Thermal Stress Control

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. SCOPE ..................................................................................................................................................... 3

II. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................... 3

III. EXPANSION, CONTRACTION AND STRESS ................................................................................. 3

IV. STRESS CONCENTRATION............................................................................................................... 4

V. ROTOR BORE STRESS........................................................................................................................ 4

VI. SURFACE STRESS CYCLE................................................................................................................. 5

VII. CYCLIC LIFE EXPENDITURE POLICY .......................................................................................... 7

VIII. MATERIAL RESPONSE TO THERMAL STRESS........................................................................... 7

IX. IMPORTANCE OF ROTOR WARMING........................................................................................... 9

X. IMPORTANCE OF CHEST WARMING.......................................................................................... 10

XI. ATS ROTOR STRESS DISPLAYS..................................................................................................... 11

XII. STARTING AND LOADING RAMP RATES................................................................................... 13

XIII. IMPORTANCE OF STEAM TEMPERATURE MATCHING........................................................ 14

XIV. ACCELERATION AND SPEED HOLDS.......................................................................................... 14

XV. LOADING RATE AND LOAD HOLDS ............................................................................................ 14

XVI. USING ADMISSION MODE SELECTION (IF APPLICABLE).................................................... 15

XVII. ADVANTAGES OF VARIABLE (SLIDING) PRESSURE OPERATION..................................... 17

A. Load Changes.......................................................................................................................................... 18

B. Unloading for Overnight or Weekend Shutdowns.................................................................................. 19

C. Matching Steam to Metal Temperature at Time of Restart..................................................................... 19

XVIII. TURBINE BYPASS SYSTEMS........................................................................................................... 19

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Typical Rotor Geometry ......................................................................................................................... 5

Figure 2. Graphical Representation of Rotor Stress Cycle..................................................................................... 6

Figure 3. Typical CLE and Bore Limit Curves ...................................................................................................... 9

Figure 4. ATS Bore Stress Limit.......................................................................................................................... 11

Figure 5. Graphical Representation of Rotor Stress Cycle................................................................................... 12

Figure 6. Load and Admission Mode for Rated Steam Pressure and Temperature (Typical) ............................. 16

Figure 7. Example First-Stage Steam Temperature vs. Load/Variable Pressure Operation Compared with

Constant Pressure Operation ................................................................................................................. 18

I. SCOPE

These instructions are intended for operator guidance in the use of the Operating Instructions. This

document will explain how the thermal stresses are calculated, how the calculation is used, and

techniques for good thermal stress control, whether in automatic or manual operation.

II. INTRODUCTION

The successful operation, maintenance, and achievement of the designed life of a turbine-generator

depend to a large extent on adhering to the proper startup, loading, shutdown and load changing

procedures. These procedures gain in importance if the unit performs frequent operating cycles which can

accumulate the wear and tear of changing steam temperatures.

Failures of major turbine components, such as rotors, shells and valves, have been directly attributed to a

lack of adequate control of heating and cooling cycles in the turbine. With modern technological

advances in materials, stress analysis and computer control, it is now possible to reduce the probability of

serious failure by more sophisticated control of operations. The Automatic Turbine Startup (ATS)

function of the turbine control system will calculate and limit stresses in the high-temperature rotors by

control of starting, loading and unloading. However, in some modes ATS will not be controlling but

guiding, and the operator will interface more directly with the control system and make decisions which

will affect control of thermal stress. The purpose of this article is to provide a basic understanding of the

principles of thermal stress and the means of controlling it during operation.

III. EXPANSION, CONTRACTION AND STRESS

When steam is admitted to a turbine there is always some difference between the steam temperature

adjacent to the metal surfaces and the average temperature of the metal parts. Even if careful attention is

paid to matching these temperatures in some areas of the turbine, there will be other areas where a match

cannot be achieved.

Many parts of the turbine are free to expand and contract relative to each other as they heat and cool at

different rates (for example, the nozzle diaphragms within the shells, and the rotors relative to the

bearings and other stationary parts). In the case of rotor and shell axial expansion and contraction, a

visual display is provided at the Turbine Control System Turbine Control System to provide operating

guidance within the tightly controlled internal clearances. Certain stationary parts are also free to move

relative to each other because the difference in average temperature would otherwise create large stresses,

distortion and eventual failure.

When turbine parts are relatively thin, the average temperature responds quickly to steam temperature

change. Certain larger parts cannot be made thin enough to avoid a substantial difference between the

surface and average temperatures. Typically, these are:

Rotors Shells Valve bodies

Rotors

Shells

Valve bodies

During temperature changes, these components may be subjected to internal stresses as a result of the

differences in temperature, and expansion or contraction, of the surfaces and the internal metal.

If the surface stress remains within the material elastic range, there may be no noticeable effect on the

turbine. Occasionally, uneven temperature distribution in a rotor or shell can cause packing rubbing,
which is generally remedied by equalizing temperatures while on turning gear. When the surface stress

exceeds the yield stress of the material, plastic strain of the metal can produce a permanent deformation

in the component. This is sometimes seen as distortion if the residual stresses can influence the position

or displacement of the component when the turbine is cold. Occasionally, thermal stress will display itself

in another form, such as a steam leak at the horizontal joint of a shell, caused by differential temperatures

within the shell. Often, the thermal stress produced is perfectly balanced around the component

periphery, such as a rotor surface, and there may be no distortion to reveal permanent deformation of the

surface material.

The physical evidence of permanent deformation at a surface may only reveal itself, after many cycles of

heating or cooling, as a crack initiating from the surface due to Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF) or as the

propagation of a previous crack or other material discontinuity.

Thermal stresses which cause distortion or steam leaks are generally revealed early in the turbine life.

Certain operating precautions, such as required turning gear operating times to avoid bowing a rotor, or

allowable main and reheat steam temperature differential to avoid shell joint leaks, are included in the

Instructions to avoid these problems. Other operating precautions are designed to prevent the initiation

and propagation of cracks and to assure an economical life for the turbine major components. It is

particularly important, for example, to follow the allowable valve temperature differential limits for Stop

Valves and Control Valves (if applicable) and the various rotor stress limits displayed on ATS, since no

indication of imminent failure is provided by the material until a crack is initiated.

IV. STRESS CONCENTRATION

The surfaces of turbine components contain various local configurations which concentrate the nominal

surface stress in specific locations. These will include the step changes in rotor diameter at the wheels and

the change in section thickness of shells at support points, or ledges. A further geometric effect which

concentrates thermal stress is the local radius of the fillet at the section discontinuity (Figure 1). When

combined, these effects can concentrate the stress and strain at the discontinuity several times greater than

the nominal values. Stress concentration factors, expressing the concentration over nominal value, are

carefully controlled in the design and manufacture of the turbine components by minimizing the size of

step changes and providing adequate fillet radii. Stress concentration factors are important in the

calculation of rotor surface stress in ATS and in the determination of rate of change of temperature when

operating the turbine without ATS.

V. ROTOR BORE STRESS

Some high-temperature rotors are bored for metallurgical and inspection purposes. The bore is highly

stressed when running at rated speed due to centrifugal loading from the shaft, wheels and buckets. When

the rotor is heated or cooled from the outer surface, the inner surface, or bore, responds to the temperature

change due to conduction through the rotor but with a time lag compared to the outer surface as shown in

Figure 2. The temperature difference between the bore and the average temperature in the rotor produces

a supplemental thermal stress at the bore surface, which must be limited to avoid crack initiation, growth

or sudden fracture. “Bore” stresses are also calculated by the Turbine Control System for non-bored

rotors, representing rotor center stresses.

VI. SURFACE STRESS CYCLE

If the component surface material is strained into the plastic region by a temperature change, there will be
a residual stress remaining in the surface when equilibrium is reestablished at the new temperature. This

stress may relax to a lower value at elevated temperatures due to the creep properties of the material. A

reversal of the temperature change may cause the surface material to yield in the opposite direction, such

that when equilibrium is reached at the original temperature, a full cycle of tensile-compressive plastic

strain has occurred.

Methods have been devised to predict the low cycle fatigue damage contributed by each cycle of this

type. Expressed as a percentage of the number of such cycles to originate a surface crack, a Cyclic Life

Expenditure (CLE) may be assigned to each strain reversal cycle. Accumulation of CLE for a variety of

cycles will lead to a 50% probability of a crack initiation at 100% CLE.

For simplified, idealized temperature changes from one equilibrium state to another, using linear

temperature changes with time, it is possible to express CLE as a function of the temperature change and

the rate at which the temperature change is made (ramp rate). This simplified approach is used to

construct the allowable operating curves (Figure 3) in the STARTING AND LOADING CHART which

is for use when operating without ATS and supplied for some units.
VII. CYCLIC LIFE EXPENDITURE POLICY

To correctly use ATS or STARTING AND LOADING CHART, it is recommended that the customer

determine a cyclic life budget for various cyclic operations, depending on their predicted frequency

throughout the projected life of the turbine-generator. Three ranges are available on ATS, equivalent to

the following:
RANGE CLE PER CYCLE TOTAL CYCLES

Low 0.01% 10,000

Medium 0.02% 5,000

High 0.05% 2,000

Additional flexibility is available with the STARTING AND LOADING CHART for higher or lower

CLE, but for most budgeting it is suggested that one of the three ranges above be assigned. Typically, an

infrequent cold start would be assigned HIGH, occasional warm starts would use MEDIUM, and frequent

or daily shutdown or load change cycles would use LOW. The operator requires a cyclic life expenditure

policy be established in order to use ATS or the OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS WITHOUT ATS. This

policy should carefully evaluate the economic benefits of faster starting and loading, which may be

achieved with a HIGH or MEDIUM range setting, versus the potential repair or replacement costs

associated with early life expenditure. The CLE selector on ATS may be changed at any time during

operation to increase allowable surface stress range if a load hold is not desired. For each turbine start the

Turbine Control System will default to the typical values mentioned above based on the minimum turbine

metal temperature (HP or RH Control Start Thermocouples) the ranges are defined as follows, Cold

<400°F, Warm 400-700°F and Hot >700°F.

VIII. MATERIAL RESPONSE TO THERMAL STRESS

As discussed previously, there may be several visible responses to thermal stress, such as distortion of

parts, steam leaks, etc., which are not directly related to component life. Crack initiation and propagation

are sometimes only visible at major inspection intervals, and it is advisable for operating personnel to be

familiar with the operating causes of these problems.

Cracks which initiate in low-stress surface locations with relatively high surface stress concentration

factors will often remain passive and shallow with little or no propagation. Such locations are diaphragm

fits in shells, inner surfaces of valve chests, or the rotor surface at the high-pressure steam packings with

hi-lo (stepped) packing. When they occur, these cracks do not generally propagate because the normal

stress intensity at the crack tip is below a critical value, and they may be removed without serious

problems. Control of steam temperature to inhibit such cracking is provided within the design of the

turbine, and the various recommendations on limitation of temperature differentials and temperature

changes in the Instruction Book. For example, refer to the allowable temperature differentials for stop

valves and control valves (if applicable) or the limits on steam seal temperatures.

In certain locations, however, a surface crack or defect may be driven deeper by the prevailing stress

conditions. It is important to be aware of the contribution of thermal stress to this propagation and the

possible consequences. Cracks may be propagated by five basic mechanisms, or a combination thereof:

1. Low Cycle Fatigue

2. High Cycle Fatigue

3. Brittle fracture
4. Stress corrosion
5. Creep rupture
The last two are not generally associated with thermal stress control operations and will not be discussed
further.
Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF), the primary cause of surface crack initiation, is a low-strain-rate process,
which, in combination with high-temperature creep deformation, can also propagate a crack further below
the surface. The primary requirement is a tensile plastic stress zone at the crack tip which is sufficient to
propagate the crack during a cycle of tension-compression. Tensile stresses are produced at hot surfaces
by cooling, and steep downramps in steam temperature can propagate a surface crack. However,
compressive stresses produced at a cool surface by heating can cause tensile stress at the crack tip during
equalization of temperature after heating. Thermal stress may therefore continue to be a contributor to
crack propagation from either excessive cooling or heating.
High Cycle Fatigue (HCF) is a high-strain-rate process, usually associated with rapid stress reversals as
experienced in the surface of a rotating component due to bending stress. If the design margin for
initiating and propagating a crack by HCF is lost, due to the presence of a crack caused by LCF or other
causes, the part may fail rapidly due to accumulation of large numbers of cycles and propagation of a
deep crack. If the symptoms of a deep rotor crack are detected (see Vibration Symptoms of Cracked
Rotors in the Publications entitled ROTOR VIBRATION), prompt action is required to avoid
catastrophic failure. Most deep rotor cracks detected in high-pressure rotors have been caused by a
combination of LCF initiation and propagation and HCF propagation, to a point where immediate
shutdown is required.
Brittle fracture may occur if a defect is large enough to modify the normally ductile behavior of the
material to tensile stress and produce a sudden cleavage of the component typical of a less ductile
material. In addition to defect size and shape, stress and material temperature have an effect on brittle
fracture. Thermal stress control is extremely important in avoiding brittle fracture. For example, the stress
at the rotor bore, or centerline if the rotor is boreless, is controlled by ATS, or observance of the
STARTING AND LOADING CHART, to remain below a value at which acceptable defects can
propagate in either brittle fracture or LCF. At temperatures below the Fracture Appearance transition
Temperature (FATT), modern high-pressure rotor materials tend to exhibit less ductility in the presence
of cracks, and special precautions are taken to assure that the turbine is operated cautiously on cold starts
until the bores of the rotors are above this temperature. The FATT is the temperature at which a crack
propagates in a half-brittle, half-ductile fashion, and is a laboratory-tested material property. Brittle
fracture from a large rotor bore defect is possible if adequate warming is not obtained and the bore is
overstressed, resulting in a rotor burst.
Most high-temperature rotors have an FATT in the range 200–250°F (93–121°C) when shipped. With
years of service at high temperature, the material will gradually embrittle and the FATT will increase.
The size of defect which may be tolerated in the same nominal stress field is increased by a factor of
approximately three for rotor materials when the material temperature is raised from 50°F (10°C) below
1. the FATT to the same amount above it.

IX. IMPORTANCE OF ROTOR WARMING

Because of the potential for brittle fracture of high-temperature rotors if overstressed at the bore before

normal operating temperatures are reached, certain hold points might be required for larger turbine rotors

to allow the rotor to reach a target temperature before proceeding to the next stage. Many of these targets

will be achieved without delay during normal starting of a turbine after one or two days cooling from

shutdown. During cold starts from extended outages, when the rotors are essentially at room temperature,

the following warming hold will be required typically, expressed in calculated bore minimum

temperature:

At Turning Gear

3000 rpm for 60 Hz (2500 for 50Hz)

Low Load 7-10%

The bore temperature in the HP, RH and XO (Cross over location of the RH section) have different

temperature requirements at the three phases of startup listed above. Each turbine configuration has
different warming targets and are provided in the Starting and Loading Instructions. With ATS

controlling or guiding, the calculated bore temperatures are displayed. On opposed flow units, heating of

the RH rotor is assisted by conduction through the rotor from the HP section maintaining higher

condenser pressure and by steam seal heating. Turbines with separate RH sections have an independent

steam heating pipe at the center of the RH section.

Further heating of the cooler regions of the rotor(s) is possible only when rolling the unit with steam at a

suitable temperature for startup. The 3000 rpm (2500 for 50 Hz) hold provides a safety margin against

overspeed failure while the centrifugal bore stress is below rated value.

Final heating of the complete rotor bore can generally be achieved only when the steam generator flow is

above the no-load flow point. For some units the Operating Instructions require an initial load of 2%,

followed by a slow period of loading to a 7–10% hold point until all rotor bore temperatures are above

the target. Excessive thermal stress during this period should be avoided.

If the bore temperature targets are not achieved, the bore stress limit may be more easily exceeded during

startup. The bore stress limit is a function of temperature, which reduces below the FATT as shown in

Figure 4. The degree of severity of a bore stress excursion above the bore stress limit is registered by two

“zones.” Zones I represents the regions in which brittle fracture of a rotor bore defect is possible. Zone II

represents the region where crack growth will occur if the bore limit stress is exceeded. Bore stress

excursions will not occur if the Operating Instructions are followed and the instrumentation is functioning

correctly. Bore stress excursions should be investigated in the interests of safe operation of the turbine.

X. IMPORTANCE OF CHEST WARMING

Some larger steam turbines will be equipped with inlet control valve chests. After warming of the rotor

by steam pressurization on turning gear, and before resetting the turbine in preparation for roll, the

control valve chest may be at too low a temperature to admit full throttle pressure steam without

exceeding the allowable temperature differential across the wall of the valve chest. Therefore, a period of

controlled pressurization of the chest is required, during which the inner surface heats rapidly from steam

condensation, followed by a heat soaking phase in which the overall temperature of the valve chest is

raised to a level close to the throttle steam superheat temperature. The progress of chest warming can be

observed with the Turbine Control System.

Chest warming serves the goal of avoiding excessive thermal stress in the valve chest during prewarming

and subsequent starting and loading operation. If, with experience, it is found that the warming limits are

not exceeded during starting and loading when following the chest warming instructions, it is permissible

to deviate during subsequent starts from the procedures if faster startup is desirable. The Allowable

Temperature Differences on Control Valve Casing Thermocouples, published as a separate GEK if

required.

XI. ATS ROTOR STRESS DISPLAYS

Certain rotor stress values are calculated and used by the ATS to initiate control action or display a

message, and a basic description of the method of stress calculation is advantageous to the operator in

understanding the significance of the stress displays, and the reaction which may be expected during

various operations.

The ATS displays the following values:

1. Rotor surface stress

2. Rotor bore stress

3. Shell surface temperature

4. Rotor bore temperature

These values are each calculated at the inlet to the high-pressure, reheat sections (if applicable), and at the

last stage of the RH section, or crossover, (if applicable).

Rotor temperatures are calculated at each location with a one-dimensional procedure which assumes that

the shell surface temperature, which is measured by a thermocouple, is the same as the rotor surface

temperature adjacent to it. When the surface temperature of the rotor is changed, heat is conducted into,

or away from, the center of the rotor. ATS uses a time temperature history of the surface temperature of

the shell to calculate the temperature within the rotor and the resulting thermal stresses. As seen from the

graphic representation of a Rotor Stress Cycle, Figure 2, the effects on temperature and stress of the bore

lag behind those at the surface. During actual operation, it is important to know the future effect of

current actions, and for this reason the centrifugal-plus-thermal bore stresses are displayed as predicted

values. The predicted stress would result if the current surface temperature should remain unchanged. In

most situations, the surface temperature continues to change and may be influenced to lower the resulting

bore stress if the predicted value becomes too high.

The stress convention used by ATS employs a positive value for a stress caused by heating, and a

negative value for a stress caused by cooling of the surface. Therefore, when positive stress values are too

high, ATS will initiate control action to limit the heating rate by applying a speed or load hold, or, in the

case of the high-pressure section, reducing the steam temperature ramp rate by transferring AMS towards
partial-arc.

It should be recognized that neither action can guarantee that a heating stress will be limited, since the

steam generator superheat and reheat temperatures are affected by many variables, one of which is

generator load. During initial loading, for example, the temperatures may be very time-dependent; other changes, such as bringing coal mills or gas
turbines into service, can produce temperature transients

which cannot be controlled at the turbine. Therefore, when controlling thermal stress through ATS

operation, conservatism is incorporated in the control actions such that the allowable stresses are unlikely

to be exceeded.

During cooling, the rotor stresses will usually be negative. However, its is of course possible to produce a

cooling effect at the surface by a steam temperature reduction while still having a positive bore stress as a

result of previous heating. Therefore, surface and bore stresses may be of opposite sign at any given

instant and still be valid, a trend display of the appropriate shell metal temperature should clarify the

reason if difficulty is experienced. Cooling of the turbine should never occur on a STAG unit during

normal operation, Fossil fired units may experience some downward temperature change during load

reductions below the sliding pressure temperature range. If the unit is going to be shutdown the load

should be reduce to the min load before temperature will decrease and the unit should be tripped.

The allowable stress ranges are set by the ATS computer function. As previously discussed, the bore

stress limit is a function of the calculated bore temperature. The surface stress limit is, however, a

function of the CLE setting and whether surface stresses are positive or negative. If surface stress is

positive, then the allowable surface stress is 75% of the allowable range, 25% for negative surface stress.

XII. STARTING AND LOADING RAMP RATES

The steam temperature and load ramp rates should be controlled to keep the calculated rotor stress less

than 100% of the allowable stress. The Turbine Control System will provide a recommended loading rate

which is based on the calculated stress and the differential expansion of the turbine. This loading rate

recommendation should be used to change the plant operation accordingly to keep the rotor stresses and

differential expansion within its allowables.

If the turbine is started without ATS the plant and turbine should still be controlled to keep the stresses

and differential expansion within their allowables. The Turbine Control System calculations are still

active and should be used as a guide to start the turbine.

The turbine can also be started by following the Starting and Loading Chart which is more conservative

than using the ATS start and will take significantly longer to start the turbine compared to an ATS start.

A typical cyclic life chart was shown in Figure 3. The assumptions used to produce this chart include the

same material and rotor geometric properties that are used in ATS, and the following limitations:

1. Temperature changes are between steady-state conditions. (Approximately 60 minutes constant

surface temperature will achieve steady-state within a rotor.)

2. Temperature changes are linear with time.

3. Heating and cooling are equal and opposite effects which combine to produce a cyclic life

expenditure.

4. Rotor bore limit is calculated using a temperature change ending at rated conditions.

These simplistic, yet conservative, assumptions allow the rate of temperature change, or ramp rate, to be

shown as a function of the temperature change and cyclic life expenditure.

XIII. IMPORTANCE OF STEAM TEMPERATURE MATCHING

When steam is initially admitted to the turbine, there is a higher possibility of creating excessive thermal

stress if the steam temperature is not matched to the turbine metal temperature within an acceptable

range. The Turbine Control System requires acceptable steam temperature ranges before the turbine is

allowed to start, these ranges are provided in the “Allowable Steam to Metal Temperature Mismatch”

GEK in the instruction book.

Operation outside these ranges does not automatically lead to excessive thermal stress, but it increases the

potential for the following reasons:

1. Steam temperature thermocouples are less accurate at low flow and the actual temperature shortly

after roll may be higher or lower than first indicated.

2. Heat absorption is very dependent on local surface heat transfer coefficients, which are more

variable at low flow, producing uneven temperatures, stresses, and possibly distortion in stationary

parts.

3. Speed holds for stress control may be more prolonged, increasing the possibility of high vibration

when accelerating through the critical speed ranges.

4. Differential expansion limits may be approached or exceeded.

It is usually possible to start a cold unit which has been prewarmed on turning gear with steam in the

enthalpy ranges normally experienced while firing the steam generator from cold shutdown. However,

caution must be advised with the use of the steam generator and turbine bypasses on cold starts which

may elevate steam temperatures above the recommended range.

Temperature matching of a warm or hot turbine often results in a negative (steam cooler) temperature

differential. This may stem from the inability of the steam generator to achieve matching conditions in an

economical time. If possible, sufficient time should be provided for the steam temperature to reach an

acceptable value, especially if this is a frequent operation. Boiler and turbine bypasses will generally

improve temperature matching and reduce the time required to bring steam temperature within range.

XIV. ACCELERATION AND SPEED HOLDS

Slower acceleration rates and speed holds may be called for by the ATS when heating stresses or

temperature mismatch are high. The effect is to limit the steam flow into the turbine until thermal stress is

within control. During acceleration, heat transfer to the metal is much lower than during subsequent

loading of the turbine, and changes in steam temperature or some degree of mismatch can be better

accommodated. Speed holds are also used for rotor warming and reasons other than thermal stress

control.

When the steam is cooler than the matching metal temperature, a fast acceleration rate with no speed

holds is recommended for thermal stress control, since the cooling period should be limited and the

turbine loaded until a positive stress or temperature ramp rate is achieved.

XV. LOADING RATE AND LOAD HOLDS

During loading, unloading and load changes, steam temperature may change at the inlet to the HP and

RH turbines due to the steam generator operating characteristics. Often, the temperature is a very strong

function of load, particularly during cold starts, and reducing loading rate or holding load will have a feedback effect on steam temperature. For this
reason, ATS employs a loading rate algorithm in which

rotor stress and rate of change of stress are all used to determine the loading or unloading rate. This

algorithm calculates a maximum allowable loading rate which is used to change load when ATS is
controlling. If the rotor stresses approach the allowable during load changes, the allowable loading rate

will become zero.

The operator may choose that the ATS provides guidance only and exceed the allowable loading rate if it

is felt that sufficient stress margin remains. The purpose of the maximum allowable loading rate is to

avoid exceeding these stress values.

If a reduction in loading rate, or a load hold, is insufficient to control thermal stress, then other means

should be found to reduce it. In the case of the first stage of the HP, Admission Mode Selection (AMS) if

applicable is available, the use of which is covered in the next section. When the AMS transfer range is

fully used, or the limiting stress is in the reheat section where AMS operation has a limited effect on

reheat steam temperature, alternate strategies are required:

1. The overstress situation may have arisen from an initial poor temperature match, or overriding ATS

control during rolling and initial loading.

2. If the overstress arises from a known steam generator steam temperature transient, such as bringing

on the first coal mill or another gas turbine, future startup operation should account for this and an

operator load hold applied to allow the limiting stress to decay before the mill is brought on.

Bore stress will not respond quickly to operator action. Therefore, if operating over 80% allowable

bore stress with a rising stress during a transient, consideration should be given to employing a load

runback to reduce heating rates, or even a turbine trip should the allowable stress be exceeded.

3. Certain boiler controls may be available to reduce steam temperature, such as burner tilt or internal

steam bypasses. Experience should be gained with these controls before a high-stress situation is

encountered. The allowable loading rate and turbine stress values are available as signals from the

turbine controls for automatic steam-generator control, if required.

In manual operation without ATS, more operator judgment is required to avoid exceeding the

allowable temperature ramp rates than is required with ATS. A trend display should be used to

display first-stage shell metal temperature and reheat bowl metal temperature, and the unit loaded

and unloaded conservatively. A suitable margin should be employed between the actual and

allowable ramp rate to allow for transients. A load hold of 30 minutes may be used to allow transient

effects to peak out at the rotor bore if they are severe enough to cause a short-term ramp greater than

twice the allowable ramp rate.

XVI. USING ADMISSION MODE SELECTION (IF APPLICABLE)

Some larger steam turbines have independently operated inlet control valves which can be used with

Admission Mode Selection (AMS). AMS is a turbine control feature on larger steam turbines which

allows the control valves to admit steam to the first stage of the HP turbine in either full-arc (FA) or

partial-arc (PA) mode at any load after synchronization. Full-arc admission distributes the steam flow

evenly around the first-stage nozzle arcs through all control valves, which uniformly throttle the main

steam to the desired pressure to meet the load demand. Partial-arc admission distributes steam flow to the

first-stage nozzle arcs using a sequential valve opening pattern, which maximizes efficiency at partialload

operation. As each valve is opened wide, the nozzle arc supplied by that valve reaches optimum steam flow conditions and the steam enthalpy drop
across the first stage is greater than if all valves were

opened together at the same load.

The temperature of the steam leaving the first stage may typically be displayed as a function of load and

admission mode, as shown in Figure 6 for rated steam pressure and temperature. The temperature
difference between FA and PA may be used to advantage for thermal stress control of the HP turbine by

using AMS to change steam temperature impacting the HP rotor. In variable sliding pressure operation,

an approximation for the temperature difference may be made by substituting CV position for load. If

operating with one valve closed, approximately 83% of valves wide open position, the difference

becomes small and AMS control is limited.

The main advantages of FA operation are the uniform heating of nozzle arcs during starting and loading

(recommended below 10% load) and the smaller temperature change between load points. The benefit of

PA operation is improved efficiency at reduced load under rated steam condition. At loads above about

80%, the advantages of FA are small and PA operation is recommended.

Figure 6. Load and Admission Mode for Rated Steam Pressure and Temperature (Typical)

detailed description, refer to the Turbine Control System instruction. In Automatic Mode, AMS is

controlled by control logic based upon the state of stress in the HP turbine. When heating stresses are

high, AMS is transferred towards PA to cool the rotor, and when cooling stresses are high, AMS is

transferred towards FA to heat the rotor.

The operator may select transfer to FA or PA at a 10 minute full transfer time, and may also hold the

transfer at any point. Shell metal temperature will respond to AMS transfer with a short time lag, and

experience is quickly developed.

For general purposes, the following AMS guideline recommendations may be used:

1. Start and load to 10% in FA without AMS control.

2. Use PA transfer during loading to control transients, but return to FA if possible. Initiate final PA

transfer when predicted first-stage shell metal temperature is reached.

3. If operating in variable pressure, AMS may be in PA above 80%CVposition, regardless of load.

4. Anticipate major load changes (greater than 40%) by transferring to FA beforehand.

5. Return to PA under steady load or slow load cycling operation.

6. Shutdown in FA unless deliberately cooling the HP turbine for maintenance shutdown.

XVII. ADVANTAGES OF VARIABLE (SLIDING) PRESSURE OPERATION

The thermal stress resulting from a load change is dependent on the amount and rate of the surface metal

temperature change. Variable pressure operation is one effective way that can reduce thermal stresses and

cyclic life expenditure to a minimum. This mode of operation mainly reduces thermal stresses in the HP

section and, to a lesser extent, those in the RH section.

Steam generators which are operated in a variable pressure mode tend to produce higher main and reheat

steam temperatures in the lower load range. The load range in which the steam temperature can be

controlled to rated level is, in effect, increased by employing variable pressure operation (Figure 7). The

degree of extension of the constant temperature range will vary with a particular steam generator, fuel

and other station constraints.

In addition to the effect on superheater and reheater outlet temperature, there is a significant effect on the

first-stage shell steam temperature resulting from variable pressure operation. When load is changed by

increasing or decreasing the main steam pressure, the control valve position remains unchanged and the

first-stage shell steam temperature remains virtually constant over a wide load range. Figure 7 shows this

effect for a typical 2400 psig [16547 kPa (gauge)] [168.7 kg/cm2(gauge)], 1000/1000°F (538°C) unit if

the main steam pressure is reduced from 2400 psig [16547 kPa (gauge)] [168.7 kg/cm2(gauge)] down to

600 psig [4137 kPa (gauge)] [42.2 kg/cm2(gauge)] with a constant valve position of 85%. Notice that this

procedure results in much higher first-stage shell steam (and metal) temperatures than would have been

obtained using constant pressure operation at lower loads.

Variable pressure operation can be employed to minimize thermal stresses in several ways:

A. Load Changes

When changing load from full load to some lower load above 30%, the overall first-stage temperature

change will be small, resulting in low thermal stress indications and most likely negligible cyclic life

expenditures. It is most probable that the thermal stress consideration will not be a factor in limiting

the loading or unloading rate during such changes.

B. Unloading for Overnight or Weekend Shutdowns

For this case, there are two factors involved that tend to reduce thermal stresses. Variable pressure

operation reduces the level of surface cooling stress experienced during this phase of the cycle,

thereby leaving a greater portion of the allowable total surface stress range for the following startup.
Also, the unit is kept much hotter during the unloading phase, resulting in a higher temperature

turbine at the time of restart. This will tend to shorten the startup or reduce thermal stress because the

amount of metal temperature change which the turbine components undergo is substantially lower.

C. Matching Steam to Metal Temperature at Time of Restart

As mentioned above, variable pressure operation tends to result in higher steam temperature at low

flows. This characteristic will tend to produce improved steam-to-metal temperature matching for

startup of a hot turbine.

For a start of a cold turbine, however, this effect is generally not desirable and may result in

prolonged holds at part speed and low loads.

XVIII. TURBINE BYPASS SYSTEMS

Turbine Bypass Systems (TBS) have been developed by several manufacturers to allow decoupling of the

steam-generator and turbine flow. The advantages to the steam generator include the ability to achieve

stable firing conditions and better control of steam temperature. The advantages to the turbine include

better steam temperature matching during hot and warm startup. If the TBS is sized to pass a suitable

flow, it may also provide load rejection capability without tripping the steam-generator.

A Turbine Bypass System for a reheat turbine is understood to include both high-pressure and lowpressure

bypass valves. Operation of the system directs steam flow through the reheater(s) which are

pressurized.

General Electric recommends the use of either a Reverse Flow system or a HP Evacuation system to

prevent windage overheating in the high-pressure section during operation on the intercept valves. For

turbines equipped with a reverse flow system, a Reverse Flow Valve is provided. This valve is a small

bypass valve around the cold reheat check valve which is opened at a set speed during acceleration and

closed when there is sufficient reheat turbine flow to transfer the high-pressure turbine to its normal

forward flow condition with load control on both the Control and Intercept Valves. The reverse flow

leaves the high-pressure turbine through the Reverse Flow Discharge Valve and is discharged to the

condenser. For turbines equipped with a HP evacuation system, a bypass ventilator valve is provided to

ensure that the HP section is always evacuated when operating on the intercept valves.

Startup of the turbine with TBS is usually performed through the Intercept Valves with the Main Control

Valves closed. The temperature of the steam entering the high-pressure turbine through the RFV is

designed to produce acceptable thermal stress control and the normal temperature matching calculations

made for the first-stage shell metal temperature are instead made at the reheat inlet bowl. After the

turbine has been accelerated and a small load applied, a predictive calculation of first-stage shell

temperature and rotor stress is made by ATS as a permissive for transfer to the main control valve(s) with

guidance from the Turbine Control System given for manual operation. After control of the turbine has

been transferred to the main control valve(s) load should be increased to avoid low flow conditions in the

HP section which have been shown to lead to radial rubs, the loading rate should not exceed the rotor

stress limits.

TBS permits better matching of the turbine and steam-generator for many warm and hot starts. Caution

should be exercised in the use of TBS during cold starts due to the potential for excessive temperature

differences, ramp rates and thermal stress. TBS may be used in forward flow to start cold and warm

turbines.