TABLE OF CONTENTS

RECOMMENDATION………………………………………II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………………III

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………….1

OBJECTIVES………………………………………………...2

METHODOLOGY……………………………………………3

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION…………………………..….4

CONCLUSION……………………………………………....13

FUTURE SCOPE OF THE PROJECT……………………...14

REFERENCES……………………………………………....15

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 INTRODUCTION
Throughout history, humans have always been driven by an innate curiosity and a
thirst for knowledge and prestige, which led them to explore new frontiers. This same
curiosity motivated people in the twentieth century to embark on an incredible
journey into space.
Space, which begins at the edge of Earth's atmosphere, beyond the protective layers of
air and heat, carries a sense of mystery and excitement. However, it's important to
acknowledge the numerous challenges and dangers that space poses to humans. Space
is a harsh environment, lacking air, food, and water, with extreme temperatures and
harmful radiation in the form of cosmic rays and electromagnetic waves.
Additionally, space is filled with tiny rocks and ice, creating potential hazards that
travel at high velocities.
The concept of space exploration is complex, involving the use of tremendous force to
launch objects off the Earth's surface. Returning from space presents its own set of
challenges, as objects encounter layers of dense air molecules in Earth's atmosphere,
creating friction and the risk of destruction in a flaming blaze.
The 1950s marked a turning point when the right combination of skills and
technology emerged to overcome the obstacles of space travel. At that time, the
political climate was favorable, with two powerful nations channeling their resources
into space exploration instead of engaging in direct conflict. This spirit of competition
ultimately propelled humans beyond Earth and onto the Moon in 1969.
The space war produced historical firsts and inventions that the entire world saw. It
also signaled the start of space exploration, which has only continued to advance and
pick up speed ever since.

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 OBJECTIVES
 To study the chronological order of events and milestones in space exploration
 To study and highlight major achievements, missions and breakthroughs in
space exploration
 To study about various tragedies related to space exploration
 To study about international collaborations in space exploration
 To provide the insights into current trends in space exploration

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 METHODOLOGY
All of the information was extracted from secondary sources. Compiling this report
involved a comprehensive review of historical records, scientific literature, and
reputable sources to construct a factual report without any discrepancies. Information
was collected from journals books and web sites all of whom are credited in the
references section.

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 RESULTS AND DISCUSISON
Early Discoveries
The great Italian painter and engineer Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)made several
sketches of human-powered flying machines and gliders with birdlike wings. It was a
time when astronomical knowledge was limited. The geocentric model of the solar
system still existed. It was Nicholas Copernicus who introduced the heliocentric
model in his famous book Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestum. Telescopes were
invented in Europe in the early 1600s. Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei improved the
designs of telescopes and used them to study the cosmos and published his findings in
the 1610 book Sidereus Nuncius. Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer was
studying the solar system, he discovered that planetary movement occurs according to
mathematical rhythms. He derived the law of planetary motion. Sir Isaac Newton
introduced the laws of gravitation which provided a comprehensive explanation for
the motion of celestial bodies. In the late 17th century, the planet Uranus was
discovered. The ring system of Saturn was discovered in 1659. Edmond Halley
observed the comet which now bears his name, it is visible every 75 years. In the late
1700s, two French brothers built the first hot-air balloon. This started the age of flight

Age of Flight
On December 17, 1903, the American brothers Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright
made history with the first sustained flights of a powered aircraft. When the First
World War began, the power of aerial warfare became apparent. By 1918 great
progress was made in the field of aviation, including commercial; flights, and postal
air service.WWII saw significant advancements in aviation technology. Jet-powered
aircraft were introduced in the later stages of WWII.

Rockets
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky explained how rockets could be used to escape Earth’s
gravity. In his later years, he wrote about satellites and space stations.Herman Oberth
theorized howrockets could launch payloads into space and also described the design
of a rocket. Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket in 1926. Wernher
von Braun led the development of various rockets. These are the four men who are
considered the founders of modern rocket science. All four were working on rocket
science and reached similar conclusions at about the same time.

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Cold War and Space Race

The Cold War is used to describe U.S. relations with the Soviet Union after the
Second World War. Each party wanted to beat the other. The nuclear arms race was
already progressing. Both parties wanted to establish their presence not just on Earth
but in space as well. Thus, the space race began.
Sputnik 1 signaled that the Soviet Union had taken the lead. They launched Sputnik 1
on October 4, 1957. Sputnik was a globe-shaped instrument 23 inches in diameter and
weighed 83kg. this became the first artificial satellite launched into Earth’s orbit.
A month after the success of Sputnik 1, the Soviets launched Sputnik 2. This satellite
was much larger than its predecessor. Furthermore, the satellite carried a live dog
named Laika. Laika was one of the first animals in space.
In 1958 America launched Explorer 1. It was America’s first satellite. Explorer 1
reentered Earth’s atmosphere in 1970 after completing 58000 orbits. A few months
later the Soviets launched Sputnik 3
In October of 1958, the U.S. government formed the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration to oversee America’s space endeavors.
In 1961 the Soviet Union reached a historical milestone in the exploration of space.
On April 12, Soviet Air Force Major Yuri Gagarin became the first man to enter space
and orbit the Earth. He was carried by the Vostok space capsule. Less than a month
later Alan Shepard became the first American to enter the space. He was carried by
the Freedom 7 space capsule
In subsequent years American Astronauts Virgil Grisson, John Glenn, and Gordon
Cooper were launched into orbit. They were carried by capsules Liberty Bell 7,
Friendship 7, and Faith 7 respectively. These launches were part of the Mercury
program.
Vostok program continued in the Soviet Union. A total of 6 crewed flights were
carried out. Vostok 6 was the last in the series of Vostok space missions. It was
another historic event in the Soviet space program. On board, the Vostok 6 was
astronaut Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman to enter space and orbit the Earth. It
was launched two days after the launch of Vostok. The Soviets had two spacecraft in
orbit at the Same time.

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 Vostok 6 Vostok 5

Moon

John F. Kennedy (1917–1963) made the decision to institute a new race. His advisors
suggested that the US launch a manned spacecraft into orbit or perhaps set foot on the
moon. The U.S. effort to put men on the Moon was called the Apollo program. It
included three phases:
Mercury: suborbital and orbital missions of short duration
Gemini: longer duration orbital missions including extravehicular activity
(spacewalking) and docking of spacecraft in space
Apollo: Manned lunar landings in which a module containing two astronauts softly
lands on the Moon; a third astronaut remains in lunar orbit while the other two
explore the Moon’s surface.
The first crewed mission to orbit the moon was Apollo 8. On July 20, 1969, astronauts
Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin made a successful landing on the moon with Apollo
11. Armstrong's famous words, "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for
mankind," were broadcast worldwide. The United States carried out further Apollo
missions to further explore the moon after Apollo 11. Notably, between 1969 and
1972, astronauts from Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17 also made successful moon
landings and landed 12 people on the moon.

Armstrong, Collins, Aldrin

Triumphs come with tragedies. In January 1967 the United States suffered the first
loss of life in its space exploration program. Three American astronauts Virgil I.

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Grissom, Edward H. White, and Roger B. Chaffee were killed when a flash fire raced
through their capsule during a routine practice drill.
The Soviet Union continued its lunar exploration efforts alongside the United States.
While they achieved several milestones, such as the first successful soft landing on
the Moon (Luna 9), they did not send humans to the lunar surface and Zond 5 became
the first spacecraft to travel around the Moon and return to Earth.

Exploring the Solar System

The Mariner probes were designed to explore and study various planets in our solar
system, providing valuable data about their atmospheres, surfaces, and magnetic
fields. Mariner 2 successfully conducted the first successful interplanetary mission,
making a flyby of Venus in December 1962. Mariner 4 made the first successful flyby
of Mars in July 1965. It sent back the first close-up images of the Martian surface.
Mariner 9 became the first spacecraft to orbit Mars. Mariner 10 was the last in the
series; it was designed to flyby and photograph Venus and Mercury. It discovered that
mercury had no atmosphere.
The Venera program was a series of Soviet missions aimed at exploring Venus,
Venera 2 made a flyby of Venus, and Venera 3 became the first human-made object
to reach the surface of another planet (Venus). Venera 4 Successfully entered Venus'
atmosphere, making it the first spacecraft to conduct direct atmospheric
measurements of another planet. The Venera program continued with subsequent
missions, each providing valuable data about Venus' atmosphere, surface conditions,
and geological features.
During the early 1970s, the United States began a series of interplanetary missions
designed to explore the far planets. The first of these missions was aptly named
Pioneer. Pioneer spacecraft were the first to investigate Jupiter and Saturn. The
missions were managed by NASA’s Ames Research Center in Moffett Field,
California, for the agency’s Office of Space Science. The two spacecrafts involved
were Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11.
In 1977 NASA began another bold mission to investigate Jupiter and Saturn. The
program was called Voyager and included twin robotic spacecraft named Voyager 1
and Voyager 2. The spacecraft revealed several discoveries about the gas giants in the
outer solar system. The Voyager spacecraft carry written and recorded messages from
Earth, in case they come across any intelligent life.
NASA’s Galileo mission was the first to put a spacecraft in orbit around one of the far
planets. The Galileo mission was hugely successful. The spacecraft traveled more
than 2.8 billion miles during its long journey. Galileo captured thousands of detailed

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images of the planet and its largest moons and collected a wealth of data about these
celestial objects.
In 1997 NASA collaborated with the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Agenzia
Spaziale Italiana (Italian Space Agency) to launch the Cassini mission to Saturn.
Specific mission objectives are to investigate Saturn’s magnetosphere and
atmosphere, determine the structure and behavior of its rings, and characterize the
composition, weather, and geological history of its moons. It discovered geographical
information about the moons of Saturn.

Space Station

The Apollo Applications Program (AAP) began in 1963 with a plan to use leftover
Apollo hardware in some kind of orbiting station including a laboratory, workshop,
and space telescope. The AAP used a Saturn V rocket launch vehicle for a newly
developed station called Skylab.
The Skylab program had two primary goals:
• Prove that humans could live and work in space for extended periods
• Expand knowledge of solar astronomy using a space-based telescope
The Skylab station weighed nearly one hundred tons and was about the size of a small
three-bedroom house. It included a two-level workshop. The Skylab was not designed
for long-term use. The Soviet space station Salyut 1 was launched on April 19, 1971.
Soviet scientists constructed the station in order to research the long-term impacts of
human habitation in space. Salyut 1 was destroyed when it plunged into Earth's
atmosphere in October 1971. The Soviets launched seven Salyuts into orbit in total.
The Soviet Union launched the new space station Mir into orbit in February 1986.
The nongovernmental people who live on the Mir are also well-known. The Soviet
space program experienced financial difficulties starting in the 1980s. The space
agency sold seats on Mir to a range of international explorers and astronauts in order
to raise money.
On September 2, 1993, the USA and Russia signed the Joint Declaration on
Cooperation in Space. By the end of the year, NASA and the Russian Space Agency
had ironed out a detailed work plan for what was now called the International Space
Station. It was determined that the International Space Station (ISS) would be made
up of separate sections, known as modules, that would dock together to form the
station. Every module was to be built on Earth and then sent into orbit. Zarya, the first
module of the International Space Station, was launched into orbit on November 20,
1998, by a Russian Proton rocket. Zarya supplied basic life support and functioned as
the original control module. The first long-term crew, Expedition 1, arrived at the ISS
on November 2, 2000. The crew consisted of three members, as of recently 69

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expeditions have been completed. Russia has withdrawn from the ISS over political
tensions.

Mars

For millennia, humans have been fascinated by Mars. Despite the fact that a lot is
known about it, much more needs to be discovered. Mars is closest to Earth (in terms
of sustainability) in the solar system. It is located fourth from the Sun. It bears the
name of the mythological war god, Ares in Greek mythology and Mars in Roman
mythology. Because of its reddish appearance from Earth, Mars is also referred to as
the Red Planet. Mars is a small planet. Its diameter is about half that of Earth. Mars is
twice as large as Earth’s Moon. A Martian day lasts twenty-four hours and thirty-nine
minutes and is called a sol. It takes Mars 687 days to travel around the Sun. The
planet has different seasons throughout its orbit, because it is tilted, just like Earth.
The two Martian moons Phobos and Deimos are not round spheres like Earth’s Moon.
The Martian moons are small compared to other moons in the solar system. Many
scientists believe that Phobos and Deimos are actually asteroids that wandered too
close to Mars and were captured by its gravity.
In 1976 the Viking mission was the first American spacecraft to land safely on Mars.
Among the scientific equipment on the landers were cameras and a range of devices
used to study soil properties, atmospheric conditions, meteorology, magnetic
properties, and seismology. Additionally, they looked for indications of live
microorganisms in the soil, but they were unable to find any. They did discover that
iron-rich clay exists on Mars' surface.
Mars Pathfinder was a mission conducted as part of NASA’s Discovery Program. The
Pathfinder traveled for seven months before entering into the gravitational influence
of Mars. It released a small six-wheeled rover named Sojourner that began exploring
the nearby area. For two and a half months the Sojourner collected data about Martian
soil, radiation levels, and rocks. In addition to completing fifteen chemical analyses,
the Pathfinder produced over seventeen thousand images. After analysing this data,
scientists came to the conclusion that Mars may have once had a thicker, wetter
atmosphere and were warm and wet. Pathfinder's final communication was sent in late
September of 1997.

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Opportunity was launched on July 7, 2003. It landed in 2004. Opportunity aimed to
study the Martian geology for past sign of water. The rover made significant findings.
It identified small hematite rocks that indicate past water. NASA lost communication
with this rover in June of 2018.
On January 4, 2004, the Spirit MER landed on Mars. The landing site was in Gusev
Crater. Gusev Crater is of interest to scientists because they believe it could be a
dried-up lakebed. In 2009 spirit became stuck in Martian soil. The communication
was lost in 2010.

On august 4 2007 NASA launched Phoenix Mars Lander. The primary goal was to
study the Martian arctic region. It confirmed the presence of water ice in the Martian
subsurface.

Curiosity rover was launched on November 26 2011 and landed on august 5 2012. Its
main objective was to assess Mars’s ability to sustain microbial life. It has discovered
the evidence of ancient lakebed that could have supported microbial life. It is still
providing valuable data although it was supposed to be a two-year mission.

Perseverance rover is the latest rover to land on Mars. It was launched in 2021 and
landed in 2022. It landed in the Jezero Crater. The landing site was chosen due to its
diverse geological features, including an ancient river delta that could contain well-
preserved signs of ancient life. Perseverance is playing a key role in paving the way
for future Mars Exploration and potential sample returns.

Images of Spirit, Opportunity, Curiosity, Perseverance Rover (clockwise from top

left)

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Other Major Milestones

Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is one of the most iconic space telescopes in the
history of astronomy. It was launched into low earth orbit on April 24, 1990. It has
made many ground breaking discoveries like determining the rate of expansion of
universe, providing insights into dark matter, and capturing images of distant galaxies
and other cosmic objects.
The first image of black hole was released in April 10, 2019. The black hole in the
image is located at the center of the galaxy M87. (Image below)

Gravitational waves predicted by Einstein in 1900s were first observed in 2015. They
have opened a new observational window, allowing scientists to study extreme
cosmic events.
The James Webb Telescope (JWST) is a space observatory set to be the successor of
HST. JWST is set to capture images of early galaxies that formed few million years
after the Big Bang.
India’s Chandrayaan-3 became the first rover to land on the south pole of the moon.

Public Opinion

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Public opinion on space travel has always been a controversial topic. Many people
express enthusiasm and support for space exploration. Space exploration generally
fosters national pride as people show their support every endeavor of their nation in
the field of space exploration. Majority of the public is concerned about the funding
of the space programs. People argue that tax money could be spent on addressing the
issues on the Earth, such as poverty, healthcare, and education.
In essence, the public’s view on space exploration is multifaceted reflecting a balance
between scientific discovery and the allocation of resources for the immediate global
challenges.

Major Space Tragedies

January 27, 1967: Apollo 1 crew died during a flash fire aboard a capsule on the
launch pad undergoing routine testing. The casualties were Grissom, White, and
Chaffee.

April 24, 1967—Soyuz 1 cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov died during descent to Earth
when his parachutes failed to function properly.

June 30, 1971—Soyuz 11 crew died during descent to Earth when their spacecraft lost
its atmosphere due to a leaky valve. The casualties were Georgi Dobrovolsky,
Vladislav Volkov , and Viktor Patsayev

January 28, 1986—The space shuttle Challenger crew died shortly after launch
because of an explosion caused by leaking hot gases. The casualties were Francis R.
Scobee, Michael J. Smith, Judith A. Resnik, Ron McNair, Ellison S. Onizuka,
Gregory B. Jarvis, and Christa McAuliffe.

February 1, 2003—The space shuttle Columbia crew died during Earth reentry when
a damaged wing allowed hot gases to enter the spacecraft, tearing the shuttle apart.
The casualties were Rick D. Husband, William C. McCool, David M. Brown,
Kalpana Chawla, Michael P. Anderson, Laurel B. Clark, and Ilan Ramon.

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 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the exploration of space has been a remarkable journey marked by both
triumphs and tragedies. From the visionary sketches of Leonardo da Vinci to the
monumental achievements of the Apollo moon landings, humanity's quest for
understanding and conquering the cosmos has evolved over centuries.
The Cold War and the subsequent Space Race fueled unprecedented advancements,
with significant contributions from pioneers like Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Herman
Oberth, Robert Goddard, and Wernher von Braun laying the foundation for modern
rocket science. The era witnessed the launch of the first artificial satellites, the
pioneering flights of Yuri Gagarin and Alan Shepard, and the subsequent
establishment of space agencies like NASA.
Exploration expanded beyond our planet with missions to the moon, robotic probes
like Mariner and Voyager venturing into the far reaches of our solar system, and the
establishment of space stations like Skylab and the International Space Station. The
Hubble Space Telescope and groundbreaking discoveries, such as the observation of
gravitational waves, have reshaped our understanding of the universe.
Mars, the Red Planet, has been a focal point of exploration, from the Viking missions
to the recent endeavors of rovers like Perseverance.
The quest for knowledge extends to the furthest reaches of the cosmos, as exemplified
by the James Webb Space Telescope and Chandrayaan-3's historic landing on the
moon's South Pole.
However, these achievements have not come without sacrifice. Tragic events, such as
the Apollo 1 fire, the Soyuz 1 and Soyuz 11 accidents, and the Space Shuttle
Challenger and Columbia disasters, serve as saddening reminders of the inherent risks
in pushing the boundaries of human exploration.

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As we reflect on the multifaceted public opinion surrounding space travel, it becomes
evident that the quest for scientific discovery must coexist with societal needs.
Balancing the allocation of resources for space exploration against pressing global
challenges remains a perennial debate, emphasizing the need for responsible
stewardship of both our planet and the cosmos.
In the grand tapestry of human history, the exploration of space stands as a testament
to our insatiable curiosity, ingenuity, and resilience. The story is far from over, with
ongoing missions, future expeditions, and the promise of new technologies ensuring
that the journey into the cosmos continues to captivate the imagination and inspire
generations to come.

FUTURE SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

The future prospect of space exploration is significant. The study of space exploration
is a very important subject. As we make strides in our journey to space, frequent
studies must be done in order to look back at our accomplishments and tragedies. The
knowledge on history of space exploration will help to shape our understanding of the
cosmos and influence our future projects.
One tiny mistake costs life, expense, time, effort, determination, and dreams. As
humans move forward to embrace daunting challenges for the greater good of
humanity, it is necessary to look back and consider what our ancestors could have
done to make the wrong go right so that the same mistakes shall not be repeated in the
present and the future. In other words, historical analysis is essential to the successful
creation of the both the past and the future.
The future holds promise. Manned and robotic missions are being planned. Various
private space organizations are making strides to make space tourism viable. Earth is
trying to be an interstellar civilization.
Thus it is necessary to study the history to reflect on our past missions and try to
better the current missions at hand.

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 REFERENCES

JOURNALS
[1] Joseph A. Angelo (2014). Spacecraft for Astronomy. Infobase Publishing. p. 20.
ISBN 978-1-4381-0896-4.

BOOKS:

[2] David M. Harland, Brian Harvey (2007), Space Exploration 2008

[3] Kim Masters Evans (2008), Space Exploration: Triumphs and Tragedies,
2008 Edition (Information Plus Reference Series)

WEBSITES:
[4]https://study.com/learn/lesson/space-exploration-history-facts.html
[5]https://www.reddit.com/r/space/comments/5mmxf9/space_exploration_timeline_o
verview_oc/?rdt=33883
[6]https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/space-race-timeline
[7]https://aerospace.org/article/brief-history-space-exploration
[8]https://history.nasa.gov/sputnik.html#:~:text=History%20changed%20on
%20October%204,Earth%20on%20its%20elliptical%20path.
[9]https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/0401524orig.jpg
[10]https://www.britannica.com/topic/Apollo-11
[12]https://news.wttw.com/sites/default/files/styles/full/public/article/image-non-
gallery/AP19191638295390Crop.jpg?itok=1_5-qp-R
[13]https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/nasa-created
[14]https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/apollo
[15]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_program

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