EXPERIMENT -1

IDMT Characteristics of Over Current Relay

AIM: To study the Operation of a Non- Directional electromechanical type over current (I D M T relay) and
plot the inverse time current characteristics.

S.No Apparatus Type Quantity

1 Non-Directional Over Current Relay Electro-Mechanical 1
2 Timer Digital 1
3 Fault creation Panel Digital 1
4 Ammeter 30 A MI 1
5 Current Transformer-40/2A Core Type 1

Theory:

A non-directional heavily damped induction disc relay which has an adjustable inverse
time/current characteristic with a definite minimum time. The relay has a high torque
movement combined with low burden and low overshoot. The relay disc is so shaped that as
it rotates the driving torque increases and offsets the changing restraining torque of the
control spring. This feature combined with the high torque of the relay ensures good contact
pressure even at currents near pick-up. Damping of the disc movement is by a removable
high retentivity permanent magnet. The unique method of winding the operating coil ensures
that the time/current characteristics are identical on each of the seven current taps. Selection

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 of the required current setting is by means of a plug setting bridge which has a single
insulated plug. The maximum current tap is automatically connected when the plug is
withdrawn from the bridge, allowing the setting to be changed under load without risk of
open circuiting the current transformers. The IDMT relay has an auxiliary unit which is
powered by a secondary winding on the electromagnet through a rectifier and as such a
separate auxiliary supply is not required. The disc unit operates and closes its contacts, the
auxiliary element connected across the secondary winding on the electromagnet operates, and
one normally open contact of the auxiliary element reinforces the disc contact.

Pick Up Current of Relay:

In all electrical relays, the moving contacts are not free to move. All the contacts remain in
their respective normal position by some force applied on them continuously. This force is
called controlling force of the relay. This controlling force may be gravitational force, may be
spring force, and may be magnetic force. The force applied on the relay’s moving parts for
changing the normal position of the contacts, is called deflecting force. This deflecting force
is always in opposition of controlling force and presents always in the relay. Although the
deflecting force always presents in the relay directly connected to live line, but as the
magnitude of this force is less than controlling force in normal condition, the relay does not
operate. If the actuating current in the relay coil increases gradually, the deflecting force in
electro mechanical relay is also increased. Once, the deflecting force crosses the controlling
force, the moving parts of the relay initiate to move to change the position of the contacts in
the relay. The current for which the relay initiates it operation is called pick up current of
relay.

Current Setting of Relay:

The minimum pick up value of the deflecting force of an electrical relay is constant. Again
the deflecting force of the coil is proportional to its number of turns and current flowing
through the coil. Now, if we can change the number of active turns of any coil, the required
current to reach at minimum pick value of the deflecting force, in the coil also changes. That
means if active turns of the relay coil is reduced, then proportionately more current is
required to produce desired relay actuating force. Similarly if active turns of the relay coil are
increased, then proportionately reduced current is required to produce same desired deflecting
force.Practically same model relays may be used in different systems. As per these systems
requirement the pick-up current of relay is adjusted. This is known as current setting of relay.
This is achieved by providing required number of tapping in the coil. These taps are brought

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 out to a plug bridge. The number of active turns in the coil can be changed by inserting plug
in different points in the bridge.

The current setting of relay is expressed in percentage ratio of relay pick up current to rated
secondary current of CT.

That means, Current Setting= (pick up current/Rated secondary current of CT)*100

For example, an over current relay should operate when the system current just crosses 125%
of rated current. If the relay is rated with 1 A, the normal pick up current of the relay is 1 A
and it should be equal to secondary rated current of current transformer connected to the
relay.Then, the relay will be operated when the current of CT secondary becomes more than
or equal 1.25 A. As per definition, Current Setting  100 125%

The current setting is sometimes referred as current plug setting. The current setting of
over current relay is generally ranged from 50% to 200%, in steps of 25%. For earth
fault relay it is from 10% to 70% in steps of 10%.

Plug Setting Multiplier of Relay:

Plug setting multiplier of relay is referred as ratio of fault current in the relay to its
pick up current. Suppose we have connected on protection CT of ratio 200/1 A and
current setting is 150%. Hence, pick up current of the relay is, 1 × 150 % = 1.5 A.
Now, suppose fault current in the CT primary is 1000 A. Hence, fault current in the
CT secondary i.e. in the relay coil is, 1000 × 1/200 = 5 A. Therefore PSM of the relay
is, 5 / 1.5 =3.33

Time Setting Multiplier of Relay:

The operating time of an electrical relay mainly depends upon two factors:

1. How long distance to be traveled by the moving parts of the relay for closing relay
contacts and
2. How fast the moving parts of the relay cover this distance.

In order to adjust the relay operating time, both of the factors are to be adjusted. The
adjustment of travelling distance of an electromechanical relay is commonly known as time
setting. This adjustment is commonly known as time setting multiplier of relay. The time
setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps 0.05 sec. But by adjusting only time setting
multiplier, we cannot set the actual time of operation of an electrical relay. As the time of
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 operation also depends upon the speed of operation. The speed of moving parts of relay
depends upon the force due to current in the relay coil. Hence it is clear that, speed of
operation of an electrical relay depends upon the level of fault current. In time setting
multiplier, this total travelling distance is divided and calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05.
So when time setting is 0.1, the moving part of the relay has to travel only 0.1 times of the
total travelling distance, to close the contact of the relay.

IDMT relay is inverse definite minimum time relay. It is one in which Time of operation is
inversely proportional to magnitude of fault current near pickup value and becomes
substantially constant slightly above the pickup value of the Relay. This is achieved by using
a core of the Electro Magnet which gets saturated for currents slightly greater than the pickup
current. Fault current and measure relay operation time is used to conduct the experiment.
Values recorded for various TSMs and PSMs. Characteristics studied with the help of a graph
and correlated with theory. This relay consists of Induction disc unit with an operation
indicator and in some cases an instantaneous high set unit all assembled are in standard
frame. Type disc shaft carried silver rod moving contacts which complete the auxiliary unit
circuit through the fixed contract. Permanent magnet is used to control the disc speed. The
setting is adjusted by the movement of the back stop which is controlled by the rotating a
KNUR LED molded disc at the base of graduated time multiplier.

Circuit Diagram:

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 Procedure:

Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

Select the P.S.M setting on the relay.

Make sure that the 1-phase dimmer stat is in minimum position, test switch is in ON
position, and T.S.M settings of the relay are set to 0.5.

Increase the current in the circuit to the value calculated similar to step 2 depending on
the PSM setting by varying the 1-phase variac.

Observe the relay tripping condition. The circuit will be in OFF position after relay
tripping.

OFF the test switch, reset the timer and relay and push ON button. Make sure the
rotating electromagnetic disc of relay is at initial position before switching ON.

Note down the value of tripping time and current.

Repeat the steps 3,4,5,6, 7to observe the operating time of the relay by increasing the
fault current above calculated value of fault current in step 2 and tabulate the readings.

Repeat the same procedure for various T.S.M = 0.7

Plot the graph between time taken for relay to operate vs fault current for various T.S.M
/ P.S.M.
Precautions:-

 Disc must be stationary before applying fault current.

 TSM setting must be changed with due care.
Sample Observation:

Rated Current : 0 to 25 Amps.

CT Ratio : 40/2 Amps = 20.

Pick-Up Current Setting = Plug setting Value X C.T ratio

TSM = 0.1 to 0.6

S.No PSM Pick UP Current

1 0.5 10
2 0.75 15
3 1.0 20
4 1.25 25

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 Reading and Tabular Forms:
S.No Fault Current Time Of Operation TSM=0.5 Sec Time Of Operation TSM=0.5 Sec

Expected graphs:

Result:

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

AIM: To study the differential protection scheme for a single phase transformer.

APPARATUS:

Sl.No Apparatus Type Quantity

1 1-Phase Transformer 230V/115 V, Shell Type 1 No
1.2 KVA
2 1-Phase Variac Closed Type 1 No
3 Ammeters (0-30 amps) Digital 04 No’s
4 Relay,CDG-11 Electro-Mechanical Type 01 No
5 Connecting Wires ---- As Required

THEORY :

A Differential relay responds to vector difference between two or more similar electrical
quantities. From this definition the Differential relay has at least two actuating quantities say
1-1 and 2-1. The two or more actuating quantities should be same.

Ex: Current/Current.
The Relay responds to vector difference between 1-1 &2-1which includes magnitude and /or
phase angle difference. Differential protection is generally unit protection. The protection
zone is exactly determined by location of CTs. The vector difference is actuated by suitable
connection of CTs or PTs secondary’s. Most differential relays are current differential relays
in which vector difference between current entering the winding & current leaving the
winding is used for relay operation. Differential protection is used for protection of
Generators, Transformers etc. Internal fault is created using switch and relay operation
observed for various TSMs. Relay operations for external faults can also be studied.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

PROCEDURE:

 Make the connections as shown in fig.

 Apply rated voltage 230V to primary by varying the Variac.
 By applying load observe various meter readings.
 Now switch ON the Fault switch so as to create an internal fault.
 Note down the various meter readings when relay operates.
 Note down the Relay Trip condition.
 Reset the relay after it gets tripped.

READINGS AND TABULAR FORM:

OBSERVATION: - For Internal Fault

S.No Primary Current Secondary current Fault Current Relay Tripped

Yes/NO

Result:
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 EXPERIMENT NO.3

DETERMINATION OF SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF A

CYLINDRICAL ROTOR SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

AIM: To determine the Positive, Negative and Zero sequence of impedances or sequence
impedances of the given three phase alternator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Apparatus Type Quantity

1 Dc Motor Coupled to AC Motor Set ….. 1 No
2 Ammeters (0-2 amps DC Digital 1 No
3 Ammeters (0-20 amps DC) Digital 01 No
4 Ammeters (0-5 amps AC) Digital 01 No
5 Voltmeters (0-500 Volts, AC) Digital 01 No
6 Rheostat 370 ohms/1.7 amps Tubular Type 01 No
7 Separate Excitation source(0-220V/2A DC) ----- 01 No
8 Connecting wires ---- As Required

THEORY:

(i) A balanced system of 3-phase currents having positive (or normal) phase sequence.
These are called positive phase sequence components.

(ii) A balanced system of 3-phase currents having the opposite or negative phase sequence.

These are called negative phase sequence components.

(iii) A system of three currents equal in magnitude and having zero phase displacement. These
are called zero phase sequence components.

The positive, negative and zero phase sequence components are called the symmetrical
components of the original unbalanced system. The term ‘symmetrical’ is appropriate because
the unbalanced3-phase system has been resolved into three sets of balanced (or symmetrical)
components. The subscripts 1, 2 and 0 are generally used to indicate positive, negative and zero
phase sequence components respectively. For instance, I R0 indicates the zero phase sequence
component of the current in the red phase. Similarly, IY1 implies the positive phase sequence
component of current in the yellow phase. The positive phase sequence currents (I R1, IY 1 and
IB1), negative phase sequence currents (IR2, IY2 and I B2) and zero phase sequence currents.

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 (IR0, IY0 and IB0) separately fro m balanced system of currents. Hence, th ey are called
symmetrical components of the unbalanced system. The symmetrical component theory applies
equally to 3-phase currents and voltages both phase and line values. The symmetrical
components do not have separate existence. They are only mathematical components of
unbalanced currents (or voltages) which acctually flow in the system. In a balanced 3-phase
system, negative and zero phase sequence currents are zero.

Synchronous generators: The positive, negative and zero sequence impedances of rotating
machines are generally different. The positive sequence impedance of a synchronous generator
is equal to the synchronous impedance of the machine. The negative sequence impedance is
much less than the positive sequence impedance. The ze ro sequence impedance is a variable
item and if its value is not given, it may be assumed to be equal to the positive sequence
impedance. In short:

Negative sequence impedance < Positive sequence impedance

Zero sequence impedance = Variable item

=ma y be taken equal to +ve sequence impedance if its value is not given

It may be worthwhile to mentio n here that any impedance Z n in the earth connection of a star
connected system has the effect to introduce an impedance of 3Znper phase. It is because the
three equal zero-se quence currents, being in phase, do not sum to zero at the star point, but
they flow back along the neutral earth connection. Experime ntal set up to conduct OCC and
SCC is made available. With the help of observations Synchronous impedance can be
calculated.

The –ve sequence impedance is much less than +ve Sequence impedance. The zero sequence
impedance is a variable item and if its value is not given, it may be assumed to be equal to the
+ve sequence impedance. For Zero sequence impedance a separate mo del is used to conduct
of experiment.

Sequence network of a 3-phase Alternator:

three-phase synchronous ge nerator, having a synchronous impedance of Zs per phase, with its
neutral grounded througgh a impedance Zn is shown in Fig. The generato r is supplying a
balanced three phase load. T he generator voltages Ea, Eb and Ec are balanc ed and hence
treated

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A. Determination of Positive Sequence Impedance

Z1: Circuit Diagram:

3 Point Starter

PROCEDURE:

In order to determine the positive sequence impedance, open circuit and short circuit tests are to
be performed.

Open Circuit:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Field rheostat of the motor should be kept in minimum position and single phase variac
should be in minimum output position.

3. Switch on the DC supply and start the motor-alternator set with the help of a three point starter.

4. Adjust the field rheostat of the motor to set motor-alternator set to the rated speed.

5. Slowly vary the Variac to increase the field excitation of the synchronous machine. Note
down the value if If and V up to the rated voltage 415V.

6. Bring back the single phase Variac to the initial position, field rheostat to the minimum
resistance position and switch off the MCB.

Short Circuit Test:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Field rheostat of the motor should be kept in minimum position and single phase variac should
be in minimum output position.

3. Switch on the DC supply and start the motor-alternator set with the help of a three point starter.

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 4. Adjust the field rheostat of the motor to set motor-alternator set to the rated speed.

5. Slowly vary the variac such that the rated current flows through the alternator. Note down
the field current and armature current.

6. Bring back the single phase variac to the initial position, field rheostat to the minimum
resistance position and switch off the MCB.

B. Determination of Negative Sequence:

Circuit Diagram:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Keep the armature resistance of the motor at maximum resistance position, field rheostat of
the motor at minimum position and single phase variac at minimum output position.

3. Switch on MCB and start the motor-alternator set using 3 point starter.

4. Slowly apply the voltage and observe the fluctuations in voltmeter and ammeter of the alternator.

5. Adjust the armature rheostat of the motor to get slow oscillations.

6. Note down the minimum and maximum values of voltage and current.

7. Bring back all the rheostats and variac to the initial positions and switch off the supply.

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C. Determination of Zero Sequence:

Circuit Diagram:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. The three phase windings o f the synchronous machine are connected in s eries.

3. Apply low voltage to the armature so that rated current flows in the series winding.

4. Note down the value of voltmeter and ammeter.

5. Reduce the voltage and switch off the supply.

Tabular Columns:

A. Positive Sequence:

Impedance OC test:

If

Short Circuit Test:

ISC

If

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 Plot the OCC and SC Curves and Calculate Positive Sequence Z1=------Ω for Same Field
Current

B. Negative Sequence Impedance

V I Z0=V/I Ω

C. Zero sequence impedance

V I Z0=V/I Ω

Result:

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 EXPERIMENT NO.4

L-G, L-L & LL-G FAULT ANALYSIS OF AN ALTERNATOR

AIM: To determine the fault currents on an unloaded synchronous generator for

1. Line to ground fault (L-G Fault)

2. Line to Line fault(L-L fault)
3. Double Line to ground fault(LL-G Fault)

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Apparatus Type Quantity

01. DC motor coupled to alternator set ----- 01 No.

02. Ammeters (0-2 amps DC) Digital 01 No.
03. Ammeters (0-20 amps DC) Digital 01 No.
04. Ammeters (0-5 amps AC) Digital 01 No.
05. Voltmeters (0-500 Volts, AC) Digital 01 No.
06. Rheostat 370 ohms/1.7 amps Tubular type 01 No.
07. Separate Excitation source(0-220V/2A DC) ----- 01 No.
08. Connecting wires ----- required

THEORY:

Single Line-to-Ground Fault:

The single line-to-ground fault is usually referred as “short circuit” fault and occurs when one conductor
falls to ground or makes contact with the neutral wire. The general representation of a single line-to-
ground fault is shown in Figure 3.10 where F is the fault point with impedances Zf. Figure 3.11 shows
the sequences network diagram. Phase a is usually assumed to be the faulted phase, this is for simplicity
in the fault analysis calculations. [1]

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Since the zero-, positive-, and negative-sequence currents are equals as it can be observed in the above
Figure. Therefore,

With the results obtained for sequence currents, the sequence voltages can be obtained from

By solving Equation

If the single line-to-ground fault occurs on phase b or c, the voltages can be found by the relation that exists
to the known phase voltage components,

As

Line-to-Line Fault

A line-to-line fault may take place either on an overhead and/or underground transmission system and
occurs when two conductors are short-circuited. One of the characteristic of this type of fault is that its

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fault impedance magnitude could vary over a wide range making very hard to predict its upper and
lower limits. It is when the fault impedance is zero that the highest asymmetry at the line-to-line fault
occurs

The general representation of a line-to-line fault is shown in Figure 3.12 where F is the fault point with
impedances Zf. Figure 3.13 shows the sequences network diagram. Phase b and c are usually assumed to
be the faulted phases; this is for simplicity in the fault analysis calculations [1],

It can be noticed that

And the Sequence can be obtained as

If Zf=0
Finally, the line-to-line voltages for a line-to-line fault can be expressed as

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Double Line-to-Ground Fault:

A double line-to-ground fault represents a serious event that causes a significant asymmetry in a three-
phase symmetrical system and it may spread into a three-phase fault when not clear in appropriate time.
The major problem when analyzing this type of fault is the assumption of the fault impedance Zf , and
the value of the impedance towards the ground Zg.
The general representation of a double line-to-ground fault is shown in Figure 3.14 where F is the fault
point with impedances Zf and the impedance from line to ground Zg . Figure 3.15 shows the sequences
network diagram. Phase b and c are assumed to be the faulted phases, this is for simplicity in the fault
analysis calculations.

It can be observed that

The positive sequence currents can be found as

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An alternative method is

If Zf and Zg are both equal to zero, then the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequences can be obtained as

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR L-G FAULT:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram for a line to ground fault on phase A.

2. Calculate the determinate value of the fault current from impedances(+ve, -ve, Zero sequences).

3. Run the generator at rated speed Increase the field current of excitation so that terminal voltage
is constant value.

4. Close the switch to create the L-G fault on Phase A

5. Note the current and voltage in the ammeter and voltmeter

6. Open the switch and remove the L-G fault on phase A.

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 7. Reduce the excitation and open the field circuit witch and switch of the prime mover.

Note: This voltage must be such that it does not cause the rated current of the machine to be
exceeded.

TABULATION: For 3KVA alternator

Sl.No. I in Amps Er in Volts

Ia = 3Er/Z1+Z2+Z0--------------------(1) Where Ia is fault current

Ef is the voltage to which the machine is excited

Z1+Z2+Z0are the positive, negative and zero sequence impedances of the machine

Verify the theoretical value calculated by using equation1 with the actual value noted by the ammeter

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR LINE TO LINE FAULT (L-L FAULT):

Fig.Circuit diagram for L-L Fault on 3-Phase Alternator

Procedure:

1. Repeat the steps 1 to 6 from L-G Fault procedure for L-L and L-G faults.
2. Connect the respective circuit in step 1.
3. Generator is excited it’s a certain voltage as mention in step 2 of the procedure.

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 This voltage must be such that it does not cause the rated current of the machine to be
exceeded

TABULATION: For 3KVA alternator:

Sl.No. I in Amps Ef in Volts

Ia1=Ef/Z1+Z2

Ib =a2Ia1+a Ia2; Ia2=-Ia1

Where a2= (-0.5-j0.866) a= (-0.5+j0.866)Fault current calculated which must be verified with the
actual value.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT (LL-G FAULT):

Fig.Circuit diagram for L-L-G Fault on 3-Phase Alternator

L-L-G FAULT:

1. Repeat the steps 1 to 6 from L-G Fault procedure for L-L and L-G faults.

2. Connect the respective circuit in step 1.

3. Generator is excited it’s a certain voltage as mention in step 2 of the procedure.

TABULATION: For 3KVA alternator:

S.No I in Amps Ef in Volts

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 = Short circuit Voltage at Fault condition.

I = Rated Current of Alternator.

= armature Voltage of alternator.

CALCULATIONS:

Va1=Va2=Va0=Ef-Ia1Z1

Ia1=Ef/Z1+ (Z2 x Z0/Z2+Z0) Ia2=-Va2/Z2; Ia0= -

2
Va0/Z0 Ib=a Ia 1+a Ia2+Ia0
2
Where a = (-0.5+j0.866);

a= (-0.5+j0.866) In =3Ia0= Ib+IC

2
Ic= -Ib=a Ia1-aIa 1

RESULT :

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 EXPERIMENT NO.5

FINDING SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF A THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Aim: To determine the Positive, Negative and Zero sequence (sequence impedance) of given three
phase transformer.

Apparatus required:

Apparatus Type Quantity

1 Voltmeters 0-500V, 2 No
2 Ammeter 20A 2 No
Theory:

Each element of power system will offer impedance to different phase sequence components of
currentwhich may not be the same. For example, the impedance which any piece of equipment offers
topositive sequence current will not necessarily be the same as offered to negative sequence current
orzero sequence current. Therefore, in unsymmetrical fault calculations, each piece of equipment
willhave three values of impedance—one corresponding to each sequence current viz.

(i) Positive sequence impedance (Z1)

(ii) Negative sequence impedance (Z2)

(iii) Zero sequence impedance (Z0)

The impedance offered by an equipment or circuit to positive sequence current is called positive
sequence impedance and is represented by Z1. Similarly, impedances offered by any circuit or
equipment to negative and zero sequence currents are respectively called negative sequence
impedance(Z2) and zero sequence impedance (Z0).In a 3-phase balanced system, each piece of
equipment or circuit offers only one impedance–the one offered to positive or normal sequence
current. This is expected because of the absence of negative and zero sequence currents in the 3-
phase balanced system.In a 3-phase unbalanced system, each piece of equipment or circuit will
have three values of impedance viz. positive sequence impedance, negative sequence impedance
and zero sequence impedance. The positive and negative sequence impedances of linear,
symmetrical and static circuits (e.g. transmission lines, cables, transformers and static loads) are
equal and are the same as those used in the analysis of balanced conditions. This is due to the fact
that impedance of such circuits is independent of the phase order, provided the applied voltages are
balanced.It may be noted that positive and negative sequence impedances of rotating machines
(e.g. Synchronous and induction motors) are normally different. The zero sequence impedance
depends upon the path taken by the zero sequence current. As this path is generally different from
the path taken by the positive and negative sequence currents, therefore, zero sequence impedance
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is usually different from positive or negative sequence impedance.The positive sequence
impedance of a transformer equals the leakage impedance. It may be obtained by the usual short-
circuit test. Since the transformer is a static device, the leakage impedance does not change, if the
phase sequence is altered from RYB to RBY. Therefore the negative sequence impedance of
transformer is the same as the positive sequence impedance. The zero sequence impedance of the
transformer depends on the winding type (star or delta) and also on the type of earth connection.
The positive & negative sequence per unit impedances are independent of whether the sequence
currents are injected into the primary or the secondary. However the zero sequence impedances
will have different values, depending upon whether the sequence currents are injected into the
primary or the secondary Since Transformers have the same impedance with reversed phase
rotation, their +ve and –ve sequence impedances are equal. This value being equal to the
impedance of the Transformer. However, Zero sequence impedance depends upon the Earth
connection. If there is a through Circuit for the earth current, zero sequence impedance will be
equal to the +ve sequence impedance otherwise it will be infinite. Lab experiment is planned to
find out sequence impedances by creation of faults at secondary suitably and measure impedances.
Proper care is taken to ensure readings would not damage the equipment.

In short,

Positive sequence impedance = Negative sequence impedance = Impedance of Transformer

Zero sequence impedance = Positive sequence impedance, if there is circuit for earth

current

= Infinite, if there is no through circuit for earth current

Formulae used:

Z1  Z2  V / 3I ; Z0  V / 3I

Measurement of the sequence impedances:

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Procedure:

1. Connect the transformer to the variable 3-phase supply (auto transformer) as shown in the
figure. (1)

2. Connect active circuit on HV side (400V) and Short circuit on Low voltage side (200V).

3. Vary the 3-phase autotransformer so that the rated current Amps flow through the HV

side. 4.Note down the readings of wattmeter, voltmeter and Ammeter.

Readings and Tabular form:

V I Z1=Z2 = V / 3 I

Measurement of the Zero sequence impedance:

Procedure:

1. Connect the transformer to the variable 1-phase supply (auto transformer) as shown in the
figure. (2)
2. Connect active circuit on HV side (400V) Short circuit on Low voltage side (200V).
3.Vary the 3-phase autotransformer so that the rated current Amps flow through the HV
side. 4.Note down the readings of wattmeter, voltmeter and Ammeter.
Readings and Tabular form:

V I Z0 = V /3 I

RESULT:

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

DETERMINATION OF Xd AND Xq OF A SALIENT POLE SYNCHRONOUS

MACHINE
Aim : To determine the Xd and Xq of the salient pole type Synchronous Machine.

Apparatus :

Sl.No. Component Specifications Quantity

1. Auto Transformer 3-Phase, 16 Amps 01

2. DC ammeter 0 –2 Amps 02

3. DC ammeter 0 –20 Amps 01

4. DC Voltmeter 0 –300 Volts 02

5. AC Voltmeter 0 –300 Volts 01

6. AC Ammeter 0 –20 Amps 01

7. Tachometer 0 –2000 rpm 01
8. Connecting wires As required

Motor Ratings :

DC Motor AC Generator

Armature Voltage = Voltage =

Armature Current = Current =

Field Voltage = Speed =

Field Current = Power =

Speed =

Power =

Theory :

Direct axis synchronous reactance, Xd : Direct axis synchronous reactance of synchronous

machine inper unit is equal to ratio of field current, I fsc at rated armature current from the short
circuit test , to the field current, Ifo at rated voltage from open circuit test. Therefore direct axis
synchronous reactance is given by,

Xds=Imax/Imin per unit Thus, Xd can be determined by performing o.c.& s.c. test on an alternator

Quadrature axis synchronous reactance, Xq :

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 For slip test, the machine should be driven at a speed, slightly less than the synchronous speed,
with its field circuit open, 3- phase balanced reduced voltage at rated frequency is applied to the
armature terminals of the alternator. This voltage is to be adjusted so that the current drawn by
the stator winding is full load current, under these conditions of operation, the variation of the
current drawn by the stator and no voltage across of the field winding. And no voltage across the
field winding. These wave forms clearly indicates that these are changing between minimum and
maximum and minimum values. When the crest of the stator mmf wave coincides with the
direct axis of the rotating field, the induced emf in the open field is zero, the voltage across the
stator terminals is maximum and the current drawn by stator winding is minimum. Thus the
approximate value of the direct – axis synchronous reactance Xds is given by

Xds=Emax/Imin

When the crest of the stator mmf wave coincides with the quadrature axis of the rotating field,
the induced emf in the open circuit field is maximum, voltage across the stator terminal is
minimum and current drawn by the stator winding is maximum.
Xqs=Emin/Imax

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.Determinaton of Xd and Xq of salient pole Synchronous Machine

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Set the DC drive potentiometer, 3-phase auto-transformer at zero position

3. Switch on the supply and set the dc motor field current at below rated rated value

4. Slowly increase the motor till it reaches slightly above or below the synchronous speed by
potentiometers. And Check the D.C Motor & Synchronous Machine rotation directions. If they
are rotating In same directions O.K.

5. In case they are not rotating in opposite direction change the terminals of Armature or
Field. Adjust the 3-phase auto-transformer till the alternator phase current reaches rated value.

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 6. Record the minimum and maximum values of the induced AC voltage across the filed of the
alternator and also min. and max. phase currents of the alternator.

7. Switch off the supply and set the potentiometers and 3-phase auto transformer at zero position.

Observations

Vmax = Imax =

Vmin = Imin=

Conclusion: The values of Xd and Xq of salient pole machine are determined from slip tests

Precautions :

1. Loose connections are to be avoided.

2. Circuit connection should not be made while power is ON.
3. Readings of the meters must be taken without parallax error

Result:

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 Experiment No-7

Power Flow Solution of 3-bus system

Aim: To carry out load flow analysis of the given power system network by Gauss
Seidel method
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory:
Load flow analysis is the study conducted to determine the steady state operating condition
of the given system under given conditions. A large number of numerical algorithms have
been developed and Gauss Seidel method is one of such algorithm.
Problem Formulation
The performance equation of the power system may be written of
[I bus] = [Y bus][V bus] (1)
Selecting one of the buses as the reference bus, we get (n-1) simultaneous equations. The bus
loading equations can be written as
Ii = Pi-jQi / Vi* (i=1,2,3,.................n) (2)
Where,
n
Pi=Re [ Σ Vi*Yik Vk] . (3)
k=1
n
Qi= -Im [ Σ Vi*Yik Vk]. (4)
k=1
The bus voltage can be written in form of
n
Vi=(1.0/Yii)[Ii- Σ Yij Vj] (5)
j=1
j≠i(i=1,2,…...........n)& i≠slack bus
Substituting Ii in the expression for Vi, we get
n
Vi new=(1.0/Yii)[Pi-JQi / Vio* - Σ Yij Vio] (6)
J=1
The latest available voltages are used in the above expression, we get
nn
Vi new=(1.0/Yii)[Pi-JQi / Voi* - Σ YijVjn- Σ Yij Vio] (7)
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 J=1 j=i+1
The above equation is the required formula .this equation can be solved for voltages in
interactive manner. During each iteration, we compute all the bus voltage and check for
convergence is carried out by comparison with the voltages obtained at the end of previous
iteration. After the solutions is obtained. The stack bus real and reactive powers, the reactive
power generation at other generator buses and line flows can be calculated.
Algorithm
Step1: Read the data such as line data, specified power, specified voltages, Q limits at the
generator buses and tolerance for convergences
Step2: Compute Y-bus matrix.
Step3: Initialize all the bus voltages.
Step4: Iter=1
Step5: Consider i=2, where i’ is the bus number.
Step6: check whether this is PV bus or PQ bus. If it is PQ bus goto step 8 otherwise go to next
step.
Step7: Compute Qi check for q limit violation. QGi=Qi+QLi.
7).a).If QGi>Qi max ,equate QGi = Qimax. Then convert it into PQ bus.
7).b).If QGi<Qi min, equate QGi = Qi min. Then convert it into PQ bus.
Step8: Calculate the new value of the bus voltage using gauss seidal formula.
i=1 n
Vi=(1.0/Yii) [(Pi-j Qi)/vi0*- Σ Yij Vj- Σ YijVj0]
J=1 J=i+1
Adjust voltage magnitude of the bus to specify magnitude if Q limits are not violated.
Step9: If all buses are considered go to step 10 otherwise increments the bus no. i=i+1 and Go to
step6.
Step10: Check for convergence. If there is no convergence goes to step 11 otherwise go to
step12.
Step11: Update the bus voltage using the formula.
Vinew=Vi old+ α(vinew-Viold) (i=1,2,…..n) i≠ slackbus ,α is the acceleration factor=1.4
Step12: Calculate the slack bus power, Q at P-V buses real and reactive give flows real and
reactance line losses and print all the results including all the bus voltages and all the bus angles.

Step13: Stop.

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Flow Chart:

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Procedure

Enter the command window of the MATLAB.

Create a new M – file by selecting File - New – M – File.

Type and save the program in the editor Window.

Execute the program by pressing Tools – Run.

View the results.

MATLAB program
%Gauss Sedial
clc;
data=[1 1 2 10-j*20
2 1 3 10-j*30
3 2 3 16-j*32]
elements=max(data(:,1));
bus=max(max(data(:,2)),max(data(:,3)));
y=zeros(bus,bus);
for p=1:bus,
for q=1:elements,
if(data(q,2)==p|data(q,3)==p)
y(p,p)=y(p,p)+data(q,4);
end
end
end
for p=1:bus,
for q=1:bus,
if (p~=q)
for r=1:elements if((data(r,2)==p&data(r,3)==q)|
(data(r,2)==q&data(r,3)==p)) y(p,q)=-(data(r,4));
end
end
end
end
end
a1=input('enter p2 in MW:');
b1=input('enter q2 in MVAR:');
a2=input('enter p3 in MW:');
b2=input('enter q3 in MVAR');
pu=input('enter the base value in MVA');
p2=(a1/pu);
q2=(b1/pu);
p3=(a2/pu);
q3=(b2/pu);
dx1=1+j*0;
dx2=1+j*0;

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v1=1.05;
v2=1+j*0;
v3=1+j*0;
iter=0;
disp('iter v2 v3');
while (abs(dx1)&abs(dx2)>=0.00001)&iter<7;
iter=iter+1;
g1=(((p2-j*q2)/conj(v2))+(-y(1,2)*v1)+(-y(2,3)*v3))/y(2,2);
g2=(((p3-j*q3)/conj(v3))+(-y(1,3)*v1)+(-y(2,3)*g1))/y(3,3);
dx1=g1-v2;
dx2=g2-v3;
v2=v2+dx1;
v3=v3+dx2;
fprintf ('%g',iter),disp([v2,v3]);
end

Result: data =
1.0000 + 0.0000i 1.0000 + 0.0000i 2.0000 + 0.0000i 10.0000 -20.0000i
2.0000 + 0.0000i 1.0000 + 0.0000i 3.0000 + 0.0000i 10.0000 -30.0000i
3.0000 + 0.0000i 2.0000 + 0.0000i 3.0000 + 0.0000i 16.0000 -32.0000i
enter p2 in MW:100
enter q2 in MVAR:50
enter p3 in MW:50
enter q3 in MVAR25
enter the base value in MVA100
iter v2 v3
1 1.0346 + 0.0115i 1.0477 + 0.0110i
2 1.0633 + 0.0181i 1.0624 + 0.0153i
3 1.0719 + 0.0205i 1.0668 + 0.0169i
4 1.0745 + 0.0214i 1.0681 + 0.0174i
5 1.0752 + 0.0217i 1.0684 + 0.0176i
6 1.0754 + 0.0218i 1.0685 + 0.0177i
7 1.0755 + 0.0219i 1.0686 + 0.0177i

Theoretical Calculations:

Result:
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 8. Symmetric and Unsymmetrical FAULT ANALYSIS

Aim: To analyze symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults for given transmission Line

Apparatus: MATLAB

Theory:

Symmetrical Fault

That fault on the power system which gives rise to symmetrical current (i.e. equal fault currents in the lines with 1200
displacement) is called a symmetrical fault. The symmetrical fault occurs when all the three conductors of a 3-Ø line are
brought together simultaneously into a short circuit condition as shown in the Fig.

The Symmetrical fault conditions are analyzed on per phase basis using Thevenin’s Theorem or Bus Impedance Matrix

Unsymmetrical Fault

The faults on the power system which give rise to unsymmetrical fault currents (i.e. unequal fault currents in the lines
with unequal phase displacement) are known as unsymmetrical faults. On the occurrence of an unsymmetrical fault, the
currents in the three lines become unequal and so there is a phase displacement among them.

There are three ways in which unsymmetrical faults may occur in a power system

➢Single line-to-ground fault (L-G)

➢Line-to-line fault (L-L)

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➢Double line-to-ground fault (L-L-G)

Line to Ground Fault(L-G) :

Case (a): Without fault impedance Let us assume an L-G fault occurs on phase-a as shown below

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Line to Fault(L-L) :

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Simulink Model

Model Wave Forms

WITH OUT FAULT

Voltage And Current Wave Form

Three phase fault

L-G FAULT

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L-L Fault

L-L-G Fault

Procedure:
1. Open Matlab-->Simulink--> File ---> New---> Model

2. Open Simulink Library and browse the components

3. Connect the components as per circuit diagram

4. Set the desired voltage and required frequency

5. Simulate the circuit using MATLAB

6. Plot the waveforms

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Results

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 9. Transient Stability analysis of Single machine infinite bus System

AIM: To analyze the transient stability of a single machine infinite bus system by point
by point method using MATLAB.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED: MATLAB software package

Theory:

Stability: Stability problem is concerned with the behaviour of power system when it is subjected to
disturbance and is classified into small signal stability problem if the disturbances are small and
transient stability problem when the disturbances are large.

Transient stability: When a power system is under steady state, the load plus transmission loss equals to the
generation in the system. The generating units run a synchronous speed and system
frequency, voltage, current and power flows are steady. When a large disturbance such as three phase fault, loss
of load, loss of generation etc., occurs the power balance is upset and the generating units rotors experience
either acceleration or deceleration. The system may come back to a steady state condition maintaining
synchronism or it may break into subsystems or one or more machines may pull out of synchronism. In the
former case the system is said to be stable and in the later case it is said to be unstable.

Small signal stability: When a power system is under steady state, normal operating condition, the system may
be subjected to small disturbances such as variation in load and generation, change in field voltage, change in
mechanical toque etc., The nature of system response to small disturbance depends on the operating conditions,
the transmission system strength, types of
controllers etc. Instability that may result from small disturbance may be of two forms,
(i) Steady increase in rotor angle due to lack of synchronising torque.
(ii) Rotor oscillations of increasing magnitude due to lack of sufficient damping torque.

PROBLEM:
Consider a system which consists of generator having a rating of 50 MVA & H=2.7
MJ/MVA at rated speed. E=1.05, V=1, Xd=0.2, X1=X2=0.4 pu. The generator supplies
50 MW to the infinite bus when a 3phase fault occurs at middle of line 2.
i). Plot swing curve for a sustained fault up to 0.5 sec.
ii). Plot the swing curve if the fault is cleared in 0.1 sec by simultaneous opening of
breakers at both ends of line 2.
iii).Find the critical clearing angle & clearing time.
iv). Write and execute a MATLAB program and also verify the output

Program

clear all;
clc;
t=0;
tf=0;
f=input('Enter the input frequency');
s= input('Enter the machine rating');
ang(1)=input('Enter the inital angle');
h=input('Enter the moment of inertia constant');
tfinal=input('Enter the end time');
tstep=input('Enter the change in time');
tc=input('enter the clearing time');
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pm=input('enter the power transfer');
pmaxbf=input('enter the prefault power');
pmaxdf=input('enter the power during fault');
pmaxaf=input('enter the postfault power');
m= (s*h)/(180*f);
delta=ang(1)*pi/180;
i=2;
ddelta=0;
time(1)=0;
while t<tfinal
if t==tf
paminus=pm-pmaxbf*sin(delta);
paplus=pm-pmaxdf*sin(delta);
paav=(paminus+paplus)/2;
pa=paav;
end
if(t==tc)
paminus=pm-pmaxdf*sin(delta);
paplus=pm-pmaxaf*sin(delta);
paav=(paminus+paplus)/2;
pa=paav;
end
if(t>tf&t<tc)
pa=pm-pmaxdf*sin(delta);
end
if(t>tc)
pa=pm-pmaxaf*sin(delta);
end
t,pa
ddelta=ddelta+(tstep*tstep*pa/m);
delta=((delta*180/pi)+ddelta)*(pi/180);
deltadeg=delta*180/pi;
t=t+tstep;
pause
time(i)=t;
ang(i)=deltadeg;
i=i+1;
end
axis([0 0.6 0 180])
plot(time,ang,'ko-')

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Result: Thus the transient stability analysis for single machine connected to infinite bus and fault clearance in
different time was studied.

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 10. Power System FAULT ANALYSIS

Aim: To analyze symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults for given transmission Line

Apparatus: MATLAB

Theory:

Symmetrical Fault

That fault on the power system which gives rise to symmetrical current (i.e. equal fault currents in the lines with 1200
displacement) is called a symmetrical fault. The symmetrical fault occurs when all the three conductors of a 3-Ø line are
brought together simultaneously into a short circuit condition as shown in the Fig.

The Symmetrical fault conditions are analyzed on per phase basis using Thevenin’s Theorem or Bus Impedance Matrix

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Simulink Model

Model Wave Forms

WITH OUT FAULT

Voltage And Current Wave Form

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Three phase fault

Procedure:
1. Open Matlab-->Simulink--> File ---> New---> Model

2. Open Simulink Library and browse the components

3. Connect the components as per circuit diagram

4. Set the desired voltage and required frequency

5. Simulate the circuit using MATLAB

6. Plot the waveforms

Results

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