Infinitive

1. Forms.
To write – Simple/Indefinite Active Infinitive
To be written – Simple/Indefinite Passive Infinitive
To be writing – Continuous Active Infinitive
To have written – Perfect Active Infinitive
To have been written – Perfect Passive Infinitive
To have been writing – Perfect Continuous Active Infinitive

2. Functions.
Subject – It gets on my nerves to watch him eating. To watch him eating gets on my nerves.
Predicative – My goal was to save some money for the New Year. (to be + to-inf.)
Part of compound verbal modal predicate – She is going to write the book. She failed to see
anything sinister behind those words. (have to, be going to, be to, manage, fail, intend, want,
wish + inf.)
Part of compound verbal aspect predicate – It started to snow. He used to walk to work. (start,
begin, continue, cease, used to)
Object – The reason of his success is easy to understand. (is easy for what?) Mum told me to do
whatever I liked. (told me what?)
Part of a complex object – I’ve never seen you shine so bright.
Adverbial modifier of purpose – She made up an excuse in order to avoid trouble. (in order, so
as + to-inf.)
Adverbial modifier of result – She is clever enough to understand your plan. (enough, too + to-
inf.)
Adverbial modifier of comparison – He stared into her face as if to memorise every detail. (as
if, as though + to-inf.)
Adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances – She woke up to find she was alone in the
house. (иногда будет never, only + to-inf.)
Attribute – You’ve got plenty of books to read (concrete noun). We reserve the right to use any
his picture in our magazine (abstract noun). She has nobody to talk to (indefinite pronoun). I will
be the first to be interviewed (ordinal numerals). She was the last to come (adj. last).
Parenthesis – To tell you the truth, to cut a long story short, to put it in a nutshell, to be precise,
to be honest, to be truthful, needless to say, to sum up, to conclude, etc.
 3. Predicative Infinitive Constructions.
 The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
I need Mary to help me with cleaning. I saw him swim across the river.
The construction is used after verbs of:
– sense perception (see, hear, feel, watch, perceive, notice, observe)
I saw him cross the street.
– compulsion and let (let, make, have, get to, force to, cause to)
I’ll have the cleaner tidy it up.
– mental activity (know, believe, expect, consider, suppose, imagine, find, think)
I expect the letter to be delivered in time.
– wish, intention, likes, dislikes (like, want, wish, desire, hate, need, intend)
He wants me to become a lawyer.
– order, permission (tell, ask, order, command, forbid, allow)
The police ordered the robbers to stop.
– wait for, count (up)on, rely on, listen to, call on
I was relying on you to do the job.

 The For-To-Infinitive Construction.

Here is the mail for you to read. He spoke loud enough for me to hear.
The construction is used after:
– a personal subject + adjective of wishes and feelings (happy, anxious, eager, delighted,
willing, reluctant)
I am eager for your performance to be a success.
– impersonal it + adjective of possibility, necessity, importance and opinions (important,
impossible, necessary, essential, strange, odd, good, bad, usual, great, nice, interesting,
exciting, difficult, easy, hard)
It was difficult for her to walk.
– adj. + enough; too + adj.
The shoes are too small for me to wear.
– verb + for (ask, wait, arrange, campaign, long, plan, look, pay, hope)
I am waiting for you to start.
– nouns of necessity, possibility, importance or opinions (time, a good/bad idea, plan, need,
request, mistake, shame)
It was time for the company to develop a new market strategy.
 – indefinite, negative and quantitative pronouns (somebody, anything, nowhere, a lot,
nothing, much)
There is nothing for us to do but wait.

 The Subjective Infinitive Construction (The Complex Subject).

She is expected to win the competition. I happened to be in the café downstairs.
The construction is used after:
– verbs in the passive voice denoting sense perception (see, hear, notice)
He was seen to leave the building.
– verbs of declaring in the passive voice (say, report, announce)
The minister is reported to have spoken to the House of Lords.
– verbs of mental activity in the passive voice (know, believe, think, find, suppose)
Carrots are believed to be good for eyes.
– verbs of compulsion in the passive voice (make, force)
I was made to sign this paper.
– verbs in the active voice (happen/chance (случайно, так получилось, что), seem/appear
(кажется), turn out/prove (оказалось))
She happened to witness the crime. The contract proved to have been cancelled a month ago.
– adjectives preceded by to be (likely, unlikely, sure, certain, bound – вероятно,
наверняка, несомненно)
The agreement is certain to be signed soon.

Gerund
1. Forms.
Writing – Simple/Indefinite Active Gerund
Being written – Simple/Indefinite Passive Gerund
Having written – Perfect Active Gerund
Having been written – Perfect Passive Gerund

2. Functions.
Subject – Living without him hadn’t been difficult after the divorce. It’s been wonderful seeing
you again.
Predicative – My favourite moments on Skye were walking by the sea in glorious sunshine. I
don’t feel like talking at the moment. (be/feel like + ger.)
Part of compound verbal modal predicate – He is not capable of doing a lot now. (intend,
can’t help, be capable of + ger.)
Part of compound verbal aspect predicate – Susan stopped hesitating. He finished working.
(start, begin, continue, cease, keep on, go on, (finish только с герундием) + ger.)
Direct object – Jessica didn’t mention taking the toy on her walk.
Indirect/Prepositional object – Maria wondered about going inside.
Attribute – I need to find something for removing stains. I realized the reason of her being here.
(abstract noun (idea, thought, way, prospect, result, intention, chance) + preposition + ger.)
Adverbial modifier of time – She broke down on hearing the news. (after, before, (up)on, in, at
+ ger.)
Adverbial modifier of purpose – The chairs have back support for sitting and rising more
easily. (for + ger.)
Adverbial modifier of manner – They smiled at each other in understanding. (by, in + ger.)
Adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances – Without realising it, they were waiting for a
disaster. (without + ger.)
Adverbial modifier of condition – You can’t learn play the game without losing. (without +
ger.)
Adverbial modifier of cause/reason – I didn’t tell Granny about the crash for fear of upsetting
her. (for, for fear of + ger.)
Adverbial modifier of concession – In spite of feeling tired, I decided to go to the gym. (in spite
of, despite of + ger.)

3. Predicative Gerundial Construction.

Do you mind me/my smoking here? He objected to his children spending time with his friend.
The construction is used after:
– verbs appreciate, celebrate, detest, dislike, excuse, fancy, not forget, forgive, imagine,
involve, keep, not like, not/? mind, miss, prevent, propose, recall, recollect, remember,
resent, stop, suggest, understand, want, it’s no good/use
Please excuse my asking you about it.
– verbs with dependent prepositions (dis)approve of, be happy about, be used to, hear
of/about, insist on, think of/about, object to, there’s no point in, what’s the point of
There is no point in my staying here longer.
– noun + preposition and verbs with independent prepositions
Everything was against us starting the family.
 – after verbs appreciate, avoid, consider, delay, deny, enjoy, postpone, risk, suggest with a
possessive pronoun or a noun in the possessive case (Mary’s, my, his, her, their)
He enjoyed his wife’s cooking.

Participle
1. Forms.
Participle I.
Writing – Simple/Indefinite Active Participle
Being written – Simple/Indefinite Passive Participle
Having written – Perfect Active Participle
Having been written – Perfect Passive Participle
Participle II – V3 (written)

2. Functions.
Participle I.
Attribute in pre-position – Beth sat gloomily in front of the dying fire. (usually has no
accompanying words, part. + noun)
Attribute in post-position – The street was empty, only a donkey pulling a cart passed by.
(usually has accompanying words)
Adverbial modifier of time – I was out of place here, chugging along in a cart (пыхтя в телеге
= пока ехал в телеге). (when, whilst, while + part.)
Adverbial modifier of cause (reason) – Knowing a little about the history of this coast, I was
keen to learn more.
Adverbial modifier of manner and attendant circumstances – Charlie talked, trying not to
love.
Adverbial modifier of comparison – “I don’t bother much with cooking”, he said, as if reading
her thoughts. (as if, as though + part.)
Adverbial modifier of condition – If staying overnight far away from the residence, the Queen
tends to use the royal train. (if + part.)
Predicative – His words sounded really embarrassing. (link verbs be, seem, feel, look, remain,
become, sound + part.)
Part of a complex object – I saw my mistress walking with a man. (in the Objective Participial
Construction)
Part of a compound verbal predicate (part of a complex subject) – He was seen slipping
from his office.
Parenthesis, used as set expressions or formulas – frankly speaking, generally speaking,
judging by, properly speaking, figuratively speaking, roughly speaking, going back to, having
said that.

Participle II.
Attribute in pre-position – Tom was watching the rescued men.
Attribute in post-position – There were law books and papers piled up on the ground.
Adverbial modifier of time – When faced with the facts, all Julian could find to say was, “I’m
sorry”. (when, while, whilst + part.)
Adverbial modifier of condition – I will provide the data if required. (if, unless + part.)
Adverbial modifier of comparison – He nodded as though impressed. (as if, as though + part.)
Adverbial modifier of concession – Though tired and weary, we impulsively dived into the
cold sea. (though, although + part.)
Adverbial modifier of cause (reason) – Shocked, I closed the door.
Adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances and manner – John was standing in the
doorway, stripped to the waist.
Predicative – She didn’t sound convinced. (be, seem, feel, look, remain, become, sound + part.)
Part of a complex object – She had her hair cut yesterday.

3. Predicative Participial Construction.

 Objective Participial Construction
I could see her sleeping peacefully.
The construction is used after verbs:
– of sense perception (see, hear, feel, find, watch, notice, smell, listen to)
Participle I: When Ray saw me coming, he turned his radio off.
Participle II: I’m sure that Tom felt himself betrayed.
– denoting wish (want, wish, would like, like)
Participle II: I like the things done with plenty of time to spare.
– denoting compulsion (have, get)
Participle II: Will you have your nose pierced?
– of mental activity (think, consider, understand, know)
Participle II: From his adoring tone she knew herself forgiven.
– keep, leave, start, set, imagine
Participle I: He got up and left her sitting alone.
Participle II: Don’t forget, keep me posted.
 Subjective Participial Construction
Participle I: A large shining ball or disc was seen hovering above the park yesterday.
Participle II: The journalist was found stabbed to death in his home.

 Nominative Absolute Participial Construction

Participle I: He turned and went out, the dog following him
Participle II: The job done, he went away.

 Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction

Participle I: He turned and went out, with the dog following him.
Participle II: She sat still, with her eyes fixed on the letter.