for
Microstructure Physics, Halle, Germany. The method
is based on interpretation of the luminescence
intensity around a local shunt in terms of the
extracted current density [4.6.1.18]. Under the
assumption of a unity ideality factor the local
reduction in PL count rate in the vicinity of a shunt
or local defect is proportional to the current being
extracted. The theoretical framework for quantifying
the total current extracted by a local defect by
integrating the reduction of the PL signal in the
surrounding of the shunt or defect and by applying
suitable calibration procedures was developed.
Experimental verification of the method was
achieved using a specifically prepared test structure,
i.e. a solar cell structure with single point contact
on the front surface. That structure allowed
generating local shunts with variable and well
defined external shunt resistance. Figure 4.6.9
shows two PL images of that structure with a high
(left) and low (right) Ohmic resistor connected in
parallel with that structure. Figure 4.6.1.10 shows
the extracted current, as obtained from the above
methodology as a function of the current flowing
across the resistor, as measured with a multimeter.
Excellent agreement is observed. Combining the
above current measurement technique with an
interpretation of the local luminescence signal in
104
Extracted current as calculated from PL images
using a new analysis methodology as a function
of the measured current extracted over a resistor,
demonstrating that PL imaging allows a quantitative
analysis of the extracted current from localised shunts
or defects.
Figure 4.6.1.10
terms of the diode voltage near a shunt site allows
quantification of individual local shunts.
Applications of this method to finished cells
are affected by current extraction via the metal
grid, which causes experimental errors. The
impact of this effect was assessed experimentally
using specific test structures, where the relative
position with respect to the nearest grid finger of
artificially introduced shunts could be varied. These
experiments indicate that the above experimental
errors in fully processed cells can at least partially
be corrected using empirically determined look
up tables.
When applied to partially processed cells prior to
metallisation the method can be used to quantify
local shunts, to determine the total recombination
current in local and distributed defects and also
to quantify recombination channels that are
introduced by specific processing steps such as
laser processing.
4.6.1.6 Summary
An exceptional variety of material and solar cell
parameters can be measured on silicon bricks,
silicon wafers and silicon solar cells with high
lateral spatial resolution and short measurement
time using luminescence imaging techniques.
The range of applications continues to grow, with
new applications for PL imaging being developed
at UNSW, and increasingly also in other research
institutes and by R&D groups in PV companies.
PL imaging, introduced at UNSW only five years
ago, has now been broadly adopted as a standard
characterisation method, with PL tools now in
use at virtually all leading research institutes
worldwide and also by leading wafer and solar cell
manufacturers. A range of opportunities for in-line
quality control, process monitoring and process
control are enabled by the high resolution and
speed of PL imaging. Demonstration by UNSW
spin-off company BT Imaging of those applications
in beta trials at several company sites is currently
in progress.
References 4.6.2 General Characterisation
4.6.1.1 McMillan, W. et al., In-line monitoring of electrical
ARC
wafer quality using photoluminescence imaging. University Staff
Proceedings of 25th EPVSC, Valencia, Spain, PHOTOVOLTAICS
Dr Henner Kampwerth
September, 2010. CENTRE OF
4.6.1.2 Trupke, T., Nyhus, J. and Haunschild, J., EXCELLENCE
Luminescence imaging for inline characterisation in Project Scientists and Technicians
silicon photovoltaics. Phys.Stat.Solidi RRL, 2011: p.
2010/11
Alan Yee ANNUAL REPORT
published online February 2011.
4.6.1.3 Fuyuki, T. et al., One shot mapping of minority
carrier diffusion lenth in polycrystalline Si solar cells The range of research undertaken by the Centre
using electroluminescence. 31st IEEE Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, Orlando, USA, 2005.
involves a variety of measurement techniques
for the characterisation of photovoltaic materials
4.6.1.4 Trupke, T. et al., Fast photoluminescence imaging of
silicon wafers. WCPEC-4, Waikoloa, USA, 2006. and devices. Understanding and utilising these
4.6.1.5 Trupke, T., et al., Spatially resolved series resistance
techniques appropriately, and improving them
of silicon solar cells obtained from luminescence where possible, is crucial in order to maintain the
imaging. Appl. Phys. Lett., 2007. 90: p. 093506. world-class reputation of our research output.
4.6.1.6 Kampwerth, H. et al., Advanced luminescence based
effective series resistance imaging of silicon solar
Improvements to measurement techniques with the
cells. Appl. Phys. Lett., 2008. 93: p. 202102. goal of producing more accurate and meaningful
4.6.1.7 Haunschild, J. et al., Quality control of as- results will have a direct impact both on research
cut multicrystalline silicon wafers using activities and on the optimization of procedures
photoluminescene imaging for solar cell production. used in manufacturing. The time and number
Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 2010. of experiments needed to understand a certain
94(12): p. 2007-2012.
phenomena can be greatly reduced. The need to
4.6.1.8 You, D. et al., The dislocation distribution
measure parameters of interest more precisely,
characterisitics of multi-crystalline silicon ingot
and its impact on cell efficiency. 35th IEEE PVSC, without the possibility of misinterpretation, is
Honululu, USA, June, 2010. therefore high. The General Characterisation group
4.6.1.9 Trupke, T., Bardos, R.A. and Nyhus, J., was formed in July 2010 to address this need.
Photoluminescence characterisation of silicon wafers
and solar cells. 18th workshop on Crystalline Silicon The group primarily focuses on optical
Solar cells & Modules, 2008. characterization methods such as
4.6.1.10 Trupke, T. et al., Bulk minority carrier lifeitme photoluminescence spectroscopy and absorption
from luminescence intensity ratios measured spectroscopy. In recent years, it has been shown
on silicon bricks. 25th EPVSC, Valencia, Spain, that these optical measurements can be used to
September 2010.
extract a large number of material and device
4.6.1.11 Mitchell, B. et al., Bulk minority carrier lifetimes and
properties. In addition the ability to perform
doping of silicon bricks from photoluminescence
intensity ratios. J. Appl.Phys., 2011: p. accepted contactless non-destructive probing of small areas
for publication. down to a few ten micrometers in diameter makes
4.6.1.12 Würfel, P. et al., Diffusion lengths of silicon solar optical measurement techniques very attractive for
cells obtained from luminescence images. Journal of samples that cannot be measured otherwise.
Applied Physics, 2007. 101: p. 123110.
In addition, the group will review some
4.6.1.13 Demant, M. et al., Analysis of luminescence
images applying pattern recoginition techniques. commonly used measurement methods with
Proceedings of 25th EPVSC, Valencia, Spain, the aim of automating parameter extraction
September, 2010. from measurement data. It is common that less
4.6.1.14 Sinton, R.A., Contactless electroluminescence for experienced researchers misinterpret data and draw
shunt-value measurement in solar cells. Proceedings incorrect conclusions. Computer programs that
of the 23rd EPVSC, Valencia, September, 2008:
assist in various levels of interpretation therefore
p. 1157.
can prove their value. Some computer programs
4.6.1.15 Trupke, T. et al., Luminescence imaging for fast
shunt localisation in silicon solar cells and silicon written in the course of this work will be made
wafers. International Workshop on Science and available for public use.
Technology of Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells,
Sendai, Japan, 2-3 October, 2006.
4.6.1.16 Kasemann, M. et al., Shunt detection capabilities of
luminescence imaging on silicon solar cells. 22nd
European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference,
Milan, Italy, 2007.
4.6.1.17 Breitenstein, O. et al., On the detection of shunts in
silicon solar cells by photo- and electroluminescence
imaging progress in Photovoltaics, 2008. 16: p. 325.
4.6.1.18 Augarten, Y. et al., Luminescence shunt imaging:
qualitative and quantitative shunt images using
photoluminesccence imaging. 24th European
Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Hamburg,
September, 2009.

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5. EDUCATION
Summary
The ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence incorporates the activities
of the former Key Centre for Photovoltaic Engineering. The former
Key Centre started in 1999, after the award of special funding from
the Australian Government to promote teaching and research in the
area of photovoltaics. A major initiative of this Key Centre was the
establishment of the world’s first undergraduate degree in Photovoltaics
and Solar Energy. The Centre was one of only eight such Key Centres
awarded Australia-wide across all disciplines, demonstrating the
Government’s understanding of the importance of the field of
renewable energy. In 2003 the Key Centre and its activities were
incorporated into this Centre of Excellence, awarded to the same team
at the University of New South Wales. On 1 January 2006 UNSW officially
formed a new School within the Faculty of Engineering, the School of
Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering, which includes the
ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence.
The School offers undergraduate, postgraduate and research programs
encompassing a range of aspects relating to the photovoltaic and other
renewable energy industries. These programs have been developed in
consultation with representatives from industry to ensure graduates
are appropriately qualified to enter the field upon completion of their
studies. The undergraduate programs have experienced continuing
strong demand growth since 2007. Since 2003, the School has seen a
total of 160 students graduate from its undergraduate programs, and
126 students from its postgraduate degrees. These graduates are now
taking advantage of a range of opportunities being created in the
booming photovoltaics and renewable energy industries.
The higher media profile of global warming, greenhouse and energy
issues in the general Australian community is helping to raise the
School’s profile locally and the industry growth in Asia raised the
School’s profile internationally
The granting of a large number of sponsorships was finalised in August
2007 for up to $5.2m support from the Australian Government for
study at the School, as part on the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean
Development and Climate. In 2010, these scholarships attracted 21 new
undergraduate and 48 (29 in Semester 1 and 19 in Semester 2) new
postgraduate coursework students to the School. The number of formal
agreements with Chinese universities established as a result of the
Partnership grew to seven during 2010.
At the end of 2010, there were 437 undergraduate students, 88
postgraduate coursework students and 63 research students (11
Masters by research and 52 PhD) enrolled in the School’s programs.

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700

600

500
Total No. of students

400

300

200

100

0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year

Overall enrolment numbers in

second semester, by year.

5.1 Undergraduate
Educational Programs
The School offers two undergraduate coursework engineering expected to graduate in March 2011 after completing their studies in
programs, each of which can be taken in combination with a Bachelor 2010. At the end of 2010, a total of 310 students were enrolled.
of Arts (5 years), Bachelor of Science (5 years), Bachelor of Commerce
The second, broader degree program, in Renewable Energy Engineering,
(5.5 years) or a Bachelor of Laws (6 years). These degrees aim to develop
was introduced in 2003. In addition to photovoltaic devices, students
well-educated graduates with the basic skills, attributes and knowledge
in this program study solar architectural technologies, wind energy,
required to practise as professional engineers in the booming
biomass, solar thermal and renewable energy policy as part of their core
renewable energy industries.
curriculum. At the end of 2009, a total of 127 students were enrolled.
The Photovoltaics and Solar Energy Engineering program draws on 2010 saw 15 new graduates of this program, bringing the total to 32,
the long history of expertise of Centre staff in this field and was the and 5 more are expected to graduate in March 2011. At the end of 2010,
first of its kind internationally. Two new programs were established in 24% of enrolled undergraduate students were women.
2009 in China, at Nanchang University in Jianxi Province and at North
Graduates of these programs are gaining employment within a variety
China Electric Power University in Beijing. The UNSW program includes
of organisations, including in the areas of energy efficiency and
education in technology development, manufacturing, quality control,
sustainable design. Each year a number of graduates start on a research
reliability, life cycle assessment, system design, maintenance and fault
program at the Centre, elsewhere at UNSW or at other institutions
diagnosis, marketing, policy development, energy efficiency and other
while others are employed in industry by solar cell and equipment
renewable energy technologies. It has two unique features: a group
manufacturers, system design and integration companies, electricity
project in the second year of the program, and a ‘strand’, which is a
utilities, energy efficiency and environmental design companies and
minor area of specialisation. Since 2003, a total of 128 students have
major end users of products.
graduated from the program, 24 graduated in 2010 and another 34 are

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Measurement of light
distribution in a horizontal
plane. A lantern is shown in
the inset.

5.1.1 The Strand 5.1.2.1 Developing Countries

Top side of Glowstar PCB showing
several features such as fuses
and microprocessor.
(Upper) Student-built current-to-
voltage converter. (Lower) Student-
built phototransistor circuit.
The strand is unique within UNSW to the
Photovoltaics and Solar Energy Engineering
program, and is essentially a minor area of
specialisation which complements a student’s
study of photovoltaics. Students can take strands
covering a wide variety of areas including
computing, electronics, mathematics, physics,
mechanical engineering, civil engineering, and
architecture. The aim of the strand is to provide
students with broader engineering backgrounds
important for the cross-disciplinary nature of
photovoltaic applications.
In 2011 strands will be offered to Renewable
Energy Engineering students as well. These will be
less formally structured than in the Photovoltaic
Engineering program and take the form of sets
of electives associated with various renewable
energy technologies.
5.1.2 Undergraduate Second-Year
Student Group Projects
In the second year of the Photovoltaics and Solar
Energy program, students undertake a year-long
group project. The main emphasis of the second
year group project course is hands-on project
engineering. The course has a lecture component
covering project engineering, report writing and
presentation skills and each project has a research
component, a planning and design component, a
hands-on component and a presentation/reporting
component. This course helps to prepare students
for their fourth year thesis, which is undertaken by
all students enrolled in both the Photovoltaics and
Solar Energy and Renewable Energy Engineering
undergraduate programs.
In 2010, second-year project groups worked on the
following projects: silicon and cuprous oxide thin
film solar cells, photoluminescence analysis of solar
cells, solar thermal water heating, Sunswift solar race
car, solar water pumping, solar lanterns, cookers and
a “solar suitcase” for developing countries and ice
air conditioning.
The School has been involved with projects in the
developing countries for the last eight years. The
application of photovoltaics and other renewable
energy technologies can make a great difference to
people’s lives and living standards in these places.
Students involved with this project in the past have
installed and maintained photovoltaic lighting
systems in rural locations in Nicaragua, Vanuatu
and Nepal and photovoltaics powered water
purification in Sri Lanka. Skills that the students had
developed throughout the year were put to good
use in the field as invaluable lessons were gained
regarding project management of activities in
developing countries. Students faced and overcame
many technical and non-technical issues in project
implementation. With the rapidly growing student
population the School is no longer involved in
directly supervising international journeys for
groups of second year students but, instead,
suggests interested students involve themselves in
the UNSW Chapter of Engineers Without Borders.
Solar Lanterns Project
Energy is fundamental to alleviate poverty in
health, education, communication, economic
development and social equity. Electricity impacts
the lifestyles and living conditions, primarily
through electric lighting. However, approximately
1.5 billion people in developing countries have
no access to electricity. The majority of these
people use kerosene lamps for lighting. Kerosene
lamps are expensive to run, have health impacts,
are potentially dangerous and are a source of
greenhouse gases.
Solar lanterns have potential to improve the living
conditions of people in developing countries. It
can provide much needed study hours for school
children as well as support after-hour income
generating activities. One study has found that solar
lanterns have significantly benefited school-aged
children in India. The extended study hours made
possible with solar lanterns shown to have a very
positive impact on their performance.

108

Thermal image of experiments determining the
efficiency and heat loss to the environment of various
cooking devices.
There are many solar lanterns are available in the
market. The performance of these lanterns varies
widely making it difficult for consumers to select
a product.In this project students have studies
a range of solar lanterns commonly available in
developing contries. Using a set of tools they
compared performance of solar panel, ballast
electronics, charging-discharging circuits, light
output and efficiency.
Solar Cookers Project
Stand alone PV systems (PV/diesel/battery) supply
power to many households in remote parts of
the world. Remote households in Australia and in
particular Aboriginal communities utilise such PV
systems. Cooking is an energy load that needs a
substantial amount of energy. In many instances
designers for stand-alone PV systems advocate use
of gas or microwave cookers for cooking. However,
often gas bottles are a very expensive way to get
energy for cooking.
Is it possible that as the price of PV falls that some
form of electric cooking could be the best option? Is
microwave cooking the most efficient technology?
To answer this question we asked students: What
is the most efficient way to cook? This project
explored low energy approaches to cooking and PV
system design to supply the energy to power such
systems. One approach investigated “slow cookers”.
Typically they are cooking systems that utilise low
energy but for long periods of time. Typically they
are uninsulated, so at present not very efficient!
Students investigated various approaches to
insulate their cooking devices and used PV panels
to charge a battery and then use the energy to heat
a pot of food. Energy flows (current and voltage)
were monitored, as well as the temperature of the
food. Students investigated, designed, built and
monitored whether small PV systems are capable of
supplying such cooking systems.
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Image of one groups insulated pot
cooking food.
5.1.2.2 Silicon Thin-Film Solar
Processing Equipment Project
This project aims to give students a broad
experience in enhancing and maintaining
a world-class thin-film solar cell research
laboratory. This is achieved through a two-
stage process. Firstly, students develop a
fundamental understanding of equipment
and systems within the Centre’s thin-film
laboratory, including vacuum systems, gas
delivery systems, leak testing equipment,
and plasma processing machines. The
second stage involves the students
integrating what they have learnt, by applying it to Cake successfully cooked!
a specific project in the thin-film laboratory.
In 2010, six second-year students undertook this
project. A group of three students worked on
upgrading a vacuum test chamber to redesign the
vacuum control interface and build it. A second
group of three students worked on halogen lamp
vacuum annealing stage, with the aim of being
able to anneal samples at up to 1000°C. This
group successfully designed and built a halogen
lamp assembly that was both functional and easy
to maintain.
Both groups benefited greatly from the course
as they learnt to integrate project management
and engineering problem solving to successfully
complete their projects.
5.1.2.3 Cuprous Oxide Thin-Film Solar
Cells Project
Students this year revived a decades-old
photovoltaics technology that was once the
globally leading technology, before silicon came to
the fore in the 1950s. The manufacturing process for
cuprous oxide cells is relatively simple and students
made and tested their own cells from scratch.
5.1.2.4 Water Pumping Project
A group of students was charged with the task
of demonstrating the pumping of water with
photovoltaic power from ground level to the
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Seventy SPREE students illustrated their final year thesis work on 22 October
2010 in the largest yet of the school’s graduating classes.
roof of the UNSW Electrical Engineering building.
The students worked on realistic conceptual
applications such as toilet flushing in the building
with excess stormwater, water supply for a rural
village or stock watering on a cattle station. For
their demonstration project, they were required
to provide nominal flow rate and storage to
demonstrate the concept. The skills learnt are
directly applicable to solar water pumping for
a wide range of applications, including in rural
villages around the world.
5.1.2.5 Solar Thermal Water Heating
Project
In our daily life, we are using lots of hot water for
different purposes, needing a considerable amount
of electrical or other energy sources. In this project
the students learned how to use solar thermal
energy to heat cold water. In this project student
studied the basic principle of solar heating system
and designed a new water heating system. They
have also learned what materials should be used
in the systems and investigated the possibilities
to improve the design for better conversion
efficiency. They built their designed systems using
their selected materials, as shown in the following
figures. They tested their systems and collected and
analysed data to find conversion efficiency, cost
evaluation, etc.
5.1.2.6 UNSW Sunswift Project
Over the past year, second year SPREE students
have helped to design and build several major
components of the UNSW solar car, which placed
the first in the silicon class in the 2009 Global Green
Challenge (GGC), the premier international solar car
race. The result was the best result achieved by the
team in its 14 year history.
Students were involved in two solar car related
projects – design and construction of the
photovoltaic array that powers the car, and
construction of the lightweight composite
components that reduce the weight, and hence the
energy usage of the car.
110
Array
The solar array is essentially an off-grid solar
system, with the added complications of very
fragile modules, and the requirement that it must
withstand the conditions of driving 3000km of
dusty, bumpy road.
The students designed the module and array sizing
to conform to the race regulations, and selected
the appropriate cabling and bypass diodes. They
also performed array calculations and simulations
in order to calculate the optimum wiring scheme
that allowed for maximum output power, the
most efficient battery charging, and maximum
robustness against shading.
Two types of cells were used for maximum
efficiency, standard industrial cells, and UNSW-
produced Topcell cells. The team characterised
the Topcells, initially by open-circuit voltage
measurements, and later by full IV sweeps. The cells
were then encapsulated, with assistance from CSG
Solar, and assembled into modules.
Finally, the array team and other Sunswift members
assembled the array, mounting and soldering the
fragile modules onto the solar car.
Composites
Carbon fibre composites are extremely strong,
lightweight materials, which are currently used,
e.g. in aeroplanes and wind farms, to increase the
energy conversion efficiency of the systems.
The composites team had the substantial job of
building the carbon fibre composite components
for a car which was almost entirely carbon fibre.
These included the top shell, which housed the
solar array, the bottom shell, which formed the
structural chassis to safely house the driver, and
the structural components which held the braking,
steering and suspension systems. The team also
successfully constructed the first new carbon fibre
wheels for the car in 8 years. The wheels are the
most complicated composite part to construct,
require a great deal more care and attention, and
must be thoroughly tested. The new wheels were

Upper: Copper pipes mounted on a copper sheet for water heating.
Lower: A complete system with glass covered on top.
Student-built thermal water heating system for domestic use in their 2nd year project.
manufactured extremely well, and performed
beautifully over the 3000km of rough terrain.
The construction of all of the components took over
six months, and was done at the Boeing Aerospace
facilities in Bankstown. Boeing sponsored the
team the carbon fibre and other materials, and
the students learned how to work with composite
materials from the experts.
The carbon work on the car by these students
was easily some of the highest quality work in a
field of 40 international solar cars, including semi
professional teams, and also suffered no issues
during the race.
5.1.3 Fourth Year Thesis
The thesis project is usually completed in the last
two sessions of an engineering undergraduate
student’s studies. Students may start their project in
either semester. They undertake directed laboratory
and/or other research work on an approved
subject under guidance of the School’s academic
staff, sometimes with industry participation or
co-supervision. Typically, the thesis involves the
design and construction of experimental apparatus
together with practical tests. Each student is
required to present a seminar in their first semester
and submit a written report and present an Open
Day poster in their second semester.
Some students finished and presented their
projects at the end of Semester 1, 2010. The
Photovoltaic and Solar Energy Thesis Poster Prize
was won by Lei Zhang (Laser Doping Technique
Investigation and Optimisation for High Efficiency
Laser Doped Solar Cells Fabrication). The Renewable
Energy Engineering Thesis Poster Prize was won by
Nicholas Boerema (Renewable Energy Integration
into the National Electricity Market). Other projects
coming to completion at that time were concerned
with wind energy and its grid integration, annealing
effects on silicon thin film solar cells, determination
of carrier diffusion length and saturation current
density in silicon solar cells, laser doped emitters
and back surface fields, metalization effects on the
optical properties of nanostructure silicon, high
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efficiency dye sensitised solar cells, optimization of
high temperature ITO, time of flight measurement
setup, sustainable transport, building integrated
PV system design and testing, evaluation of pv/
diesel mini grid applications in the NT, solar
power for a weeding robot, silicon quantum dots,
design of a domestic solar water heating system,
performance assessment and evaluation of the
UNSW Quad building’s rooftop PV System, feasibility
of electric cars in Sydney, management strategies
for building sustainability, and deploying energy
efficiency policy to offset cost of meeting MRET in
the residential sector, energy efficiency in buildings
& Greenstar.
The Poster Prize selection in November 2010,
for students completing at end of Semester 2,
resulted in a wins for Hua Fan for his poster about
“Solar Electrolysis System for Remote Production
of Disinfectant Solutions” (Photovoltaic and
Solar Energy) and Kah Howe Chan for his poster
on “Wind and other renewable energies at the
UNSW Wellington property” (Renewable Energy
Engineering). The other topics on which theses
were completed included: study of carrier transport
mechanism in organic semiconductor for different
electrode metals for organic solar cells, laser
doping of thin film silicon solar cells, wind energy
forecasting, impact of electric vehicles on LV
electrical network, optical fibre/nanowire hybrid
structures for dye-sensitized solar cells, design of
metamorphic tandem solar cells, the 46% efficient
cell project: cell modelling & testing, comparison
of properties of Si QD film treated by rapid thermal
annealing and converntional furnace annealing,
feasibility study of biogas/electric hybrid cars,
benefits of NSW wind power for the NEM, electrical
characterisation of Ge nanocrystals embedded
in amorphous silica matrix, 46% efficient split
spectrum cells, biogas production on a Wisconsin
farm, Investigation of n/p-type doping of Ge
Ncs in SiO2 towards tandem photovoltaic cells,
optimisation of thermal annealing parameters on
planarisation and electrical properties of thin-film
poly-crystalline silicon solar cells on glass, home
charging for electric vehicles, reduction in office
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 tenant energy, doping concentration effects on
metal ohmic contact formation to silicon wafer,
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energy efficiency on UNSW campus, optical
PHOTOVOLTAICS characterisation of silicon quantum dots in SiOx/
CENTRE OF Si3N4 for optical detection of defects, design and
EXCELLENCE construction of PV solar electrolysis system for
2010/11 medical aid kit, zero energy buildings, fabrication
ANNUAL REPORT and characterisation of Si DQs nanostructures
grown by PECVD, adapting direct etching method
for texturing of silicon, design of light trapping
structure for organic solar cells, low energy water
pump systems, PV, pumping, micro-hydro or wind
at UNSW’s Wellington property, passive PV cooling
using stack effect, investigation of phosphorous
doping of Si-QD materials by furnace diffusion,
sustainable energy in Willoughby city council
buildings, design of light trapping structure for
organic solar cell, boron and phosphorus doping
of silicon rich oxide layers by diffusion of dopants,
solar water pump testing, design of high efficiency
organic solar cells, investigation of emitter sheet
resistance using photolumescence imaging,
aerosol jet etching for silicon solar cells, zero energy
buildings, study of temperature and doping effects
on silicon wet-etching, low contact area laser
doping, inverters on unstable grids, on-demand
street light, electric motorcycle, investigations into
over-floating of laser-doped cells, energy selective
contact formed by thermal oxidation, growth of Si
QD at low temperature, determination of carrier
diffusion length and saturation current density in
silicon solar cells (I and II generation solar cells),
zero energy building for China, optics of the
heliostat field and how this impacts uniformity
at the receiver, novel approach to plating for low
cost solar cells, size controlled growth of Ge QD
in SiO2, solar access shading survery of UNSW
Kensington campus, optimisation of rear localised
surface plasmon enhanced light trapping in
polycrystalline silicon thin-film solar cells, hybrid
bulk heterojunction solar cells, carrier transport
mechanism in organic semiconductor for different
electrode metals for organic solar cells, aerosol jet
etching for silicon solar cells, PV partial shading and
minimisation of its impact, novel techniques for
low cost high efficiency solar cells, temperature and
doping effects on silicon wet etching, innovative
rear point contact scheme for silicon solar cells,
PV and RE at Wellington campus, efficiency
prediction on advanced photovoltaic converter
concepts, modelling of recombination activities in
polycrystalline silicon thin film solar cells, properties
of Sb-doped polycrystalline germanium thin film by
a magnetron sputtering method, and boron doping
of Si-QD materials by diffusion.
The $500 Photovoltaics Thesis Prize for 2010 was
won by Xiang Zhao and Eleanor Wood was awarded
the Renewable Energy Thesis Prize. These prizes
are awarded for the highest marks in the final year
thesis subjects.
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5.1.4 Dean’s Awards
Each year the Dean of Engineering presents awards
for outstanding students in each non-final year of
study in each Engineering School. Prizes awarded
during 2010 for academic performance in the
previous year went to Dongchen Lan (stage 1),
Benjamin Hughes (stage 1), John Durrant (stage
2), Vincent Allen (stage 2), Xue Bai (stage 3), Dong
Lin (stage 3), Yu Feng (stage 3) and Shen-Long Ooi
(stage 4).
5.1.5 N&M Radiant Design Prize
The N&M prize is awarded to one student group
undertaking the School’s project in the first-
year Faculty of Engineering course, ENGG1000,
Engineering Design. The project is to design, build
and demonstrate a solar powered “space elevator”
to climb a suspended tether in the final weeks of
the semester. The Prize is awarded to the fastest
team. The winners in 2010 were “Captain Planet”,
team members being Mingyang Jiang, Daniel
Moctezuma-Baker, Syed Syed Ihsan, Edric Verbeek-
Martin, Jack Wong and Heng Wu.
N&M Suntastic Project Prize
This prize, donated by the same sponsors as the
N&M Prize, was offered again in 2010. It recognises
best performance in SOLA2052 second year project
course. It was won by Jarred Rudman.
Photovoltaics Prize
This prize honours best performance in SOLA3540,
Applied Photovoltaics, and was awarded in 2010 to
Yan, Xia and Yang, Chuanxi.
Steve Robinson Memorial Prize
This prize is in memory of a former PhD student,
Steve Robinson, and recognises the best
postgraduate performance in SOLA9002, Solar
Cells and Systems. It was awarded in 2010 to Pei-
Chieh Hsiao.
5.1.6 Engineers Australia Student of the
Year (Sydney Division)
SPREE student Chris McGrath, won the Student
Engineer of the Year Award at the Sydney Division’s
Engineering Excellence Awards in September 2010.
Chris finished his studies in 2009 with First Class
Honours with a thesis on designing and installing a
nano- hydro electric power system for the regional
primary school in a remote village in Vanuatu. He
continues to support this work with a 2010 UNSW
final year undergraduate student and to promote
further sustainable energy development projects
in Vanuatu.
5.1.7 University Medals
Three students from the School are to be awarded
the University Medal when they graduate in early
2011 following completion of their studies in the
School’s programs in 2010. The students are Xue Bai
and Yu Feng (Photovoltaics and Solar Energy) and
Eleanor Wood (Renewable Energy).

5.2 Postgraduate Programs
The School offers three postgraduate coursework programs, a Graduate
Certificate of Engineering Science, a Graduate Diploma of Engineering
Science and a Master of Engineering Science, and two research
programs, Masters by Research and a Doctor of Philosophy. These
degrees are intended to provide students with an exceptional education
in advanced concepts and research in the photovoltaics or other
renewable energy areas.
The 1.5-year Master of Engineering Science coursework program was
developed to build on the prior education of engineers from other
engineering disciplines who are attracted to the photovoltaics and
renewable energy industries. Students study courses chosen from the
areas of photovoltaic devices, photovoltaic systems and applications,
energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies. Enrolments in
the program have grown significantly from the previous small numbers,
with total enrolments of 89 at the end of 2010. There were 37 graduates
in 2010 and 21 more are expected in early 2011.
5.3 Scholarships
The undergraduate programs at the Centre attract very bright
students from across the world. The UAI cut off for local students
for these programs was lifted to 91.7 for the 2010 intake. The Co-Op
Scholarship Program and the Faculty of Engineering’s Rural Scholarship
Program have helped to attract these high-achieving students, while
the Taste of Research Summer Scholarship Program and occasional
casual employment opportunities provide experience in the School’s
laboratories with research leaders and encourage them to pursue
research careers. The Centre’s very high international profile also
allows it to attract high quality research students, evidenced by the
number doctoral students undertaking research programs at the
Centre who have been awarded either of an APA (local students) or IPRS
(international students) scholarships.
5.3.1 Asia-Pacific Partnership on
Clean Development and Climate
The School applied during 2006 for sponsorship funding from the
Australian Government under the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean
Development and Climate (APP) programme to bring students from
the Asia-Pacific region, specifically China, India and South Korea,
to study photovoltaics engineering at UNSW. In January 2007, APP
Programme investment of $5.2m was approved by the APP Ministers
and the first students were able to come in 2008. This significant grant
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Chris McGrath and Imaki
village workers marking the
completion of the penstock
inlet for the hydro turbine
(Image: D. McGrath).
Engineers Australia
Student of the Year
(Sydney Division)
At the end of 2010, the School had 63 students enrolled in postgraduate
research degrees, 52 in a Doctor of Philosophy and 11 in Masters
by Research. Research topics available to these students cover the
entire photovoltaic sector and building energy efficiency, but with
greatest emphasis on device theory, design and production, module
design, balance of system components, and photovoltaic systems
and applications. Research students play a pivotal role throughout all
the Centre’s activities. In 2010 the Centre produced six PhDs, and two
new PhD and one Masters by research are expected to graduate in
early 2011.
All the Faculty’s postgraduate coursework programs include an
emphasis on engineering management and all students will be required
to take some faculty-based “Engineering and Technical Management”
courses of general importance. The School introduced its Managing
Energy Efficiency (GSOE9017) course into this set of generally available
courses in 2010 and it proved to be very popular.
supports study at UNSW by international PhD students (full fees),
MEngSc coursework students (50% fees), and third and fourth year
undergraduate students (100% fees). The undergraduate arrangement
of shared education requires detailed agreements between UNSW
and the selected source universities, which are restricted to China.
These scholarships will address a key need for additional expertise and
knowledge in the rapid expansion of the photovoltaics industry in the
region and their award acknowledges UNSW’s importance in the field.
In Semester 1 of 2008, these scholarships attracted five undergraduate,
one postgraduate coursework and three PhD research students to the
School. In Semester 2 of 2008, these scholarships brought in a further
eight undergraduate, eleven postgraduate coursework and two PhD
research students. Enrolments for 2009 were much stronger and the APP
students comprised a significant proportion of the year’s intake. Twenty-
one undergraduate and forty-eight MEngSc APP students commenced
their study in 2010.
Agreements, known as “2+2” agreements, have been signed with seven
leading Chinese universities: Sun-Yat-Sen University and South China
University of Science and Technology in Guangzhou; Nankai University
and Tianjin Universities in Tianjin; Zhejiang University in Hangzhou;
Nanchang University in Nanchang, Beijing Jiaotong University
in Beijingu.
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Some of the students attracted
to the School by the sponsorship
offered by the Australian
Commonwealth Department of
the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, through the Asia
Pacific Partnership for Clean
Development and Climate. Also
shown in the group photo are Mr
Demin Zheng and Ms Feng Junying,
Consuls, Education Office of the
Consulate - General of the Peoples
Republic of China in Sydney, Mr
Matthew Hopkins, Department of
Environment, Water, Heritage and
Arts and UNSW staff.
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Six MEngSc students completed the APP program
at end of Semester 1 2009 and a further ten
MEngSc and five undergraduate completed the
APP program at end of Semester 2 2009. In 2010,
10 MEngSc students completed the APP program
at end of Semester 1 and 12 at the end of Semester
2 and 8 and 26 BEng students finished their studies
in Semesters 1 and 2, respectively. Several of the
graduating students have intended to enter the
School’s PhD program but the numbers able to
do so has been restricted by the availability of
scholarships.
5.3.2 Co-Op Scholarship Program
The Co-Op Program is an industry-linked
scholarship program where students obtain
extended work experience with industry sponsors
as part of their undergraduate studies, through
two summer placements, and two six month
placements (prior to final year of coursework),
with sponsor companies. In addition to their
outstanding academic achievements, students
are selected based on their involvement in school
and community activities, their demonstrated
leadership and teamwork skills and their ability
to communicate. Participation in this program
enables students to apply the knowledge they
have gained during their studies in real industry
projects, as well as opportunities for networking,
recruitment and professional development through
leadership camps. This program is also highly
beneficial to industry sponsors, who have access to
excellent students, can observe these students in
their workplace, and have the first opportunity of
recruiting the best new graduates.
Co-Op sponsors currently include, BP Solar, a global
company that has been supplying PV systems to
Australian markets for 30 years, CSG Solar, a new
technology startup with an innovative crystalline
silicon on glass PV product, Suntech Power Co. Ltd.,
the leading Chinese photovoltaic manufacturer
and Renewable Energy Corp. (REC), a Norwegian
based silicon and photovoltaics company that
is establishing photovoltaics manufacturing
in Singapore.
A new sponsor, Infigen, awarded its first Co-Op
scholarship and the School’s first for the Renewable
Energy Engineering Program in 2010.
5.3.3 Rural Scholarship Program
The Faculty of Engineering established the Rural
Scholarship Program in 2001 to encourage high-
achieving students living in rural and isolated areas
to study engineering. The scholarships are valued at
approximately $9,500 per annum for four years of
full-time study which eases the financial hardship
of relocating to and living in Sydney. Two new rural
scholars began their studies in the School in 2010.
5.3.4 Thyne Reid Foundation
Scholarships
During 2008 two new undergraduate four-year
scholarships were awarded to the School by The
Thyne Reid Foundation, one for Photovoltaics and
Solar Energy Engineering and one for Renewable
Energy Engineering. The two students began
studies in Semester 1 of 2009 and will proceed into
their third year in 2011.
5.3.5 Taste of Research Summer
Scholarship Program
The Taste of Research Summer Scholarship Program
is primarily for high achieving 3rd year students
and, in exceptional cases, 2nd year students may be
considered. As part of the program, engineering
schools offer 10 week projects for students to
complete during their summer break. These
projects provide students with scholarship support
to gain experience working as part of a research
team, for example in the laboratories of the
Centre. In addition to providing an opportunity
for checking whether research is their ideal career
path, participation in these projects helps students
further develop their technical skills and their
written and oral communication through written
reports and poster presentation.
From December 2009 to February 2010, the
Centre hosted 12 students, taking advantage of
the growing interest in the it’s research programs
among outstanding undergraduates, particularly
from those in this School. Again, in the 2010/2011
summer the Centre was keen to retain for research
training as many as possible of the outstanding
senior undergraduate students and took on 10
students through the Taste of Research program.
5.3.6 Research Scholarships
Sowbaranigha Chinnusamy Jayanthi, a student
from India, was awarded an e8 Sustainable Energy
Development Masters Scholarships for one
academic year so that she may study for a Master of
Engineering Scienceion in Photovoltaics and Solar
Energy, at the School. The e8 is an organization
of leading electricity companies from the global
electricity sector that wish to help in protecting
the global environment, and to promote the
efficient generation and use of electricity. The
e8 has established a scholarship program to
support outstanding students from developing
countries who plan to study at the Masters level
in areas directly related to sustainable energy
developmeant.
Through thesis projects and scholarships, including
the Taste of Research Scholarship program, the
Centre encourages some of the best undergraduate
students, particularly those from the School, into
research. Being an internationally recognised
research organisation, the Centre attracts very
high quality students to its research programs
where students have the opportunity to work
with leaders in this field. The fact that 21 of our
doctoral students are currently in receipt of the very
competitive Australian Postgraduate Award (APA)
for local students or the Australian Government’s
International Postgraduate Research Scholarship
(IPRS) for international students is testament to the
quality of these students. To be awarded an APA,
the student must be a local student with first class
honours graduate at Bachelor degree level, while
the IPRS is available to international students and
5.4 Educational Resoruces
5.4.1 New Book Translation
A new book in Japanese language, “Fundamentals
and Applications of Solar Cells”, was published
in 2010, including five chapters authored by the
Centre’s Prof. Martin Green. A simplified Chinese
5.5 PVSOC
One characteristic of the Centre which has led to
the success of the educational programs is the
friendly atmosphere that is engendered by being
a small (but strongly growing!) school with highly
motivated students and academic and general
staff. Students appreciate being able to form
friendships and support networks with fellows,
as well as feeling comfortable and familiar with
academic, technical and administrative staff.
PVSOC (Photovoltaics Society) is a social committee
established by the students which fosters this
atmosphere with organised social events and
activities to encourage student interaction. In 2010,
the committee organised several events, including
barbeques, student participation in Sustainable
are much more competitive. Suntech Power also
sponsors a PhD scholarship in the Centre. Interest
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in and applications for postgraduate research in
PHOTOVOLTAICS
the School boomed during 2009 and the School
CENTRE OF
expects to have four new IPRS recipients begin
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their research programs in 2011. The Centre also
has five PhD scholars sponsored by the Australian 2010/11
Government through the Asia-Pacific Partnership on ANNUAL REPORT
Clean Development and Climate scheme.
5.3.7 Rhodes Scholarships
The Rhodes Scholarship, arguably the most
prestigious scholarship in the world, is for
postgraduate study at Oxford University. Late
in 2010 Alice Lang, a combined undergraduate
Photovoltaic Engineering/Arts degrees student
of SPREE with significant research experience in
the Centre’s laboratories, learned that she would
become a Rhodes Scholar. Alice will complete her
Arts courses in Semester 1 of 2011 and start her
studies at Oxford in Semester 2.
translation of Silicon Solar Cells: Advanced
Principles and Practice” will be published by
Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press in early 2011,
bringing to three the number of the Centre’s books
available in that language.
House Day (organised by ANZSES and held in
September) and the PVSOC Annual Dinner. Students
and staff enjoyed this party at Coogee in September
2010 (held earlier in the year than previously to Alice Lang, Rhodes Scholar for 2011.
avoid distraction from final week assignments and
exam preparations) where final year students were
farewelled, staff thanked, and the 2011 PVSOC
committee was elected.
A new aspect of PVSOC’s activities began in
2010 with the advent of regular consultations by
the PVSOC President, as a representative of the
student body, with the Head of School and the
Undergraduate Coordinator to work with the staff
to further improve the delivery of education to
the students.
(Left) New Chinese book, “Silicon
Solar Cells: Advanced Principles
and Practice” by M. Green will be
released in early 2011.
(Right) New Japanese book,
“Fundamentals and Applications
of Solar Cells” by M. Yamaguchi, M.
Green, Y. Ohshita and N. Kojima.
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Pictured at the launch of the Wharf
Theatre’s rooftop PV array are,
(left-right):Dr. Richard Corkish,
Head of School; Mr George
Maltabarow, Managing Director,
EnergyAustralia; The Hon. Frank
Sartor, NSW Minister for Climate
Change and the Environment;
The Hon. Tony Burke MP, Federal
Minister for Sustainability,
Environment Water, Population
and Communities; Senator The
Hon Don Farrell, Parliamentary
Secretary for Sustainability and
Urban Water; Cate Blanchett,
Artistic co-Director, Sydney Theatre
Company; Dr Zhengrong Shi, CEO
of Suntech Power Holdings; Mrs
Vivienne Shi, Director, Shi’s Family
Charity; Andrew Upton, Artistic co-
Director, Sydney Theatre Company.
(Image produced by and used with
permission of AAP).
116
5.6 Promotional Activities
The Centre regularly participates in promotional
activities organised by the Faculty of Engineering
and UNSW Student Recruitment. These events are
important for increasing awareness and interest in
the Centre’s educational and research programs.
5.6.1 The Shi’s Family Charitable
Foundation and The Sydney
Theatre Company
The School has been a major participant in the
Sydney Theatre Company’s high-profile “Greening
the Wharf” project that is improving the water
efficiency and greenhouse gas impact of the Wharf
Theatre, at Walsh Bay. UNSW, in consultation with
the Shi’s Family Charitable Foundation has agreed
that the STC’s “Greening the Wharf” project is a
project suitable to showcase the Pluto technology
as an example of UNSW and Suntech’s research
excellence. The School contributed $2m, donated
by the Shi’s Family Charitable Foundation, towards
the establishment of a 380kWp grid-connected
photovoltaic array on the Wharf’s roof, completed
and opened in December 2010. The balance of
funding for the $4 million project was raised by
Sydney Theatre Company from The Commonwealth
Government’s Green Precincts Fund, NSW
Government’s Public Facilities Program, corporate
sponsor Energy Australia and philanthropists.
The project grew from two sources. Firstly, Dr Shi
Zhengrong, CEO of Suntech Power, expressed
a wish to make a gift to UNSW and to Sydney
for helping him start his successful career in
photovoltaics and to use it as a promotional tool.
This led to a study of several prominent sites in
Sydney and a pre-feasibility study, carried out as
a final year thesis project by Samantha Wong. In
parallel, Cate Blanchett and Andrew Upton, the
Artistic Directors of the Sydney Theatre Company,
were seeking opportunities to generate a significant
part of the Company’s energy from renewable
sources. Bringing the two ideas together led to
the official launch in July 2009 of the project at a
ceremony with Federal Minister for Climate Change
and Water Penny Wong and Federal Environment
Minister Peter Garrett, Mrs Vivienne Shi, UNSW
Chancellor David Gonski, Scientia Professor Martin
Green and Dr Richard Corkish.
5.6.2 Print and Broadcast Media
Student recruitment advertisements were
also placed in the HSC Survival Magazine, the
HSC Change of Preference Guide, and the HSC
Universities Advisory and Information Day Guide.
Media mentions of the School and the Centre
became more frequent in 2010 as community
interest in climate change and renewable energy
issues grew.
5.6.3 UNSW Information Day
Local undergraduate students must apply for
admission to UNSW programs through the
Universities Admissions Centre (UAC), and the first
week of January is the final opportunity for students
to change their preferences for entry to university
programs. Therefore, the university hosted an
information day in January 2010 to assist students
obtain information to finalise their preferences.
School administrative and academic staff attended
this event and talked to many prospective students
who were unsure of their career direction. Students
received information on our programs and had
the opportunity to ask questions of staff. A final
round of interviews for the Faculty of Engineering
Admissions Scheme (FEAS) was carried out on the
same day.
5.6.4 UNSW Courses and Careers Day
UNSW Courses and Careers Day is the annual
information day, held in the first week of
September, for prospective students to obtain
information about programs and student life at
the university. As part of this day students and
academic and administrative staff from the School
provided advice and information to prospective
students from information desks in the Roundhouse
and in a marquee in the UNSW Quad, nearby the
Sunsprint model solar car race finals. This year,
the weather was, unfortunately, far from ideal for
the 2010 event. During the day Dr Alistair Sproul
presented two public lectures about the School’s
and Centre’s programs as part of the lecture series
organised centrally by the university.
5.6.5 Faculty of Engineering Information
Day for High School Students
Each year the Faculty of Engineering organises
an information day to give high school students
and their teachers an opportunity to learn about
engineering and the programs offered at UNSW.
As part of the day students visit three engineering
schools of their choice and engage in interactive
activities aimed at demonstrating the relevant
engineering area. Once again in 2010 the demand
to attend this event was so great that two High
Schools Days were required, with the School
running several tours.
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Some of the students who participated in the UNSW

SunSprint Model Solar Car Challenge.

5.6.6 Honeywell Engineering

Summer School
The Honeywell Engineering Summer School is
an event held in December and is conducted by
Engineers Australia. As part of the summer school
high school students from across NSW and the ACT
about to enter their final year take part in a week of
activities which involves industry visits and lectures
and demonstrations at a number of universities.
In 2010 approximately 30 students visited the
Centre to participate in hands-on activities and
information provision.

5.6.7 Model Solar Vehicle Challenges

SunSprint Model Solar Car Challenge

The SunSprint Model Solar Car Challenge is a
photovoltaics project-based learning event
designed for high school students. In the event,
solar cars are designed and built according The UNSW Faculty of Engineering initiated the
to specifications provided by the Australian- project in 1996 with the Photovoltaics Centre
International Model Solar Challenge (AIMSC), a of Excellence taking over its operation in 1999.
national organization overseeing and linking all of In 2005 the UNSW Faculty of Science joined
the state events. These specifications provide design the Faculty of Engineering and the Centre in
criteria that, when followed, allow students all over jointly sponsoring the event.
Australia to build model solar cars that are uniformly
The 2010 SunSprint Model Solar Car Challenge
competitive with respect to cost and use of
was run on September 3rd and 4th, 2010 under
materials. The students contribute ideas, inspiration,
truly horrible conditions with extraordinary
time and money. The average vehicle costs over
amounts of rain and virtually no sunlight. The
$600 and takes the team over four months to design
winning cars were able to actively compete
and build. Many schools throughout NSW have
using only 10% of the normal amount
allowed final year design and technology students
of sunshine.
to adopt SunSprint as their year-long major project.
High school physics and science teachers have
also used SunSprint as a class-based teaching
project as SunSprint addresses several aspects of
the curriculum.

Only 10% Sunshine and lots of

rain at the UNSW Model Solar
Vehicle Challenges.

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The MiniSprint Competition.

MiniSprint and Model Solar Boats
The MiniSprint Model Solar Car Challenge
and the Model Solar Boat Challenge
are offshoot events allowing primary
school students to design and build solar
vehicles and then experience the thrill of
competition. The MiniSprint competitors
start with a kit containing all of the
important parts of the solar car and can
be built in an evening. The kit requires soldering,
gluing and taping.
The Model Solar Boat Competition requires much
more student design than in the MiniSprint. The
boats can be made of any material and can use
almost any size or shape of solar cells and motors.
Getting the boat to float right side up and to
competitively move through the water is quite
a feat.

Preparations for the Model Solar

Boat Competition.
The Model Solar Boat Competition.
5.7 Educational
Collaborations
A range of educational collaborations have similar agreements were signed with additional
been established between the Centre two Chinese universities. The two new partner
and other educational institutions and universities are Tianjin University (two agreements,
organisations. These collaborations involve each with a different school) and Zhejiang
the development and implementation of University, Hangzhou.
educational programs and courses, the
A new agreement has now been made in 2009
provision of support for student projects and
with Nanchang University, in Nanchang, which has
theses, and the exchange of students.
formed a new School of Photovoltaic Engineering
and an additional “2+2” agreement was signed in
5.7.1 “2+2” Agreements early 2010 with South China University of Science
In 2010 the School continued collaborations and Technology, in Guangzhou.
with four Chinese Universities for third
and fourth year students from those 5.7.2 Thyne Reid Foundation
universities to study Photovoltaics and
The Thyne Reid Foundation concluded in 2008
Solar Energy Engineering at UNSW and
an agreement to sponsor the studies of two
for Masters by coursework study with Asia
undergraduate students for four years of their
Pacific Partnership sponsorship. “2+2”
studies, one in Photovoltaics and Solar Energy
agreements were signed in 2007 with two
Engineering and one in Renewable Energy
prestigious Chinese universities, Nankai
Engineering. The students began their studies in the
University in Tianjin and Sun Yat-Sen
first semester of 2009 and finished their second year
(Zhongshan) University in Guangzhou. The
in 2010.
first students under this scheme started at
UNSW in Semester1 of 2008. During 2008

Trophies for primary school

participants.

118

The project team and Imaki
village volunteers preparing
the long trench for the power
cables from the turbine to the
village. (Image produced by
and used with permission of
E. Tehan).
5.7.3 Cundall, Infigen, Norcoast
Refrigeration and Others
Cundall, a sustainable design consulting company,
and the Darcy and Patricia Wentworth Fund joined
forces to financially support a final year thesis
project to bring hydro power to a remote village
school in Vanuatu, mentioned in Sec. 5.1.The
student undertaking this project, Eden Tehan, was
strongly supported by an alumnus, Chris McGrath,
who started the project in 2009. In 2010 the project
was extended to include the secondary (boarding)
school, medical clinic and church in an integrated
power system supplied by two hydro turbines
and including a new low-power electric vaccine
refigerator. Donors for the project extension in 2010
included Cundall, Infigen, Norcoast Refrigeration,
and several private donors: John Tehan, Susan
McParland, Sean Tehan, Don and Marg McGrath,
Tyler Troy, Helena Colnaric, Leah Greengarten,
Athron McCann, Peter Baker, Noam Field and David
Gazal. Eden and Chris also raised $4,500 for the
project at a Vanuatu Shakedown concert, thanks
to donated performances by “The Bakery”, “The
Liberators” and Emma Davis. David Thompson
of Gwynneville Electrical Services was the team’s
electrician during the first trip, paying his own
way and donating a week of work as well as many
electrical components. Dave Selke of All-round
Supplies, Sydney, was a very helpful tradesman who
also donated some vital electrical components.
Samantha Paver, Sasha Siljanovic and Sean Tehan all
contributed their time to the project.
5.7.4 Suntech Power Corporation
Suntech, a partly Australian-owned company
operating in China, has been actively involved in
assisting UNSW with the development, testing
and evaluation of educational material in the
PV area such as in the development, testing and
evaluation of a teaching software package called
the Virtual Production Line. Significant numbers
of UNSW undergraduate students participate in
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industrial training or in “Taste of Research” projects
at Suntech and postgraduate students often travel
there to use vital research equipment. Additionally,
Suntech sponsored an undergraduate Cooperative
Scholarship and two PhD scholarships and has
made significant financial and in-kind contributions
to UNSW to support photovoltaics research.
5.7.5 Singapore Polytechnic, Ngee Ann
Polytechnic and Temasek Polytechnic
The Polytechnics in Singapore offer three-year
diploma programs, including in engineering.
During 2007 the School arranged for future
articulation of graduates from the new clean energy
diploma of Clean Energy program at Singapore
Polytechnic into either of the School’s Bachelor of
Engineering programs. In 2008 the School set up
a similar articulation arrangement with Ngee Ann
Polytechnic and Temasek Polytechnic was included
in 2009. Significant numbers of students may flow
in future years from these institutions, once the first
groups of students make their way through the
new programs, fuelling Singapore’s drive to become
a major photovoltaics manufacturer. Richard
Corkish has accepted in 2010 the role of External
Examiner for the Diploma in Clean Energy program
Singapore Polytechnic.
5.7.6 Darcy Wenworth
Darcy Wentworth donated his services through
2010 as a visiting academic, supervising
undergraduate student projects and coordinating
two subjects.
5.7.7 Kema Consulting
Dr Hanzheng Duo, a practicing Engineer at Kema
Consulting, in his role as visiting academic, donated
his time and industrial project experience to
supervise and assess an undergraduate thesis
project through 2010.
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6. ORGANISATIONAL
STRUCTURE
When the Key Centre for Photovoltaic Engineering
was awarded in 1999, it was established as
an autonomous Centre within the Faculty of
Engineering of UNSW, becoming independent
from the School of Electrical Engineering where
UNSW photovoltaic activities had been previously
located. At that time, the Key Centre was given
the same operational independence and rights as
the other Engineering schools, with the Director
Stuart Wenham being given the same status and
authority as other Heads of Schools. With the
awarding of the Centre of Excellence in 2003,
the University committed to the Key Centre for
Photovoltaic Engineering becoming the School
of Photovoltaic Engineering, within which the
ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence would be
located. This transition occurred in January 2006.
The corresponding organisational relationships are
shown in the upper part of Fig. 6.1.
Within the Centre of Excellence, Deputy Directors
have been appointed for the major strands of
research as shown. The Management Committee
of the Centre comprises the six Directors and
Deputy Directors, along with the Head of School
and the Business and Operations Manager. This
committee meets fortnightly on the 1st and 3rd
Fridays of each month, with each Deputy Director
giving a report on the activities in his or her area
over the preceding fortnight. This committee
takes responsibility for decision making within
the Centre that affects the Centre as a whole,
while the individual Deputy Directors receive their
own annual budgets to allow them to make and
implement decisions that impact only their own
laboratory areas and research activities.
The Advisory Committee for the Centre comprises
the Centre Directors, the Head of School for
Photovoltaic Engineering, leading academics from
other institutions, industry leaders such as CEO’s
of various companies involved in the field, and
research leaders. This committee provides high level
advice, feedback and recommendations in relation
to the Centre’s activities and their relevance. The
Advisory committee meets annually, taking into
120
account the geographical separation of its members
(Australia, USA, China, Germany, Italy, Spain),
although more frequent correspondence takes
place when necessary with individual committee
members either by email or telephone. The
membership of the Advisory Committee during
2010 has included:
• Professor Stuart Wenham, Centre Director
• Professor Martin Green, Centre Executive
Research Director
• Associate Professor Gavin Conibeer, Deputy
Director (3rd Generation PV Research)
• Associate Professor Thorsten Trupke, Deputy
Director (Silicon Photonics)
• Dr Sergey Varlamov, Deputy Director (2nd
Generation PV research)
• Professor Allen Barnett: world leading academic
in the field; recipient of many prestigious
international prizes such as the William Cherry
Award; former President of AstroPower, one of the
world’s largest solar cell manufacturers, before
being purchased by GE.
• Prof. Andres Cuevas, ANU;
• Dr Francesca Ferrazza, Chief Scientific Officer,
Enitechnologie;
• David Hogg: COO of Suntech Power; until recently
CEO of CSG Solar AC, Germany; former CEO of
Pacific Solar, Australia;
• Mr. David Jordan, until recently, Manager of New
Technology, BP Solar International;
• Dr Larry Kazmerski, until recently Head,
Photovoltaic Division, US National Renewable
Energy Laboratory;
• Prof. Antonio Luque, Head, ESTI, Polytechnical
University of Madrid; Leading European academic
in the photovoltaic field; founder of Isofoton, one
of Europe’s most established manufacturers;
• Dr Zhengrong Shi, CEO of Suntech-Power, the
world’s largest silicon cell manufacturer; recipient
of various industry prizes; former Deputy Research
Director of Pacific Solar; major collaborator of
the Centre;.
• Prof. Peter Würfel, Institut fur Angewandte Physik
der Universität Karlsruhe.
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Centre organisational structure.

Figure 6.1

Other distinguished researchers and industrialists purchasing of appropriate new infrastructure

have been co-opted to the Committee as required. and equipment.

Also within the Management structure and a
member of the Centre’s Management Committee is
the Centre’s Business, Technology and Operations
Manager Mark Silver, given the extensive
involvement of Centre staff with industry, large
number of collaborative research projects, and the
high level of success of the Centre in generating,
marketing and commercialising technology. The
Head of Administrative Support for the Centre
during 2010 was Joyce Ho. Not shown in the
Management Structure is the Financial Officer
Julie Kwan who looks after the Centre Accounts,
interfaces with the University Financial System,
advises the Centre Directors and Deputy Directors
on budgeting and financial matters, and generally
assists with sourcing of funding, purchasing,
reporting, writing grant applications, and advising
on business opportunities.
The Director works closely with the Centre’s
Executive Research Director to assist in setting
high level research direction and priorities for
the Centre’s programs. In the teaching area, with
the Key Centre for Photovoltaic Engineering
and its activities being incorporated into the
Centre of Excellence, the Director also takes
significant responsibility in ensuring the successful
development and implementation of the Centre’s
educational programs, both at undergraduate and
postgraduate levels. In this area, the Director works
closely with Dr Richard Corkish, the Head of School.

A primary responsibility of the Director in the

Centre is to ensure the Management structure as
shown functions efficiently and effectively, with
appropriate support and resources to facilitate
the Centre’s achievement of its milestones and
performance targets. An important aspect of this is
managing the Centre’s finances to ensure suitable
levels of funding are made available for supporting
the major research strands, while simultaneously
ensuring adequate funding is available for repair
and maintenance of existing facilities and the

121
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7. FINANCIAL
SUMMARY
The total income for 2010 for the Australian
Research Council (ARC) Photovoltaics Centre of
Excellence was $6.8 million. This does not include
over $2 million from the Host Institution based on
EFTSU and related income. This income has been
generated by the Centre through its educational
activities that have formed the basis of a School
within the Faculty of Engineering. This income has
been used for the development of new courses and
teaching materials and to fund the salaries of most
of the academic staff associated with the Centre.
The largest two components of Centre income in
terms of cash contributions were from the ARC
with $2.1 million for the Centre Grant and industry
with $2.0 million. The former was complemented
by a further $0.49 million in ARC funding for other
grants. However, for the latter, in-kind contributions
for collaborative research add a further almost
$1 million, effectively making industry funds the
largest income source for the Centre for the fourth
consecutive year. With the booming photovoltaic
industry, the success of Centre PV technology and
the high demand for companies wishing to work
with the Centre, this trend is expected to continue.
Figure 7.2 shows a more detailed breakdown of
income derived from industry and related sources.
The largest industry contributor was again Suntech-
Power, but with the majority of the $0.63 million
being in-kind contributions resulting from most
of the collaborative research being carried out at
the premises of Suntech in China. The largest cash
contributor was the consortium of Toyota, General
122
Electric, Schlumberger and ExxonMobil
for the Global Climate & Energy Project,
administered by the Stanford University,
who contributed $0.61 million. The next
three largest cash contributions were from CSG
Solar from Australia, Shinsung Holdings from Korea
and Guodian Solar from China, each contributing
about $0.3 million. Other cash and in-kind
contributions have been made by a large number
of industry collaborators and contributors of whom
the most significant have been Hyundi Heavy
Industries, the European Commission, Renewable
Energy Corporation (REC), BP Solar, CEEG Nanjing
PV Tech, Toyota Motor Group, E-ton Solar, Silex, Roth
& Rau, Global Sunrise Energy, Infigen Energy, the
Australian Academy of Science and Advent Solar. In
addition, many other companies contribute to the
Centre through the expertise and experience they
offer in collaborative research areas and the in-kind
support they provide through access to equipment,
facilities and personnel not available at UNSW.
The third largest cash component of income was
Host Institution support. UNSW contributed $1.0
million not including additional Host Institution
support in the form of EFTSU and related income.
The next largest cash component of income was
$0.70 million from the State Government, primarily
through the Department of State and Regional
Development (DSRD). This funding has been
particularly important for the purchase of new
equipment and the development of facilities.
Other Centre contracts, consulting work and
technology transfers are conducted through
NewSouth Innovations, the commercial arm of
the university. These are handled on behalf of
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Sources of Centre income.

Figure 7.1

the Centre of Excellence and its staff through

the NewSouth Innovations accounts and not
included in this financial report.

The Centre also earns income through the

sale of educational CDs, books and computer
software and running short courses.

Centre 2010 Expenditure of ARC Grant was $2.3

million as shown in Figure 7.3, approximately
$200k more than the corresponding income.
By far the largest component of expenditure
was for salaries and scholarships with $1.4
million, including for research appointments,
technical support, administrative staff, financial
management, specialised consultants and
facility cleaning. Appointments include full-
time, part-time and casual.

Equipment expenditure, mainly for small items 2010 industry income to the ARC
or small contributions leveraged to purchase Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence.
large items, was $101k from the ARC Grant. With
Figure 7.2
the large amount of industry funded research,
travel expenditure was quite significant at
$145k, with several staff and students making
many trips to industry partners for industry
collaborative research and technology transfers.
Other travel included attendance and paper
presentation at international conferences.

Another major component of Centre

expenditure from the ARC grant is on
consumables and maintenance with $633K.
These costs are strongly dominated by
laboratory consumables to support the device
research such as high purity gases, chemicals
and general laboratory supplies.

Expenditure of the ARC grant by

expenditure category.

Figure 7.3

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8. PUBLICATIONS
8.1 BOOK
Y. Yamaguchi, Martin A Green, Y. Ohshita and N. Kojima, “Fundamentals and Applications of Solar Cells”, ISBN 978-4-621-08211-9, 231pp (Maruzen, Japan, 2010)
8.2 BOOK CHAPTERS
G. Conibeer, “Up and Down Conversion for
Photovoltaics” in “Physics of Solar cells” Ed. Badescu, V
& Paulescu, M, accepted after review April 2009 (Nova
Science Publishers, July 2010).
G. Conibeer, “Applications of Si Nanocrystals in
Photovoltaic Solar Cells” in “Silicon Nanocrystals:
Physics and Applications”, Ed. Rasit Turan and Lorenzo
Pavesi (Wiley VCH, 2010).
8.3 patent applications
I. Brazil and A. Lennon, “Method for Texturing
Surfaces”, International Patent Application PCT/
AU2010/001208, filed on 16 September 2010.
G. Conibeer, S. Shrestha, D. Konig and M.A. Green,
“Hot Carrier Energy Conversion Structure and
Method of Fabricating the Same”, International
Patent Application PCT/AU2010/000848, filed on 2
July 2010.
R. Corkish, B. Jaya, Y. Augarten, C. Rizos and L. Ge,
“Method to Detect Faults in Photovoltaic Arrays
by Observation of Electroluminescence Signal”, IP
Notification to New South Innovations, 1 July 2010.
M.A. Green,“Improved Scheme for Light-Trapping
in Organic Photovoltaic and Related Thin-Film
Optoelectronic Devices”, Australian Provisional
Application 2010900576, filed on 12 February 2010.
M.A. Green, “Si Cells with III-V Multijunction Cells”,
Australian Provisional Application 2010900574, filed
on 12 February 2010.
M.A. Green, A. Wenham and S.R. Wenham, “Improved
Metal Adhesion”, International Patent Application
PCT/AU2010/000215, filed on 24 February 2010.
P. Hamer and S.R. Wenham, “Method of Fabricating
a P-N Junction”, Australian Provisional Application
2010905292, filed on 1 December 2010.
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R. Corkish, “Solar Energy”, in Mohd. Nordin Hassan
and Sukanta Roy (eds.), “Sustainable Energy in Asia
and the Pacific”, Akademi Sains Malaysia, 2010 ISBN:
978.983-9445-43-5 (invited).
D. König, “Acceptor Modulation Doping of
Nanocrystals and Quantum Structures, International
Patent Application PCT/AU2010/001043, filed on 13
August 2010.
D. König, “Donor Modulation Doping of Quantum
Structures”, International Patent Application PCT/
AU2010/001042, filed on 13 August 2010.
A. Lennon, D. Lu and Y. Chen, “Metal Contact Scheme
for Solar Cell”, Australian Provisional Application
2010902694, filed on 2 July 2010.
A. Lennon, S.R. Wenham and A. Ho-Baillie, “Method
of Patterned Etching of Selected Material”, National
Phase Entry PCT/AU2009/000098 filed on 1
August 2010.
A. Lennon and S.R. Wenham, “A Method for the
Selective Delivery of Material to a Substrate”,
International Patent Application PCT/
AU2010/001001, filed on 6 August 2010.
A. Lennon, Y. Yao, K. Chin and D. Coyle, “Method and
Apparatus for Light Induced Plating of Solar Cells”,
Australian Provisional Application 2010903869, filed
on 27 August 2010.
D. König, “Photovoltaic Device Physics at the
Nanoscale”, Chapter 3 (pp. 73 - 146) in L. Tsakalakos
(Ed.), Nanotechnology for Photovoltaics, Taylor &
Francis, April 2010, ISBN-13: 9781420076745 [Amazon
Books bestsellers rank 680,938] (invited).
L. Mai, A. Wenham and S.R. Wenham, “Solar Cell
Methods and Structures”, International Patent
Application PCT/AU2010/000036, filed on 15 January
2010.
L. Mai, A. Wenham and S.R. Wenham, “Photoplating
of Metal Electrodes for Solar Cells”, International
Patent Application PCT/AU2010/001460, filed on 3
November 2010.
C-Y. Tsao, X.J. Hao and M.A. Green, “A Method
of Forming a Germanium Layer on a Silicon
Substrate and a Photovoltaic Device Including a
Germanium Layer”, Australian Provisional Application
2010905488, filed on 15 December 2010.
S.R. Wenham, B. Tjahjono and L. Mai, “Photovoltaic
Device Structure and Method”, International Patent
Application PCT/AU2010/000145, filed on 11
February 2010.
S.R. Wenham, B. Tjahjono, A. Lennon and N. Kuepper,
“Improved Metallization Method for Silicon Solar
Cells”, International Patent Application PCT/
AU2010/001421, filed on 25 October 2010.
S.R. Wenham, B. Tjahjono, A. Lennon and Y. Yao,
“Method and Apparatus for Light Induced Plating
of Solar Cells”, International Patent Application PCT/
AU2010/001461, filed on 3 November 2010.
8.4 Papers in refereed Scientific and
Technical Journals
P. Aliberti, S.K. Shrestha, R. Teuscher, B. Zhang, M.A.
Green and G.J. Conibeer, ”Study of Silicon Quantum
Dots in a SiO2 Matrix for Energy Selective Contacts
Applications”, Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells, Vol.
94, pp. 1936-1941, 2010.
P. Aliberti, Y. Feng, Y. Takeda, S.K. Shrestha, M.A.
Green and G. Conibeer, “Investigation of Theoretical
Efficiency Limit of Hot Carriers Solar Cells with a Bulk
Indium Nitride Absorber”, Journal of Applied Physics,
Vol. 108, 094507 (10 pp.), 2010.
Y. Augarten, T. Trupke, M. Lenio, J. Bauer, J. Weber,
M. Juhl and O. Breitenstein, “Calculation of
Quantitative Shunt Values Using Photoluminescence
Imaging”, Progress in Photovoltaics (re-submitted
January 2011).
G. Barber, T. Mallouk, S. Zakeer, M. Graetzel, M.A.
Green, A. Lee, P.G. Hoertz, N. Abrams, J. Mikulca and P.
Liskat, “Tandem Hybrid Concentrator Using Dye Cells
and Silicon”, Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, Vol.
2, pp. 518-585. 2011.
G. Barber, S-H. Lee, P. Liska, Paul, M. Graetzel, S.M.
Zakeeruddin, M.A. Green, A. Ho-Baillie, J. Mikulca,
T. Mallouk, P. Hoertz and N. Abrams, “Utilization of
Direct and Diffuse Sunlight in a Dye-Sensitized Solar
Cell – Silicon Photovoltaic Hybrid Concentrator
System”, Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters
(submitted 9 February 2011).
I. Brazil and M.A. Green, “Measuring Strain Changes
during Production of Thin Film Crystalline Silicon
on Glass Photovoltaic Modules”, Journal of Materials
Science: Materials in Electronics, Vol. 21, No. 11, pp.
1207-1211, 2010.
I. Brazil and M.A. Green, “Investigating Polysilicon
Thin Film Structural Changes during Rapid Thermal
Annealing of a Thin Film Crystalline Silicon on Glass
Solar Cell”, Journal of Materials Science: Materials in
Electronics, Vol. 21 (10), pp. 994-999, 2010.
R. Clady, M.J.Y. Tayebjee, P. Aliberti, D. König, N.J.
Ekins-Daukes, G.J. Conibeer, T.W. Schmidt and M.A.
Green, “Femtosecond Investigation of High Energy
Carrier Relaxation Processes in GaAs and InP for
Hot Carrier Solar Cell Applications”, Progress in
Photovoltaics (accepted October 2010).
R. Clady, T. Schmidt, M. Tayebjee, P. Aliberti, G.
Conibeer, D. Konig, M.A. Green and N.J. Ekins-Daukes,
“Interplay Between the Hot Phonon Effect and
Intervalley Scattering on the Cooling Rate of Hot
Carrier in GaAs and InP”, Progress in Photovoltaics:
Research and Applications (accepted 10 March 2011).
G. Conibeer, M.A. Green, D. Konig, I. Perez-Wurfl, S.
Huang, X. Hao, D. Di, L. Shi, S. Shrestha, B. Puthen-
Veettil, Y. So, B. Zhang and Z. Wan, “Silicon Quantum
Dot Based Solar Cells: Addressing the Issues of
Doping, Voltage and Current Transport”, Progress in
Photovoltaics: Res. Appl. 18 (2010) In press, Published
online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.
com). DOI: 10.1002/pip.1045 (accepted
September 2010).
G. Conibeer and S. Huang, “International Journal of
Nanoparticles”, ed Chang Hui Ye, Nanomaterials for
Third Generation Photovoltaics (in press), 2010.
G. Conibeer, R. Patterson, L. Huang, J-F. Guillemoles,
D. König, S. Shrestha and M.A. Green, “Modelling
of Hot Carrier Solar Cell Absorbers”, Solar Energy
Materials and Solar Cells, Vol. 94, pp. 1516-1521, 2010
(doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2010.01.018).
Richard Corkish, Anna Bruce and Deo Prasad,
“Integrated Solar Photovoltaics for Buildings”, Review
of Architecture and Building Science (ISSN: 1225-
1666), Vol. 54 (1), pp.86-92, 2010.
D. Di, I. Perez-Wurfl, A. Gentle, D-H. Kim, X. Hao,
L. Shi, G. Conibeer and M.A. Green, “Impacts of
Post-metallisation Processes on the Electrical and
Photovoltaic Properties of Si Quantum Dot Solar
Cells”, Nanoscale Research Letters, Vol. 5 (11), pp.
1762-1767, 2010.
D. Di, I. Perez-Wurfl, G. Conibeer and M. A. Green,
“Formation and Photoluminescence of Si Quantum
Dots in SiO2/Si3N4 Hybrid Matrix for All-Si Tandem
Solar Cells”, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, Vol.
94 , pp. 2238-2243, December 2010.
C. Flynn, D. König, I. Perez-Wurfl, M.A. Green and G.
Conibeer, “Correlation between Fixed Charge and
Capacitance Peaks in Silicon Nanocrystal Metal-
Insulator-Semiconductor Devices”, Semiconductor
Science and Technology, Vol. 25, 045011 (8pp), 2010.
C. Flynn, D. König, M.A. Green and G. Conibeer,
“Modelling of Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor
Devices Featuring a Silicon Quantum Well”, Physica E,
Vol. 42, pp. 2211-2217, 2010.
M.A. Green and A. Ho, “43% Composite Split-
Spectrum Concentrator Solar Cell Efficiency”, Progress
in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, Vol. 18,
pp. 42-47, 2010.
M.A. Green, K. Emery, Y. Hishikawa and W. Warta,
“Solar Cell Efficiency Tables (Version 35), Progress in
Photovoltaics, Vol. 18, pp.144-150, 2010.
M.A. Green, K. Emery, Y. Hishikawa and W. Warta,
“Solar Cell Efficiency Tables (Version 36), Progress in
Photovoltaics, 2010, Vol. 18 (5), pp. 346-352, 2010.
M.A. Green, “Enhanced Evanescent Mode Light
Trapping in Organic Solar Cells and Other Low Index
Optoelectronic Devices”, Progress in Photovoltaics,
Vol. 19, pp. 473-477, 2011.
M.A. Green, “Learning Experience for Thin-Film Solar
Modules: First Solar, Inc. Case Study”, Progress in
Photovoltaics, Vol. 19, pp. 498-500, 2011.
M.A. Green, “Is Sour Crude or Sour Gas a Potential
Source of Se and Te?”, Progress in Photovoltaics
(accepted 1 February 2011).
M.A. Green, “Analytical Treatment of Trivich-Flinn
and Shockley-Queisser Photovoltaic Efficiency Limits
Using Polylogarithms” Progress in Photovoltaics:
Research and Applications (accepted 11 March 2011).
P.J. Gress, P.I. Widenborg, S. Varlamov and A.G. Aberle,
“Wire Bonding As a Cell Interconnection Technique
for Polycrystalline Silicon Thin-film Solar Cells on
Glass”, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and
Applications, Vol. 18, pp. 221-228, 2010.
Z. Hameiri, L. Mai, A.B. Sproul and S.R. Wenham,
“18.7% Efficient Laser Doped Solar Cell on CZ p-type
Silicon”, Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 97, pp. 222111-
222113, 2010.
Z. Hameiri, L. Mai and S.R. Wenham, “Advantages of
Photoplating for Laser Doped Solar Cells”, Progress
in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications (DOI:
10.1002/pip.1072), 2010.
Z. Hameiri, T. Puzzer, L Mai, A.B. Sproul and S.R.
Wenham, “Laser Induced Defects in Laser Doped
Solar Cells”, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and
Applications (DOI: 10.1002/pip.1043), 2010.
Z. Hameiri, T. Puzzer, L Mai and S.R. Wenham, “SR.
Influence of Laser Power on the Properties of Laser
Doped Solar Cells”, Solar Energy Materials and Solar
Cells, 95, pp. 1085-1094, 2011.
S. He, J. Jannsens, J. Wong and A. Sproul, “The
Influence of Base Doping Density on the Performance
of Evaporated Poly-Si Thin-Film Solar Cells by
Solid-Phase Epitaxy”, Thin Solid Films, Vol. 519, pp.
475-478, 2010.
S. He and A. Sproul, “Optical Properties of Evaporated
Poly-Si Thin-Films on Glass”, Thin Solid Films, Vol. 519,
pp. 351-356, 2010.
S. He, J. Wong, D. Inns, B. Hoex, A. Aberle and A.
Sproul, “Influences of Oxygen Contamination on
Evaporated Poly-Si Thin-Film Solar Cells by Solid-
Phase Epitaxy”, Thin Solid Films, Vol. 518, pp. 4351-
4355, 2010.
G. Jin, P. I. Widenborg, P. Campbell and S. Varlamov,
“Lambertian Matched Absorption Enhancement
in PECVD Poly-Si Thin Film on Aluminium
Induced Textured Glass Superstrates for Solar Cell
Applications”, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and
Application, Vol. 18, pp. 582-589, 2010.
D. König, K. Casalenuovo, Y. Takeda, G. Conibeer,
J.F. Guillemoles, R. Patterson, L.M. Huang and M.A.
Green, “Hot Carrier Solar Cells: Principles, Design and
Materials”, Physica E: Low-Dimensional Systems and
Nanostructures, Vol. 42, pp. 2862-2866, 2010.
A. Lahreche, Y. Beggah and R. Corkish, “The Effect
of Electron Range on Electron Beam Induced
Current Collection and a Simple Method to Extract
an Electron Range for Any Generation Function”,
Ultramicroscopy (submitted July 2010).
M. Lenio, A. J. Lennon, A. Ho-Baillie and S. R. Wenham.
“Effect of Electroless Nickel on the Series Resistance
of High-Efficiency Inkjet Printed Passivated Emitter
Rear Contacted Solar Cells”. Solar Energy Materials
and Solar Cells, Vol. 94 (12), pp. 2102-2107,
December 2010.
D. Lin, L. Ma, G. Conibeer and I. Perez-Wurfl,
“Study on electrical properties of Si quantum dots
based materials”, Physica Status Solidi (accepted
September 2010).
L. Ma, D. Lin, G. Conibeer and I. Perez-Wurfl,
“Introducing Dopants by Diffusion to Improve the
Conductivity of Silicon Quantum Dot Materials in 3rd
Generation Photovoltaic Device”, Physica Status Solidi
(accepted September 2010).
B. Mitchell, T. Trupke, J. Weber and J. Nyhus, “Bulk
Minority Carrier Lifetimes and Doping of Silicon
Bricks from Photoluminescence Intensity Ratios”,
Journal of Applied Physics (accepted March 2011).
E.J. Mitchell, S. Lindekugel, M. Künle, K. Schillinger,
S. Janz and S. Reber, “c-Si Wafer-equivalent Epitaxial
Thin-film Solar Cells on Isolating Substrates”, Solar
Energy Materials and Solar Cells, Vol. 95, Issue 4, pp.
1163-1167, 2011 (doi:10.1016/i.solmat.2010.12.046).
E.J. Mitchell, N. Brinkmann and S. Reber, “Progress
with Epitaxy Wrap-through Crystalline Silicon Thin-
film Solar Cells”, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research
and Applications (accepted December 2010).
Z. Ouyang, O. Kunz, A. B. Sproul and S. Varlamov,
“Influence of the Absorber Doping for p-type
Evaporated Polycrystalline Silicon Thin-Film Solar
Cells On Glass, Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 109,
p.060104, 2011.
Z. Ouyang, S. Pillai, F. Beck, O. Kunz, S. Varlamov, K.
Catchpole, P. Campbell and M.A. Green, “Effective
Light Trapping in Polycrystalline Silicon Thin-Film
Solar Cells by Means of Rear Localised Surface
Plasmons”, Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 96, p.
261109, 2010.
125
 Z. Ouyang, X. Zhao, S. Varlamov, Y. Tao, J. Wong
and S. Pillai, “Nanoparticles Enhanced Light-
Trapping in Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells”, Progress in
Photovoltaics (submitted November 2010).
R. Patterson, M. Kirkengen, B. Puthen-Veettil, D.
Konig, M.A. Green and G. Conibeer, “Phonon Lifetimes
in Model Quantum Dot Superlattice Systems with
Applications to the Hot Carrier Solar Cell”, Solar
Energy Materials & Solar Cells, Vol. 94, pp. 1931-
1935, 2010.
S. Pillai and M.A. Green, “Plasmonics for Photovoltaic
Applications”, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells,
Vol. 94, pp. 1481-1486, 2010.
S. Pillai, I. Perez-Wurfl, G.J. Conibeer and M.A. Green,
“Surface Plasmons for Improving the Performance of
Quantum Dot Structures for Third Generation Solar
Cell Applications”, Physica Status Solidi, Vol. 8, pp.
181-184, 2011.
B. Puthen-Veettil, D. König, G. Conibeer and M.A.
Green, “Impact of Disorder in Double Barrier QD
Structures on Energy Selectivity Investigated by Two
Dimensional Effective Mass Approximation”, Energy
Procedia, Vol. 2, p. 213, 2010.
Santosh K. Shrestha, Pasquale Aliberti and Gavin J.
Conibeer, “Energy Selective Contacts for Hot Carrier
Solar Cells”, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, Vol.
94, pp. 1546-1550, September 2010.
R.A Sinton and T. Trupke, “Limitations on Dynamic
Excess-Carrier Lifetime Calibration Methods”, Progress
in Photovoltaics (accepted March 2011).
Y-H. So, M.A. Green, G. Conibeer, S. Huang and A.
Gentle, “Size Dependent Optical Properties of Si
Quantum Dots in Si-rich Nitride/Si3N4 Superlattice
Synthesized by Magnetron Sputtering”, Journal of
Applied Physics (accepted February 2011).
Yong-Heng So, Shujuan Huang, Gavin Conibeer and
Martin A Green, “Formation and Photoluminescence
of Si Nanocrystals in Controlled Multilayer Structure
Comprising of Si-rich Nitride and Ultrathin Silicon
Nitride Barrier Layers”, Thin Solid Films (accepted
February 2011).
A. Sugianto, L. Mai, M.B. Edwards, S.R. Wenham et
al., “Investigation of Al-Doped Emitter on N-Type
Rear Junction Solar Cells”, IEEE Transactions on
Electron Devices, Volume: 57, Issue: 2, pp. 525-529,
February 2010.
Y. Takeda, T. Motohiro, D. König , P. Aliberti, Y. Feng, S.
Shrestha and G. Conibeer, “Practical Factors Lowering
Conversion Efficiency of Hot Carrier Solar Cells,
Applied Physics Express”, Applied Physics Express 3,
p. 104301, 2010.
8.5 UNREFEREED Papers in Scientific and
Technical Journals
Richard Corkish, “Our Time to Shine: Australia’s
Burgeoning Solar Energy Industry”, Ecogeneration,
Issue 57, pp. 24, 26, March/April 2010.
http://ecogeneration.com.au/news/our_time_
to_shine_australias_burgeoning_solar_energy_
industry/012453/ (invited).
126
C.Y. Tsao; J. W. Weber; P. Campbell; G. Conibeer; D.
Song and M.A. Green, “In Situ Low Temperature
Growth of Poly-Crystalline Germanium Thin Film
on Glass by RF Magnetron Sputtering”, Solar Energy
Materials and Solar Cells, Vol. 94, pp. 1501-1505, 2010.
C.Y. Tsao, J. Wong, J-L. Huang; P. Campbell, D. Song
and M.A. Green, “Structural Dependence of Electrical
Properties of Ge Films Prepared by RF Magnetron
Sputtering”, Applied Physics A, Vol. 102, pp. 689-
694, 2010.
C.Y. Tsao, P. Campbell, D. Song and M.A. Green,
“Influence of Hydrogen on Structural and Optical
Properties of Low Temperature Polycrystalline Ge
Films Deposited by RF Magnetron Sputtering”,
Journal of Crystal Growth, Vol. 312 (9), pp. 2647-
2655, 2010.
C.Y. Tsao, J.L. Huang, X.J. Hao, P. Campbell and
M.A. Green, “Heavily Boron-Doped Hydrogenated
Polycrystalline Ge Thin Films Prepared by
Cosputtering”, Electrochemical and Solid-State
Letters, Vol. 13 (10), pp. H354-H356, 2010.
T. Trupke, J, Nyhus and J.Haunschild, “Luminescence
Imaging for Inline Characterisation in Silicon
Photovoltaics”, Phys.Stat.Sol. (RRL) (published online
2 February 2011).
A. Uddin, C. B. Lee and T. G. Anderson, “Initial Rise of
Transient Electroluminescence in Doped Alq3 Films”,
Physica Status Solidi A, Vol. 207, No. 10, pp. 2334-
2338, 2010
A. Uddin and C. B. Lee, “Exciton Behaviour in Doped
Tris (8-hydroxyquinoline) Aluminum (Alq3) Films),
Physica Status Solidi C, Vol. 8 (1), pp. 80-83, 2011.
A. Uddin, C. B. Lee and J. Wong, “Emission Properties
of Dopants Rubrene and Coumarin 6 in Alq3 Films”,
Journal of Luminescence, Vol. 131, pp. 1037-
1041, 2011.
Z. Wan, S. Huang, M.A. Green and G. Conibeer,
“Residual Stress Study of Silicon Quantum Dot in
Silicon Carbide Matrix by Raman Measurement”,
Physica Status Solidi C, Vol. 8 (1), pp. 185-188, 2011.
Z. Wan, S. Huang, M.A. Green and G. Conibeer, “Rapid
Thermal Annealing and Crystallization Mechanisms
Study of Silicon Nanocrystal in Silicon Carbide
Matrix”, Nanoscale Research Letters, 6:129, 2011.
S. Wang, A. Lennon, B. Tjahjono and S. Wenham,
“Overcoming Overplating Problems for PECVD SiNx
Passivated, Laser-doped p-type Multicrystalline
Silicon Solar Cells, Solar Energy Materials and Solar
Cells (submitted March 2011).
T. Trupke and W. McMillan, “Photoluminescence
Imaging Speeds Solar Cell inspection”, Laser Focus
World, 12/2010.
T. Trupke, “Photolumineszenz Bildgebung für die
Silizium-Photovoltaik”, Photonik 1/2011, p.38, 2011.
K. S. Wang, B. S. Tjahjono, J. Wong, A. Uddin and S.
R. Wenham, “Sheet Resistance Charaacterization
of Laser-dope on Crystalline Silicon Wafers for
Photovoltaic Applications”, Solar Energy materials
and Solar Cells, Vol. 95, pp. 974-980, 2011.
K. S. Wang, B. S. Tjahjono, A. Uddin and S. R. Wenham,
“A Method to Characterize the Sheet Resistance of
a Laser Doped Line on Crystalline Silicon Wafers for
Photovoltaic Applications”, Applied Physics Letters,
Vol. 98, pp. 094105 (1-3), 2011.
J. Wong, J. L. Huang, S. Varlamov, M. A. Green,
R. Evans, M. Keevers and R. Egan, “Structural
Inhomogeneities in Polycrystalline Silicon On
Glass Solar Cells and Their Effects on Device
Characteristics”, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research
and Applications, DOI: 10. 1002/pip.1089, 2011.
J. Wong, J.L. Huang, B. Eggleston, M.A. Green, O. Kunz,
R. Evans, M. Keevers and R.J. Egan, “Lifetime Limiting
Recombination Pathway in Thin-Film Polycrystalline
Silicon on Glass Solar Cells” Journal of Applied
Physics, Vol. 107, p.123705, 2010.
Y. Yao, A. Sugianto, A. Lennon, B. Tjahjono and S.
Wenham, “Use of ICP-MS and OES Measurements
to Characterise Light-induced Plating for Silicon
Solar Cells”, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
(submitted January 2011).
G. Zatryb, A. Podhorodecki, X.J. Hao, J. Misiewicz,
Y.S. Shen and M.A. Green, “Quantitative Evaluation
of Boron-Induced Disorder in Multilayers Containing
Silicon Nanocrystals in an Oxide Matrix Designed for
Photovoltaic Applications”, Optics Express, Vol. 18, No.
21, pp. 22004-22009, 2010.
B. Zhang, S. Shrestha, M.A. Green and G. Conibeer,
“Surface States Induced High p-type Conductivity
in Nanostructured Thin Film Composed of Ge
nanocrystals in SiO2 Matrix”, Applied Physics Letters,
Vol. 97, p. 132109, 2010.
B. Zhang, S.K. Shrestha, M.A. Green and G.J. Conibeer,
“Size Controlled Synthesis of Ge Nanocrystals in
SiO2 at Temperatures Below 400 degree C Using
Magnetron Sputtering”, Applied Physics Letters, Vol.
96, p. 26901, 2010.
B. Zhang, S. Shrestha, P. Aliberti, M.A. Green and G.
Conibeer, “Characterisation of Size-Controlled and
Red Luminescent Ge Nanocrystals in Multilayered
Superlattice Structure”, Thin Solid Films, Vol. 518, pp.
5483-5487, 2010.
B. Zhang, Y. Yao, R. Patterson, S. Shrestha, M. A. Green
and G. Conibeer, “Electrical Properties of Conductive
Ge Nanocrystal Thin Films Fabricated by Low
Temperature in Situ Growth”, Nanotechnology, Vol.
22, p. 125204, 2011.
8.6 Conference Papers AND
OTHER PRESENTATIONS
P. Aliberti, Y. Feng, R. Clady, M.J.Y. Tayebjee, T.W.
Schmidt, S.K. Shrestha, M.A. Green, G.J. Conibeer, “On
Efficiency of Hot Carriers Solar Cells with a Indium
Nitride Absorber Layer”, 5th World Photovoltaic Solar
Energy Conference, Oral Presentation, Proceedings of
European Photovoltaic Conference, Valencia, Spain,
6-10 September 2010.
P. Aliberti, B. Zhang, M.A. Green. G. Conibeer, S.
Shrestha, A. Hsieh, R. Li and B. Puthen-Veettil,
“Investigation of Single Layers of Silicon Quantum
Dots in SiO2 Matrix for Energy Selective Contacts
in Hot Carriers Solar Cells”, Australian Solar Energy
Society Conference, Solar2010, Canberra, 1-2
December 2010.
X. Bai, A. Sugianto, B. J. Hallam and S. R. Wenham,
“Improved Open Circuit Voltage for Commercial
Grade Wafers by High Quality Hydrogen Passivation”,
Australian Solar Energy Society (AuSeS) Conference,
Solar2010, Canberra, 1-3 December 2010.
G. Conibeer, M.A. Green, D. König, I. Perez-Wurfl, S.
Huang, X. Hao, D. Di, L. Shi, S. Shrestha, B. Puthen-
Veetil, Y.H. So, B. Zhang and Z. Wan, “Silicon Quantum
Dot Based Solar Cells: Addressing the Issues of
Doping, Voltage and Current Transport”, 5th World
Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Valencia,
Spain, 6-10 September 2010.
G. Conibeer, “Third Generation Photovoltaics”,
Australian Solar Energy Society Conference,
Solar2010, Canberra, December 2010.
Richard Corkish, Stephen Bremner, Anna Bruce, Evatt
Hawkes, Merlinde Kay, Alison Lennon, Alistair Sproul,
Ted Spooner, Santosh Shrestha, Geoff Stapleton,
Ashraf Uddin, Muriel Watt and Darcy Wentworth,
“Renewable Energy Education at UNSW”, Solar
2010, 48th Annual Conference of the Australian
Solar Energy Society (AuSES), Canberra, 1-3
December 2010.
Richard Corkish, “Renewable energy engineering
education at UNSW”, World Green Energy Forum,
Gyeongju, Korea 17-18 November 2010 (invited,
presentation slides published in proceedings).
Richard Corkish, “Photovoltaics technology
development at UNSW”, World Green Energy Forum,
Gyeongju, Korea 17-18 November 2010 (invited,
presentation slides published in proceedings).
Richard Corkish, “Advanced silicon photovoltaics
technology and education at UNSW, Australia”,
International Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference
and Exhibition (IPVSEE 2010) 27-29th September
2010, Beijing (invited).
Richard Corkish, “Australia-based Research for
Photovoltaics Industry Expansion in the Asia-
Pacific Region”, Ecogen 2010, 5-8 September 2010,
Sydney (invited).
Richard Corkish, “Australia-based Education for
Renewable Energy Industry Expansion in the Asia-
Pacific Region”, Ecogen 2010, 5-8 September 2010,
Sydney (invited).
Richard Corkish, “Advanced PV Cell Research
Directions & Education at UNSW”, SOLARCON India
2010, 28-30 July 2010, Hyderabad, India (invited
keynote, slides distributed to participants).
Richard Corkish, “Photovoltaics R&D at UNSW”,
in KIER’s PV R&D Outcome Exchange 2010, pp.
129-151. Daejeon, Korea 28 April 2010 (invited,
opening session).
Richard Corkish, “Photovoltaics Education and
Technology at UNSW”, 2nd PV Summit Asia, 13-14 April
2010, Beijing. Day 2, Paper #1. http://www.merisis-
asia.com/pv2010/Speakers.html (invited).
Richard Corkish, “Antenna collection of solar energy”,
The First International Symposium on Solar Energy
Technology, Yeungnam University, Korea, 16
November 2010 (invited).
Richard Corkish, “Renewable Energy in Australia”,
Australian Conservation Foundation, Central Coast
Branch, Gosford, 18 September 2010 (invited).
Richard Corkish, “Photovoltaics Technology and
Education at UNSW”, Cutting Edge Conference, MLC,
Burwood, 15 September 2010 (invited).
Richard Corkish, “Supporting Activities for Renewable
Energy Growth”, University of Delaware, 23 April
2010 (invited).
Richard Corkish, “Supporting Activities for Renewable
Energy Expansion in the Asia-Pacific Region”, Indo-
Australia Solar Energy Workshop, Amity Institute of
Renewable & Alternative Energy, Amity University-
Uttar Pradesh, India, 9-10 February 2010 (invited).
T. Curtis, R. Corkish and R.J. Fuller, “Solar Thermal
Drying of Canarium Indicum Nuts”, Solar 2010, 48th
Annual Conference of the Australian Solar Energy
Society (AuSES), Canberra, 1-3 December 2010.
R. Dumbrell, P. Hamer, A. Lennon and B. Tjahjono,
“Emitter etch-back application for selective emitter
silicon solar cells”, Proceedings of SOLA 2010
(AuSES), Australian Solar Energy Society Conference,
Canberra, 1-3 December 2010.
H. Cui, M.A. Green, P. Campbell, M. Wolf and G. Jin,
“Enhanced Absorption of SPC Poly-Si Thin Films
on Aluminium Induced Textured (AIT) Glass with
Submicron Texture Feature Size”, 25th European
Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition
(25th EU PVSEC) / 5th World Conference on
Photovoltaic Energy Conversion (WCPEC-5), Session:
3BV.3.59, Abstract No. [2008], Valencia, Spain, 6-10
September, 2010 (poster presentation).
Dawei Di, Ivan Perez-Wurfl, G. Conibeer and
M.A. Green, “Fabrication and Characterisation of
Silicon Quantum Dots in SiO2/Si3N4 Hybrid Matrix”,
Proceedings of SPIE – Optics and Photonics – Next
Generation (Nano) Photonic & Cell Technologies for
Solar Energy Conversion, San Diego, August 2010.
Hua Fan, Richard Corkish, Mary-Louise McLaws
and Jian Gang Zhang, “Solar Electrolysis System
for Remote Emergency Production of Disinfectant
Solutions”, Solar 2010, 48th Annual Conference of the
Australian Solar Energy Society (AuSES), Canberra,
1-3 December 2010.
M.A. Green, G. Conibeer, D. König, S. Shrestha, S.
Huang, P. Aliberti, L. Treiber, R. Patterson, B. Puthen-
Veettil, A. Hsieh, Y. Feng, A. Luque, A. Marti, P.G.
Linares, E. Cánovas, E. Antolin, D. Fuertes Marrón, C.
Tablero, E.Hernandez, J-F. Guillemoles, L. Huang, A. Le
Bris, T. Schmidt, R. Clady and M. Tayebjee, “Hot Carrier
Solar Cells: Challenges and Recent Progress”, 35th
IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Honolulu,
Hawaii, 20-25 June, 2010.
M. A. Green, G. Conibeer, D. König, S. Shrestha, S.
Huang, P. Aliberti, L. Treiber, R. Patterson, B. Puthen
Veettil, A. Hsieh, A. Luque, A. Marti, P.G. Linares, E.
Cánovas, E. Antolín, D. Fuertes Marrón, C. Tablero, E.
Hernández, J-F. Guillemoles , L. Huang, T. Schmidt,
R. Clady and M. Tayebjee, “Recent Progress with
Hot Carrier Solar Cells”, 25th European Photovoltaic
Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition (25th EU
PVSEC) / 5th World Conference on Photovoltaic
Energy Conversion (WCPEC-5), Session: 1AP.1.1,
Abstract No. [1191], Valencia, Spain, 6-10 September,
2010 (plenary).
Martin A. Green, “Price and Supply Constraint on
Te and In Photovoltaics”, 35th IEEE Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, 20-25
June, 2010.
Martin A Green, “The International Marketing Trend
of Silicon Solar Cells”, World PV Forum, Chengdu, 28-
30 September 2010 (invited).
Martin A Green, “Possible Evolutionary Paths
for Photovoltaics”, Symposium C, E-MRS 2010
Fall Meeting, Warsaw, Poland, 13-17 September
2010 (invited).
Martin A. Green, “The Global Evolution of PV
technology”, 2nd Chinese Renewable Energy
Conference & Solar Power Exhibition, Wuxi, 17-19
September 2010 (invited).
Martin A. Green, “Principles and Perspectives of
Photovoltaics”, Walter Schottky Lecture 2010, RWTH
Aachen, Germany, 21 October 2010 (invited).
Martin A. Green, “Technologies Shaping the
Photovoltaic Industry in the Coming 10 Years”,
Lecture, Solland Solar, Aachen, Germany, 22 October
2010 (invited).
Martin A. Green, “High Efficiency Silicon and Third
Generation Solar Cells”, Colorado Nanofabrication
Laboratory Symposium, Colorado, USA, 24-26
October 2010 (plenary).
Martin A. Green, “Solar PV – The Real Answer to
Future Energy?”, AIE National Conference, Adelaide,
14-16 November 2010 (invited).
Martin A. Green, “Photovoltaic Physics: Light
Emission, Ultimate Efficiencies, Light Trapping”,
Australian Institute of Physics (AIP) 19th National
Conference, Melbourne, 5-9 December 2010 (invited).
Martin A. Green, “Photovoltaics Solar Conversion
for Sustainable Energy Supply”, First International
Conference on Sustainable Urbanization (ICSU 2010),
Hong Kong, 15-17 December 2010 (invited).
P. Gress, P. Widenborg, G. Jin and S. Varlamov,
“Incorporation of Interconnection Technique into
the Cell Design of Thin-Film Polycrystalline Silicon
Solar Cells On Glass”, 25th EUPVSEC, pp. 3580-3583,
Valencia, Spain, 2010.
B. Hallam, N. Western, S. Wenham, “Large Increase in
Bulk Lifetime of Commercial Grade CZ Silicon Wafers
Through Hydrogenation”, Australian Solar Energy
Society (AuSeS) Conference, Solar2010, Canberra, 1-3
December 2010.
B. Hallam, A. Sugianto, B. Tjahjono, N. Kuepper,
N. Western, G. Xu, S. Wenham “Deep Junction
Formation for Silicon Solar Cells Through the Use
of Laser Doping”, Australian Solar Energy Society
(AuSeS) Conference, Solar2010, Canberra, 1-3
December 2010.
P. Hamer, S. Wenham, Xue Bai, B. Hallam, “Application
of Boron Depletion Techniques to Low Resistivity
Silicon for Photovoltaics”, Australian Solar Energy
Society (AuSeS) Conference, Solar2010, Canberra, 1-3
December 2010.
A. Hsieh, S. Shrestha, M. A. Green and G. Conibeer,
“Investigation of Si/SiO2 Quantum Well Structures for
Energy Selective Contacts in Hot Carrier Solar Cells”,
5th World Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference,
Valencia, Spain, 6-10 September 2010.
A. Hsieh, S. Shrestha, M.A. Green and G. Conibeer,
“Investigation of Si/SiO2 Quantum Well Structures
for Selective Energy Contacts in Hot Carrier Solar
Cells”, Australian Solar Energy Society Conference,
Solar2010, Canberra, December 2010.
127
 J. Huang, J. Wong, M. Keevers and M. Green,
“Cell performance limitation investigation of
polycrystalline silicon thin-film solar cells on glass by
transmission electron microscopy”, 25th EUPVSEC, pp.
3565-3567, Valencia, Spain, 2010.
G. Jin, P. Gress, S. Varlamov and P. Widenborg, “Recent
Progress in High Rate PECVD SPC Poly-Si Thin Film
Solar Cells at UNSW”, 25th EUPVSEC, pp. 3577-3579,
Valencia, Spain, 2010.
D. König, J. Rudd, G. Conibeer and M. Green,
“Introduction of Majority Carriers into Si and Ge Nano
Crystals Embedded in SiO2 or Si3N4, Symposium J,
E-MRS Spring Meeting, Strasbourg, 7 - 11 June 2010,
Oral Presentation (invited).
D. König, “Introduction of Majority Carriers into Si
and Ge Nano Crystals by Modulation Doping of
Embedding Dielectric”, Seminar at the Chemnitz
University of Technology, Germany, 4 June
2010 (invited).
D. König, “New Results on Si Nano Crystals: Interfaces,
Doping, Energy Selective Contacts and Hot Carriers”,
Seminar at the Institute of Microtechnology
(IMTEK), University of Freiburg, Germany, 14 June
2010 (invited).
Eunjoo Lee, Hyunwoo Lee, Ilhwan Kim, Junyoung
Choi, Dongjun Oh, Jimyung Shim, Kyungyeun Cho,
Jisun Kim, Hae-Seok Lee, Soohong Lee, B. Hallam and
S.R. Wenham, “The Potential Efficiency of Laser Doped
Solar Cells Using Photoluminescence Imaging”, 35th
IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Honolulu,
Hawaii, 20-25 June, 2010.
P.H. Lu, Y. Chen and A. Lennon, “Innovative Rear Point-
Contact Scheme for Silicon Solar Cells, Proceedings of
SOLA 2010 (AuSES), Australian Solar Energy Society
Conference, Canberra, 1-3 December 2010.
W. McMillan, T. Trupke, J.W. Weber, M. Wagner, U.
Mareck, Y.C. Chou and J. Wong, “In-line Monitoring of
Electrical Wafer Quality Using Photoluminescence”,
25th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference,
Valencia, Spain, September 2010.
W. McMillan, T. Trupke, J.W. Weber, S. Ha, B.S. You, W.Y.
Park, K.Y. Lee and J. Nyhus, “Slip-line Detection on
Mono Ingots and Wafers at Production Throughput
Using Photoluminescence”, 25th European
Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Valencia,
Spain, September 2010.
G.A. Parnis, A.B. Sproul, “Fast Thermal Modelling
Using Micro-Cap”, The Australian Solar Energy
Society (AuSES) Solar 2010 Conference, Australian
Solar Energy Society Conference, Canberra, 1-3
December 2010.
Rajesh S. Patel, J. Bovatsek, A. Sugianto, B. Hallam,
B. Tjahjono, “Laser Doped Selective Emitters:
Comparing Mode-locked UV 355nm and CW
532nm Laser Process”, 25th EU PVSEC, Valencia, 6-10
September 2010.
R. Patterson, Z. Wan, B. Puthen-Veettil, D. König
and G. Conibeer, “Phonon Decay in Naostructure:
Computational Study”, Proc. of 35th IEEE PVSC,
Honolulu, Hawaii, 20 - 25 June 2010, proc. pp. 1843
(art.-no. 5615953).
8.7 OTHER REPORTS
R. Armstrong, M.A. Green, L. Vant-Hull, E. Palomino
and T. Plant, “2010 Solar Program Peer Review
Report: An Independent Evaluation of Program
Activities for FY2009 and FY2010”, Solar Energy
Technologies Program, US Department of Energy,
July 2010 (782pp.).
128
R. Patterson, B. Puthen Veettil, M. Kirkengen, D.
Koenig, M.A. Green and G.J. Conibeer, Poster
Presentation 1DV.3.77, 5th World Photovoltaic
Solar Energy Conference, Valencia, Spain, 6-10
September 2010.
B. Puthen Veettil, R. Patterson, D. König, G. Conibeer
and M. A. Green, “Modelling the Effects of Doping in
Quantum Dot Structures for Tandem Cells”, Poster
Presentation 1DV.3.64, 5th World PVSEC, Valencia,
Spain, 6-10 September 2010.
B. Puthen-Veettill, D. König, M.A. Green and G.
Conibeer, “Analysis of QDs in Energy Selective
Contacts Using a 2-Dimensional Model”, Proc. E-MRS
Spring meeting, Symposium B, June 2009, Energy
Procedia, 2(1), 2010. http://www.elsevier.com/
wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/718157/
description#description
F. Qi, G. Conibeer, S. Shrestha and S. Huang, “The
Study of Potential Application of Group IV Alloys in
Photovoltaic Field”, Australian Solar Energy Society
Conference, Solar2010, Australian Solar Energy
Society Conference, Canberra, 1-3 December 2010.
Y. H. So, I. Perez-Wurfl, L. Shi, S. Huang, G. J. Conibeer
and M. A. Green, “Silicon Nitride As Alternative Matrix
for All-Si Tandem Solar Cell”, Proceedings of 25th
European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and
Exhibition, Valencia, Spain, 6-10 September 2010.
A. Sugianto, J. Bovatsek, S. Wenham, B. Tjahjono, G.
Xu, Y. Yao, B. Hallam, X. Bai, N. Kuepper, C.M. Chong
and R. Patel, “18.5% Laser-Doped Solar Cell on Cz
P-Type Silicon”, 35th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists
Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, 20-25 June, 2010.
A. Sugianto, A. Lennon, B. Tjahjono and S. Wenham,
“Impact of Laser-Doped Line Conductivity on Ni
Light-Induced Plating, Proceedings of the 25th
European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference,
Valencia, Spain, 6-10 September 2010.
Y. Tao, S. Varlamov, J. Wong, O. Kunz and R. Egan,
“Effects of SPC Temperature on Properties of
Evaporated Poly-Si Thin Films and Solar Cells”, 35th
IEEE PVSC, Hawaii, USA, 2010 (oral).
L.S. To, “Social and Institutional Aspects of
Photovoltaic Projects in Western China”, Climate:
Science + Humanities Symposium, The Faculty Club,
Harvard University, 4 March 2010.
L.S. To, “Solar Photovoltaic Projects in Remote Areas
of China”, Asia Pacific Week, Australian National
University, 11 February 2010.
T. Trupke, B. Mitchell, J.W. Weber and J. Nyhus.
“Bulk Minority Carrier Lifetime from Luminescence
Intensity Ratios Measured on Silicon Bricks”, 25th
European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference,
Valencia, Spain, September 2010.
T Trupke, “Luminescence Imaging: A Powerful
Characterization Tool for Photovoltaic Applications”,
SPIE, Optics & Photonics, San Diego, August 1-5,
2010 (invited).
T Trupke, “Luminescence Imaging for Inline
Applications in Photovoltaics”, 10th International
Workshop on Beam Injection Assessment of
Microstructures in Semiconductors, Halle, Germany,
July 2010. (invited).
Muriel Watt and Richard Corkish, “Assessment of the
Current Status and Future Development Prospects
of Photovoltaics”, Report to Rio Tinto by New South
Global and IT Power, March 2010.
A. Uddin and C. C. Teo, “High Efficiency Self-assembly
CdSe/ZnS Quantum dots Light-Emitting Devices in
Organic Matrix”, IEEE International Nano-Electronics
Conference, 3–8 January 2010, City University of
Hong Kong.
A. Uddin and C.B. Lee, “Exciton Behaviors in Doped
Tris (8-hydroxyquinoline) Aluminum (Alq3) Films”, 9th
International Conference on Excitonic and Photonic
Processes in Condensed and Nano Materials,
(EXCON’10), 11–16 July 2010, Brisbane, Australia.
S. Varlamov, Y. Tao, J. Wong, O. Kunz and R. Egan,
“Crystallisation Kinetics of E-beam Evaporated Si
Films and Its Effects on Poly-Si Film and Solar Cell
Properties”, 25th EUPVSEC, pp. 2823-2827, Valencia,
Spain, 2010 (oral).
Z. Wan, S. Huang, M.A. Green and G. Conibeer,
“Raman Study of Stress Effect in Silicon Rich Carbide
(SiCx) Film by Furnace and Rapid Thermal Annealing
for Photovoltaic Application”, 35th IEEE Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, 20-25
June, 2010.
J. Wong, J.L. Huang, M. Keevers and M.A. Green, “Voc-
Limiting Recombination Mechanisms in Thin Film
Silicon on Glass Solar Cells”, 35th IEEE Photovoltaic
Specialists Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, 20-25
June, 2010.
D. Wang, B. Tjahjono, A. Uddin and S. Wenham,
“Theoretical Analysis of Laser-Doped Semiconductor
Fingers Silicon Solar Cell Design Using a Shading
and Resistive Power Loss Model” 25th European
Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, 6-10
September 2010, Valencia, Spain.
E. Wang, S. Mokkapati, F. J. Beck, Z. Ouyang,
S. Varlamov and K. Catchpole “Periodic silver
nanoparticles fabricated with soft-stamp
nanoimprint on silicon solar cells”, 25th EUPVSEC,
pp.77-81, Valencia, Spain, 2010 (oral).
Y. Yao, B. Zhang, S. Shrestha, G. Conibeer and M.A.
Green, “Photovoltaic Effect in Ge Nanocrystals/c-
silicon Heterojunctions Devices”, 35th IEEE
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Honolulu,
Hawaii, 20-25 June, 2010.
Y. Yao, A. Lennon, B. Tjahjono and S. Wenham, “Use
of Inductively-Coupled-Plasma Measurements to
Monitor Light-Induced Plating of Silicon Solar Cells”,
Proceedings of the 25th European Photovoltaic
Solar Energy Conference, Valencia, Spain, 6-10
September 2010.
H. Zhang, S. Huang and G. Conibeer, “Tandem
Photoelectrochemical Cell for Direct Water Splitting”,
Australian Solar Energy Society Conference,
Solar2010, Canberra, December 2010.
B. Zhang, S. Shrestha, S.J. Huang, P. Aliberti, M.A.
Green and G. Conibeer, “Structure Studies of
Multilayered Ge Nanocrystals Embedded in SiO2
Matrix Fabricating Using Magnetron Sputtering”, Proc.
E-MRS Spring meeting, Symposium B, June 2009,
Energy Procedia, 2(1), 2010. http://www.elsevier.com/
wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/718157/
description#description
This report is available from:

ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence ARC

PHOTOVOLTAICS
University of New South Wales
Sydney NSW 2052, Australia
CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE
Phone: 2010/11
ANNUAL REPORT
+61 2 9385 4018

Fax:
+61 2 9662 4240

Email:
s.wenham@unsw.edu.au

Web:
http://www.pv.unsw.edu.au

Director:
Stuart Wenham

Executive Research Director:

Martin Green

Report Coordinators:
Martin Green, Stuart Wenham, Joyce Ho and
Robert Largent

Graphic Design:
Peter Haywood (pfhaywood@gmail.com)

Roman Balla (romanballa@bigpond.com)

Photos, figures and graphs:

Courtesy of Centre Staff and Others
ARC
PHOTOVOLTAICS
ARC PHOTOVOLTAICS
CENTRE OF
CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE
EXCELLENCE
2010/11
The University of New South Wales
ANNUAL REPORT
UNSW Sydney NSW 2052 Australia
Tel +61 2 9385 4018
Fax +61 2 9662 4240
Web www.pv.unsw.edu.au