DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL,JOKA

(SOUTH KOLKATA)
Submitted For AISSCE Practical Examination
2023-24

CHEMISTRY PROJECT

Topic: The Preparation Of Soap.

NAME: Aditya Kumar Shah

CLASS: XII
BOARD ROLL NO:
 BOARD REGISTRATION NO:
SUBJECT: Chemistry
SUBMITTED TO: Pranit Ghatak

CERTIFICATE

1.This is to certify that ADITYA KUMAR SHAH of

class XII has completed his CHEMISTRY project
titled PREPARATION OF SOAP under the
guidance of MR. PRANIK GHATAK for the
academic year 2023-24. The certified student has
been dedicated throughout his research and
completed .
 ACKNOWLEDGEMEN
T
In the accomplishment of this project successfully, many
people have best owned upon me their blessings and the
heart pledged support, this time I am utilizing to thank all the
people who have been concerned with project.Primarily I
would thank god for being able to complete this project with
success. Then I would like to thank my Teacher
Ms. PRANIK GHATAK
whose valuable guidance has helped me complete this
project. His suggestions and instructions has served as the
major contributor towards the completion of the
project.Then I would like to thank my parents and friends
who have helped me with their valuable suggestions and
guidance has been helpful in various phases of the
completion of the project

Internal's signature External’s

signature
 Contents.
Sr.
no Title Page no.
1. Introduction 1
2. History 2
The making of soap.
3. 3
4. Properties 4.
The universe of soaps.
5. 7
6. Biodegradable 9
& nonbiodegradable
soaps.

7. Difference between soap 12

and
detergents.
8. Experiment. 14
9. Conclusion. 16
10. Bibliography. 17
Bibliography.
History of cleaning
soap.
Early History
The earliest recorded evidence of the production of
soaplike materials dates back to around 2800 BC
in ancient Babylon. A formula for soap consisting
of water, alkali, and cassia oil was written on a
Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC.
The Ebbers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates
the ancient Egyptians bathed regularly and
combined animal and vegetable oils with alkaline
salts to create a soap-like substance. Egyptian
documents mention a soap-like substance was
used in the preparation of wool for weaving.
In the reign of Nab nidus (556–539 BC), a recipe for
soap consisted of uhulu [ashes], cypress [oil] and
sesame [seed oil] "for washing the stones for the
servant girls".

Ancient Rome
The word soap, Latin for soap, first appears in Pliny
the elder’s historia naturalis, which discusses the
manufacture of soap from tallow and ashes, but the
only use, is it is as pomade for hair.
A popular belief claims soap takes its name from a
supposed Mount Sapo, where animal sacrifices where
supposed to have taken place.
The making of soap.
There are three main ingredients in plain soap, they are
oil/fat, lye/alkali and water. Other ingredients may be
added to give the soap a pleasant odor or color, or to
improve its skin-softening qualities. Some soap is better
made using soft water, and for these it is a necessary to
either use rainwater or to add borax to tap water.

Lyes are extremely caustic. They cause burns if splashed on the

skin and can cause blindness if splashed in the eyes. If drunk, they
can be
fatal. Care is needed while handling lyes and ‘green’ (uncured)
soap.

There are two types of soap: - Soft & Hard soap.

Soft soap can be made using either a cold process or
a hot process, but hard soap can only be made
using hot process.
To make any soap it is necessary to dilute the lye,
mix it with the fat or oil, and stir the mixture until
saponification takes place.
The cold process may require several days or even
months, depending upon the strength and purity of
the ingredients, whereas hot process takes place
within few minutes to few hours.
Dispose of soap-making wastes carefully
outdoors, do not put them in the drain.
several things may cause problem with the normal
action of soap molecules.
One of these is the presence of left-over starting
materials. Extra fat will make the soap feel greasy.
Positively-charged ions tend to bond with negative end
of the soap molecules, either precipiting the
molecules
completely, or interfering with the ion-dipole
interactions between the soap molecules and the
water.

• 1.4 million deaths can be prevented each year by handwashing with soap

 Children under 5 who wash with soap can reduce their risk of
pneumonia by 46%

• 1/3 of the worlds soap is used by the U.S

• 10 Billion pounds of soap are produced each year

• The average person encounters 100 chemicals before breakfast

• The largest soap bubble was created on October 9th, 2005 and
measured 105.4 cubic feet. If you could fill it with
baseballs it would hold 13.627 of them.

• October 15th is Global Handwashing Day

To prepare a sample of soap and to
examine its properties.
Equipment’s:
 250ml beaker.
 Sodium hydroxide (20% solution)
 100ml beaker
 Ethanol
 Wire gauge
 Saturated solution of sodium chloride
 Laboratory burner
 Calcium chloride (5% solution)
 Glass stirring rod
 Magnesium chloride (5% solution)
 Test tube and ferric chloride (5% solution)
 Filter flask and Buchner funnel
 Kerosene and filter paper
 Phenolphthalein indicator solution
 Cooking oil and graduated cylinder
Watch glass to extinguish possible ethanol flames
Procedure:
I. Measure 20g of cooking oil into a 250ml
beaker. Add 20ml of ethanol and 25ml of 20%
sodium hydroxide solution. Stir the mixture
in the beaker. Place the beaker on wire gauze
on a ring stand and heat gently.

Heat this solution gently, keep the flame away from the top
of the beaker to prevent the alcohol from catching on fire.
II. Heat until the odor disappears.
III. Turn off the burner and allow the beaker to
cool down.
IV. Move it safely to bench top.
V. Add 100ml of saturated sodium chloride to
your soap preparation and stir the mixture
thoroughly.
VI. It is used to remove the soap from water,
glycerol, and any excess sodium hydroxide
present.
VII. Filter off the soap with a vacuum filtration
apparatus and wash once with ice water.
Weigh your dried soap and record the weight.
 Properties:
Washing properties.
Take a small amount of soap and try to wash your
hands with it. It should lather rather easily if soft
water or use deionized water.
Record your observations.
Emulsification.
Put 5-10 drops of kerosene in a test tube containing
10ml water and shake to mix. Emulsion or
suspension of tiny oil droplets in water will be
formed. Let this stand for a few minutes
Prepare another test tube with the same ingredients
and also add a small portion (1/2g or so) of your
soap. Shake to mix. Compare the relative stability of
the two emulsions.
Hard water reaction.
Take 1g of your soap and warm it with 150ml of
water in a 100ml beaker.
When you have obtained a reasonably clear
solution, pour about 15ml into each of three test
tubes.
Test one of the three tubes with 10 drops of 5%
CaCl2 solution, one with 10 drops of 5% MgCl2
solution and one with 10 drops of 5% FeCl3
solution.
Let these solutions stand, then make your
observations.
Dissolve a small piece of your soap in
15ml of ethanol and then add two drops
of phenolphthalein. It the indicators turn red; the
presence of free alkali is indicated.

Basicity: - Soap with free alkali can be very damaging to

skin, silk, or wool.
It’s test
The universe of different types of
soap.
Kitchen soaps
They are further categorized into two: cleansers and
detergents.
Cleansers

Cleansers are often made with mild abrasives and they are
formulated to eliminate heavy oil or solid particles and
hard-toremove stains. The cleansers come in many different
types depending on the type of abrasives they contain.
Detergents

Dish detergents are made to remove tough grease and

release the solid dirt particles in the foam that is produced
by the detergent. There are two types of dish detergents:
machine dishwasher detergents and hand dishwashing
detergents.

Laundry soaps
Laundry soaps are formulated to eliminate grease, solid
particles and organic compounds from clothes. They can
be found in liquid, powder and gel forms.

Cleaning soaps
Cleaning soaps have different formulations to clean grease
and soil. The difference between cleansers and cleaning
soaps is that cleaning soaps don't contain harsh abrasives.

Personal soaps
This kind of soap is made in many forms and special
formulations for specific personal hygiene needs.
hair soapsthat have a mix of ingredients that cleans both the
skin and hair.

Novelty soaps
Novelty soaps are especially manufactured for the kids and
include the soaps in the shapes of various items, such
a as
rubber duckyor the soap-on-the-rope. There aremade not only
to clean dirt and grime, but for amusement and enjoyment as
well.

Perfumed soaps
Perfumed soaps are produced by adding aadditional
few
ingredientsand perfume.

Guest soaps
Guest soaps areminiature soapsthat are made and shaped into
attractive shapes and they are basically designed for
use
theby
guestseither in the main bathroom or separate guest bathroom.
Popular and commonly used shapes are flowers, sea shells and
rounds

Beauty soaps
Beauty soaps ar e produced to feature attractive fragrances, and
ingredients for a variety of skin types. They can feature
glycerin,
or specialoil blends.

Medicated soaps
Medicated soaps and original soap are very similar. Unlike
original soap, medicated soap has the
addition of antiseptics and
disinfectants
.
Biodegradable & non-biodegradable
soap.
Biodegradable soap: -
A biodegradable soap is a cleaning agent that can
decompose naturally over time. These soaps can help
reduce environmental impact when hikers, backpackers,
and campers need to bathe or clean their belongings.

Depending on the formulation of soap that is purchased, it

can be used on the body, face, hair, hands and objects
such as dishes and clothes.

Non-toxic soaps can be made with organic oils so

as to remain environmentally friendly. Oils can be used in
soap formulations not only to provide a nice fragrance, but
also as part of a therapeutic bathing experience. For
example, lavender and peppermint oils can help relax a
tense hiker. Tree oil, eucalyptus and pumice ingredients
can help soothe aching feet. Jojoba, castor and almond oils
are other common oils used in soap formulations.

It is important for individuals to realize that using a

biodegradable soap does not necessarily mean that the
soap is safe to use around all water sources. These soaps
degrade over time, but they require contact with soil to do
so. If it isn't used at least 200 feet (60.96 m) from water
sources, it can pollute them and make them unsuitable for
other uses.
Non -- biodegradable soap: -
Non-biodegradable soaps are cleaning agents which cannot
decompose naturally over time. This kind of soaps can be a threat
to earth, it can cause soil, water and other type of pollutions.

This kind of soap feels good while using but they can cause some
kind of side effects to the applied surface(skin). Normally
professional and instant beauty soap are made with
toxic(nonbiodegradable) material.

Its formulation depends upon the kind of area in which they are
going to be used. Soaps with strong smell and constant exposure
to it can even cause nervous breakdown, asthma and migraines.
The three harmful ingredients present in this toxic soaps are
parabeans, sulfates and triclosan.

Let me explain what triclosan/triclocarban can do with us.

The chemicals react with chlorine in tap water to produce
dioxins. Dioxins are neurotoxins that can cause cancer, nerve
disorders, and immune system disorders. The chemicals are
ock hormones.
endocrine disrupters, blocking thyroid hormone According to
metabolism
and attaching to hormone receptors to bl
the EPA, the chemicals can cause developmental and
reproductive toxicity. They are carcinogens. They contribute to
antibiotic resistance in bacteria that causes infection in
humans.
  Fats and oils are hydrolyzed(split) with a high
pressure to yield crude fatty acids and glycerol.
 The fatty acids are then purified by distillation
and neutralized with an alkali to produce soap
and water (neat soap in a liquid form).
 Fatty acid + NaOH > glycerol + sodium soap.
 Sodium soaps are “hard” soap.
 The more saturated the oil (tropical vegetable
oils such as coconut oil), the harder the soap.

Fatty acid + KOH > glycerol + potassium soap

Potassium soap are softer and are found in
some liquid hand soap and shaving cream.
# According to the Natural Resources Defense Count (NDRC), in
surveys of the American population between the ages of 6 and
65,75 percent have residues of triclosan in their systems.
 Difference between soap
and detergent.

Soap: -
There are a variety of soaps. A soap is the metal salt of a
fatty
acid.
The metal may be an alkali metal such sodium (Na) or
potassium (K). These metals are found in the first column of
the periodic table of the elements. Or, the metal can be an
alkaline earth metal, such as calcium (Ca) or magnesium
(Mg). These metals are found in the second column of the
periodic table of the elements. A fatty acid is an organic
compound most often of animal or plant origin. A fatty acid
contains a long-chain aliphatic carbon skeleton (with or
without branches) with a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) at
its end.

An example of a soap is potassium palmitate:

CH₃(CH₂)₁₄-COO⁻ K⁺

In addition, detergents can include one or more aromatic

rings. Detergents offer added properties. T hey can be
used as surfactants and foaming agents.
 Detergent: -
Detergents have some similarities. But are often of
synthetic origin. They are not made insoluble by
mineralized (or hard) water. Also, instead of a
carboxylic acid group, a detergent contains a more
highly ionic group. It may have a sulfate or a
sulfonate group (OS(O)₂-OH).
There are even detergents that dissolve in solvents
other than water, such as gasoline. These often
include nitrogen in their formulation. The nitrogen
compound often includes a ring as part of its
structure. Such compounds are not only detergents,
but dispersants.

An example of a detergent is sodium lauryl sulfate:

CH₃(CH₂)₁₂-OS(O)₂-O⁻ Na⁺

Soap and detergent properties in hard water.

The most important difference between a soap and
detergent is their behavior in water. A big drawback
of washing with soap is that it forms a scum in hard
water, which is not easy to clean and is known to
turn laundry into a hue.

Another important difference between soapsand

detergents is the sensitivity of soaps to acidic conditions.
On putting a soap into an acidic (pH<4.5), it protonates
the carboxylate group.
Soaps form a scum in hard water, which is not easy
to rinse away and is known to turn laundry, a
grayish hue. The insoluble film that soap leaves can
leave a residue on the laundry same like as would
see in a shower stall where hard water is present.
On the other hand, detergents react less to minerals
in water hence does not leave this residue. In case
you are living in an area, where the water is soft, a
soap will work satisfactorily, but even then a
gradual build-up of calcium and magnesium ions
(also called 'curd') will be left on the fabric.
Experiment.
Objective: -
To compare the foaming capacity of various
soaps.

Requirements: -
1. Five 100ml conical flasks
2. Five test tubes & stand
3. 100ml measuring cylinder
4. Weighing machine and stop watch
5. Five different soap samples
6. Distilled water & tap water

Procedure: -
i. Take five 100ml conical flasks and
number them 1,2,3,4 & 5. Put 16ml of
water in each flask and add 8g of soap.
ii. Warm the contents to get a solution.

iv. Close the mouth of the test tube and shake

vigorously for a minute. Do the same for all
test tube and with equal force.
v. Start the timer immediately and notice the
repeat of disappearance of 2mm of forth.
 iii. Take five test tubes; add 1ml of soap
solution to 3ml of water.
Repeat the process for each soap solution in
different test tube.
Observations: -
The following outcomes were noticed at the
end of the experiment.
Observation table
Test tube no. Vol. of soap Vol. of water Time taken for
solution. added. disappearance
of 2mm of forth.

1. Dettol 8ml 16ml 11’42”

2. Lux 8ml 16ml 3’28”
3. Tetmosol 8ml 16ml 5’10”
4. Savlon 8ml 16ml 15’32”
5. Cinthol 8ml 16ml 9’40”

Result: -
The cleaning capacity of the soap taken is in
the order:

From this experiment, we can infer that Savlon

has the highest forming capacity, in other words,
highest cleaning capacity.
Savlon > Dettol > Cinthol > Tetmosol >
Lux

Savlon is the winner….

Conclusion.

In conclusion, soap is a substance, water

soluble sodium salts of fatty acid, that is used
to remove dirt and grimes from a surface. Its
molecules have a long hydrocarbon chain that
has a negative charged head. Its non-polar
hydrocarbon chain dosent interact with water
molecules that form micelles. The soap
micelles repeal each other and stay dispersed
in water. New micelles form that having soiling
molecules in the center. The dirt gets attached
to them and can be rinsed away.
From this project we concluded that, since
soap is started to consumed it has changed
our lives drastically.

We should say thanks’ to soap’s…because

without soaps this world would literally
would not be exist.
Bibliography.
This project would be nearly incomplete if I have
not used the information given in the following
websites.
My special thanks for the uploader of information
on these websites. If considered, I have used
everything that google shows me……