1 + + 2 + + 3 +
A REVIEW OF THE RISE OF ‘SCANDINAVIAN
DESIGN’ TO ITS ‘GOLDEN ERA’ IN THE STATEMENTS & ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. INTRODUCTION.
AFTERMATH OF WAR.
This study was completed as part of the Architecture BSc Scandinavian design is globally recognised as organic, func-
(Hons) programme at the University of the West of England. tionalist, and humanist. The origins of this design language are
The work is my own. Where the work of others is used or drawn rooted in, amongst other things, the Nordic nation’s location
on, it is attributed to the relevant source. in Northern Europe where the cold climate and harsh land-
scape have long necessitated well-crafted objects. These na-
tions were relatively under-developed and under-industrialised
till the turn of the 20th century, particularly in comparison to
the rest of Europe and the US. As a result, the products cre-
ated in the centuries before were produced using traditional
craftsmanship, with a design that was focussed primarily on
fulfilling a function, rather than being ornamental or decorative
(Eyþórsdóttir, 2011).
METHODOLOGY.
I’d like to acknowledge my dissertation supervisor, Stacey Hahn,
who has provided me with the inspiration and encouragement The report aims to provide a compelling overview of ‘Scandina-
across my progress points develop the text to the point it has vian design’, including what it is and why it became so popular
now reached, thank you. in the decades following the end of the second world war. To
achieve this it must provide the reader with some wider con-
text of the social, cultural, and political history surrounding the
movement, from its inception in the decades before the war to
those after, as well as its place in the world today. This histori-
cal overview will lend knowledge from various trusted scholarly
CHARLIE CASTIAU JUFFKINS sources, accumulating the events, objects, and people which
18012644 helped to define the success of mid-century Nordic design,
DISSERTATON
whilst noting the ways in which conditions after the war may
ARCHITECTURE BSC (HONS)
UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST OF ENGLAND
Cover page: photograph of fishing village in western Sweden by David Altrath
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have facilitated such success. This historical content will detail
from the 1890s to present in chapters 1) ‘The origins and the
Rise’ and 2) ‘The Golden Age and the Fall’. The content will be
laid out in a cumulative format in order to narrativize the se-
quence of events described.
The text will be accompanied by a timeline graphic through-
out which will plot the historical events discussed in the dis-
sertation, in a visual format. The timeline is to act as a useful
reference point for readers to refer to when interpreting the
main body of text, making it easier to see how relevant histori-
cal moments coincide and connect with one another, such as,
for example, how the start of the war coincides with the end
of movements like the Bauhaus and De Stijl. It also enables
readers to infer the significance of some historical events, for
example, of certain exhibitions which coincide with the intro-
duction of iconic Scandinavian products to the world. Where
necessary, events and products plotted on the timeline will be
figured and catalogued in a separate document which will in-
clude further information and images of the subject. Within the
main body of text, visual cue (colour code) will be assigned
The document itself has been designed as one continuous
horizontal scroll. This format questions the practicality of or-
dinarily fragmented PDF documents, which do not serve to
convey the kind of continuity you would want when reading a
cumulative, narrative style of text. It also resembles the tradi-
tion of ancient scrolls, only combined with the contemporary,
gestural scroll of the computer mouse or trackpad - a meld of
tradition and modernity.
This text fundamentally aims to contribute to historical liter-
ature that discusses design in the 19th century, particularly,
Nordic design. By compiling historical information on the topic
into a logical reader-friendly format, it serves to illustrate how
the Scandinavian design movement was perfectly placed to
take advantage of the post-war climate and become a key
part of the ‘golden age’ of influential 20th century design.
The report aims to:
• Contribute to historical literature on the subject of ‘Scandi-
navian design’, providing insight into its origins, its ascend-
ency to global acclaim following the second world war, and
its status in the years following.
• Investigate and discuss how conditions in Europe and the
US following the war influenced the rise of Scandinavian
design.
• Suggest how the abundance of cultural, societal, and ar-
tistic movements in the first half of the 20th century in-
fluenced Scandinavian design, thereby contributing to his-
torical literature on the former.
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CONTENTS PAGE. THE ORIGINS AND THE RISE...
page..
In the mid 19th century, the crafts of the Nordic nations were
developing unique regional characteristics: Finland became
• Map of Scandinavia 2 development-in-the-nordic-countries [Accessed 03 November
known for its production of bent wood and prehistoric met-
• 2022].
• Chapter 1: The Origins and the Rise... 3-7 al ornament, Denmark for its linen embroidery, floral painting,
SCANDINAVIA.
• and cabinet-making, and Sweden for its unique built-in furni-
• Chapter 2: The Rise and The Heights... 8-12 ture and decorative wall hangings (Mitchell, 2008, pp.364). The
• element which binds the ‘Scandinavian’ nations together, al-
lowing us to see their individual artistic output as somewhat
MAP OF
• Bibliography 13-14
collective, is their shared belief in the concept of beautiful and
functional design improving quality of life. It is often referred
to as ‘democratic design’ because of its aim of making prod-
ucts which are affordable and accessible to the masses but
still beautiful (Eyþórsdóttir, 2011). Wickman (1996) believes
that this “democratic tradition” (ibid., pp.3) is the very root of
Nordic design; further, she explains that, in Sweden, debates
and associations on the matter began in the iron, glass, and
woodworking communities, in Denmark it rose from their ed-
ucational philosophies, in Norway, a yearning for freedom, and
Finland, a desire for independence. It’s also important to note
that Scandinavian class divisions have always been less de-
fined than that of other countries, with the upper and lower
classes differing less. Because of this, there was less ‘elitist’
design for the few, and more ‘democratic’ design for the many
(ibid., pp.3).
By the turn of the 20th century, whilst Europe and the US hur-
tled toward modern industrial production the Scandinavian
FIGURE 0 - Map of Scandinavia
nations managed to preserve their traditional crafts, this was
thanks to several factors. One being the fact that for centuries
prior these nations had modest economies fuelled mainly by
agricultural and craft production which, in the case of Sweden
and Denmark, did not industrialise till mid-way through the 19th
century (Fellman, 2019). This late development meant ”the val-
ues of rural i.e. agrarian culture were carried over into industrial
society” (Wickman, 1996, pp.3) and traditions of handicraft and
artisanry could be maintained, along with a high regard for the
value of native material, which they strived to develop further
(idib.). At this time, wider Europe was on its way to modern in-
dustrialisation and bore no sign of handicraft tradition which
was “unable to compete with [the] more sophisticated, urban,
and elitist idiom” ( idib., pp.3) which the machine could provide.
In contrast, Sweden took reactionary precautions against the
dawn of the machine-age, by creating the Svenska Slojdfore-
ningen (Swedish Society of Arts and Industrial Design) in 1845
which “focussed on the preservation of the native craft tra-
ditions. exhibitions, publications, and educational programs
became instrumental in the development of the modern aes-
thetic in Scandinavia” (Mitchell, 2008, pp. 364). The aim of as-
sociations like these was to improve handicraft and advance
the domestic culture through the collaboration of artists and
designers; as Jacobsen (2013a) states, they were “driven by
the idea that design should be used as a catalyst for social
change”.
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Despite the differences between Scandinavian design and
that of wider Europe, they were not immune to the influence
of the many design movements which were appearing in Eu-
ropean nations like Britain, Germany, and France toward the
end of the 19th century. One movement of particular influence
was English arts and crafts (1890-1915), headed by William
Morris. It stood against the machine-age brought about by
the industrial revolution in defence of traditional materials and
methods of manufacture (Eyþórsdóttir, 2011). Having under-
gone industrialisation late, Scandinavians were able to avoid
the “violent upheaval that industrialisation had brought about
in Great Britain” (Ryan, 2005) by heeding the warnings that
movements like the English arts and crafts vocalized. Wick-
man (1996, pp.2) argues this movement led to a recognition
of national identity in many Scandinavian nations, particular-
ly in the domestic setting, which manifested itself in products
which romanticised the Scandinavian way of life. This was true
of Norway who returned to knitted designs and Viking-era or-
namentation, Denmark who returned to the measured propor-
tions of Danish classicism, Iceland who returned to sheep wool
and peat architecture, and Sweden who rediscovered their
identity of “red cottages with white corners, delicate flowers,
little green birch trees” (ibid.) and further, the social value of the
home and the beauty of design which is simple and honest.
Examples include Carl Larsson’s watercolour series (see figure
1) of his Swedish home represent “a mixture of peasant culture
and the idyllic vision of a classic country house[...] reflection of
a rejection of industrial society that was slowly beginning to
take place” (Jacobsen, 2013a) which would become a symbol
of Swedish identity.
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By the beginning on the 20th century the world was rapidly
changing as technological advances changed the urban land-
scape and modern society began to form, influencing the way
people lived and worked. There were calls for a new design
movement to meet the needs of a new century, this call was
met by Art Nouveua (or Jugendstijl): a clear derivative of the
Arts and Crafts movement in its imitation of organic curves,
and a precursor to modernism (Mitchell, 2008,pp.366). Prod-
ucts of the Art Nouveau were typically produced using tradi-
tional craft methods of manufacture, meaning they were inher-
ently difficult to reproduce and ended us as expensive ‘one-off’
pieces. This was true of Danish metalworker Georg Jensen’s
workshop (founded in 1904) which produced objects “devoid
of extravagant ornament, his fluid contours and
planished surfaces[...] soon reached an inter-
national market” (Ryan, 2005) or of the Swedish
Rsrstrand porcelain factory’s beautifully sculpted
vase’s depicting the organic forms of native flora
and forna (see figures 2,3)(Mitchell, 2008, pp.365).
In Sweden this only reinforced their ethos of dem-
ocratic design which is accessible and affordable
to all. In fact, as Mitchell (2008, pp.367) explains,
it led the focus of Swedish arts to shift entirely to
Far above: FIGURE 1 - Larsson’s watercolour 1897
achieving the kind of democratic, humanist, and
Above: FIGURE 2 - Jensen’s Metalwork 1904
Right: FIGURE 3 - Swedish rsrtrand factory vase 1910
functionalist design of which Nordic design orig-
inates. Particularly with the publishing of Gregor
Paullson’s (director of the Swedish Design Council
1920-23) highly influential 1919 book ‘Vackrare
Vardagsvara’ (More Beautiful Things for Every-
day Use) which sought to “push the accessibility of
non-elitist objects of high quality”(ibid., pp.368). One
way of achieving this was by carefully integrating commercial
production into their commitment of traditional craft process-
es ensuring that, wherever possible, skilled artisans are used in
favour of machines. This method of production became known
as the ‘Industrial Arts’ and it allowed the Nordic nations to use
“tradition as a foundation for innovation[...] to fuse the work of
the hand with that of the machine, old with new materials,
and the twentieth century with the past.” (Ryan, 2005).
The 20s of Swedish design became known as ‘the Swedish
Gra ce’, an important time in which Scandinavian (particularly
Swed-ish) design, began to transition away from Art Nouveau
and na-tional romanticism, and toward “geometric stylization,
stream-lining, and a paring down to the essentials of line and
form” (fj Hakimian, 2021), a precursor to Swedish
functionalism. Design of this era brought Swedish design
global acclaim for the first time, particularly at the 1925 Paris
Exposition des Arts Déco-ratifs et Industriels Modernes
where they were awarde d 35 grand prix, 46 gold medals, 13
bronze medals, 13 honourable mentions (Mitchell, nodate,
pp.368). Designs such as Carl Hor-vik’s cabinet and chairs
(see figure 4) were unique in their bal-ance of form and
function, as well as their respect for Swedish craftsmanship.
At the time, German scholar and critic Armand Weiser
credited the furniture for “the surprising and convincing
relationship between function and pure design, between
sim-plicity and exquisite workmanship” (modernity, 2010).
Uniquely, the products exhibited were both expressive of a
Swedish tra-dition of skilled craftsmanship and use of
indigenous timber, whilst also remaining stylistically aligned
to the prevailing de-sign movements of the time (art deco)
through their construc-tion of simplified forms and clean
lines.
FIGURE 4 - Horvik’s cabinet & chairs
McFadden explains that Social and political changes fostered
a new awareness of social responsibility in society and a more
level society of class, particularly with the election of social
democrat governments which appeared in Denmark (1929),
Sweden (1932, Norway (1936, and Finland (1937) whose pri-
ority was “The socialisation of decorative art, ‘more beautiful
things for everyday use’ for all citizens, and good housing” (Ha-
len, 2004, pp.21). Denmark’s Poul Henningsen promoted in-
dustrial production as a solution to such social needs as it pro-
vided low-cost goods for the modern home (Fiell, 2002, pp.26).
His ‘PH’ lamp series (see figure 5), though designed for mass
production, retained traditional material and organic form –
something wider Europe’s modernists failed to achieve (Fiell,
2014, pp.243). An increasingly urbanized society also provided
opportunity for Scandinavians to design furnishings that were
fitting for smaller urban dwellings, “Designers abandoned fur-
niture ‘suites ‘and evolved innovative concepts – sofa beds,
stacking chairs, and multipurpose stackable dining untencils”
7 +
(McFadden, 1982, pp.101. The award-winning designs of Al-
var Aalto’s stackable stools or Kay Bojesen’s minimalist cutlery
(see figures 6,7) represent this aspiration to create practical
and simple products for the home, reduced to their most es-
sential-to-function form.
Above: FIGURE 5 - Henningsen’s PH lamp 1930
Above right: FIGURE 6 - Bojesen’s cutlery 1932
Right: FIGURE 7 - Aalto’s stacking stools 1930-33
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There were great advances in industry at the time,
meaning the scope of what was possible for the ma-
chine to produce was significantly widened. Bauhaus
(modernist) designers utilised these new capabilities
to explore the potential of bent tu-
bular steel in furniture production.
They did so in-line with the mod-
ernist ideology of ‘functionalism’
“in which design technology and
social customs were guided by
the principles of fitness for pur-
pose[...] exploitation of new ma-
terials and technology were key
to the development” (McFadden,
1982 pp.108). Modernists were
also considered radicals in their
disregard for historical forms, in fa-
vour of those which derive from the
machine (see figure 8). This served
to sharpen the contrast between
“modern and old-fashioned, indus-
trialization and the crafts” (McFad-
den, 1982, pp.107). This revolution
in design thinking inspired a gener-
ation of Scandinavian (particularly
Swedish) designers. The influence
was clear at the Stockholm exhibi-
tion of 1930, which Bullock (2000,
pp. 237) explains was “one of the mythic sites of Mod-
ernism” thanks in part to Gregor Paulson’s (director of
Svenska Slojdforeningen) determination to integrate
industry and arts, as well as Gunnar Asplund’s (exhi-
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bition designer) vision of a modernist Sweden. On exhibition
were affordable, well-crafted day-to-day domestic products
guided by functionalism (like Kage’s easy cleaning and stack-
able tableware (see figure 9)), as well as finished dwellings in
the functionalist architectur-
al style - attracting 4 million
people during the summer
of 1930s (ibid.). Ibid. quotes
critic Morton Shand who
wrote of the exhibition at
the time, “[Sweden] let the
old Viking urge for discovery
lead her forth to exploration
of the unchartered currents
of Modernist maelstrom”.
Above: FIGURE 8 - Breuer’s modernist Wassily chair 1925
Below: FIGURE 9 - Kage’s stackable tableware 1933
The most successful Scandinavian
designs of this decade effectively bal-
anced industrial innovation and moder-
nity with tradition. The work of Finnish
Alvar Aalto is exemplary, “his holistic
and humancentric approach to design,
which rejected the hard-edged machine
aesthetic of the Bauhaus[...][incorporated] organic forms and
natural materials into his revolutionary yet highly practical furni-
ture”. Aalto formed a close collaboration with master joiner fur-
niture maker Otto Korhonen; together they developed meth-
ods of laminating and bending wood into new forms which
“emulate the modernist bent steel furniture they both admired”
(Ashby, 2017, pp.159) only using birch ply – a material which is
abundant in Finland, “the balance struck between modern de-
sign and traditional materials” (ibid.). When compared to mod-
ernist Bauhaus architect, Marcel Breuer’s furniture at the time
(see figures 10,11) there are similarities in their lack of ornamen-
tation, continuous structural frame, and planar surfaces. Where
they differs is in Aalto’s use of organic
over geometric form along with his use
of native Finnish timber over polished
steel. This contributes to an aesthetic
which is characteristically Scandinavi-
an in its connection to the natural world
as opposed to the machine.
Left: FIGURE 10 - Breuer’s B33 chair 1928
Below: FIGURE 11 - Aalto’s Model.no 31 chair 1931
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Left & Right: FIGURES 12,13 - Aalto’s MoMA exhibition 1938
Aalto’s work caught the attention of museum of modern art
(MoMA), New York, director Edgar Kaufmann, a highly influential
proponent of Scandinavian design who would introduce it to
western audiences in the decades to come. Kaufmann organ-
ised the MoMA’s 1938 ‘Alvar Aalto: Architecture and Furniture’
which focussed solely on Aalto’s work, exhibiting FIGURE 14 - Aalto’s Piamio chair in sanatorium
his breakthrough bent-ply furnishings and other
domestic products (see figures 12,13). As an ar-
chitect and designer, Aalto embodied a concept
of complete design; his furniture and building
designs often encompassed one vision, ground-
ed in a profound humanism. During the 20s and
30s the spread of the contagious tuberculosis
disease necessitated designs promoting sani-
tation and hygiene. Aalto accomplished this in
his complete design of the Paimio sanatorium
building with its abundance of natural light and
fresh air, and accompanying Paimio chair (see
figures 14,15) which, “While comfortable, forc-
es the sitter to sit upright, thereby improving
breathing” (Englund, Schmidt, 2003, pp.18)
Another success of the region in the late 30s
was Kaare Klint. Often considered the father
of Danish modern, his work (see figure 16) em-
bodied the fine craftsmanship and attention to
detail that was characteristic of traditional Dan-
ish craft (Fiell, 2014, pp.352). Unopposed to the
functionalist ideals of European modernism,
Klint also undertook pioneering research into
anthropometrics (see figure 17) – the in-depth
studies of human proportion and dimension
– in order to produce furniture which could re-
spond more effectively to its user (ibid.). As an
influential theorist, Klint also stressed the im-
portance of studying the details of traditional
designs, inspiring a generation of Danes to pro-
duce modern designs inspired by classics (ibid.)
FIGURE 15 - Aalto’s Piamio chair in sanatorium
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FIGURE 16 - Klint’s Safari chair 1934
FIGURE 17 - Klint’s anthropometric sketches
THE RISE AND THE HEIGHTS...
In order to understand why Scandinavian designs found so
much success in the aftermath of war, the text must now out-
line the political, economic, and cultural climate of America and
Europe following the war. This will allow the reader to infer how
and why these products were met with such positive recep-
tion.
In 1939, Great Britain and France declared war on Germa-
ny, marking the beginning of a devastating 7-year world war,
unmatched till present day in its duration and the scale of its
death and destruction. Europe, once the centre of modern
design was now in disarray, with key cities like Paris, London,
Rome, and Berlin in ruins from artillery bombardment, and their
respective economies stripped bare the relentless years of
military spending. During wartime many of Europe’s modern-
ist movements were forced to end short with its leaders and
many other talented designers fleeing the continent as the
Nazis conquered its mainland.
With the exception of Finland, the most militarily involved Nor-
dic nation having battled the Soviets twice and the Germans
once, the damage to Scandinavia was comparatively less than
that of wider Europe’s (McFadden, 1982, pp.131). Norway and
Denmark were captured by the Germans early on; in Norway,
a reassessment of national character led designers to return
to traditional craft whilst in Denmark they continued to devel-
op, with new designers like Arne Jacobsen and Hans Wag-
+ +
ner building on the momentum of Klint and Henningsen (idib.,
pp.133). Sweden was neutral throughout the war, meaning the
influences of social democracy and modernism’s functional-
ism still flourished (ibid.). As neutral territory, it also became
a safe haven for architects and designers from the rest of
Scandinavia who were then exposed to such ideas, “The true
impetus, then, was the closeness of a group of Scandinavi-
an designers and architects, all with their roots in international
modern.”(Mitchell, 1996, pp.4). Despite their involvement, Fin-
land still managed to organise exhibitions during wartime and
(as detailed later in the text), with emerging talents like Tapio
Wirkkala, made huge contributions at the Triennale exhibition
of 51’, receiving more awards than any other Scandinavian na-
tion (McFadden, 1982, pp.133).
Despite its large military presence in the allied forces, the US
was able to avoid the aerial bombardment that Europe had
suffered thanks to its distance from the enemy. Following the
war, great cultural change was brought about in the US due
to a number of factors which began with the gradual demo-
bilization of their army following the allied victory. Returning
troops sparked a drastic increase in population which, parred
with the subsequent increase in child birth (the ‘baby boom’)
that followed, lead the American housing market to produce
an unprecedented amount of homes. A lack of space in urban
centres meant housing demand was often met in suburban
communities. This unprecedented new-house construction
commoditised the “home” for more Americans than ever to
purchase, thereby “stimulating demand for related commod-
ities such as cars, appliances, and furnishings” (Cohen, 2004,
pp.237). This fed into America’s mass-consumption strate-
gy of economic recover following the war, in which govern-
ment and business pushed “a prosperity- producing cycle
of expanded consumer demand fueling greater production,
thereby creating more well-paying jobs and in turn more af-
fluent consumers capable of stoking the economy with their
purchases” (ibid., pp.236). The demands on productivity were
met by the now-advance capabilities that mass-wartime-pro-
duction brought which enabled the American economy to re-
bound from war. This condition was important to the success
of Scandinavian design in post-war America; the culture of
mass-consumption and growth of the home furnishings in-
dustry in the US made the modern domestic designs of Scan-
dinavia particularly well suited to the American market.
At this point it is important to distinguish ‘European modern-
ism’ or ‘modernism’ from ‘Scandinavian modern’ in this text.
The former refers to the movement pioneered by the likes of
Corbusier and Gropius and originating outside of Scandinavia.
The latter refers to the less radical, characteristically Scandi-
navian evolution of modernism which embraces functionalist
ideals alongside traditional Nordic ideals.
With the fallout of Bauhaus, De Stijl, and Constructivism in
the follow-up to war, the International style was one of few
pure derivatives of early modernism which remained by 1945.
Americans did not take to this style. They found its aesthet-
ic cold, inhuman, unappealing in the aftermath of war. By this
time, Scandinavia’s unique breed of modernism had developed,
11
“less severe and dogmatic than that of the 1930s[…] corners
and flat planes softened into S-like curves and waves. Often
described as ‘organic’[…] more human, more sensitive” (Mc-
Fadden, pp.148) though still retaining functionalist traits of
simplicity, unornamental form, visibility of material and con-
struction. When combined with native material, craft, sensibil-
ities, a unique meld between tradition and modern aesthetic
was struck (ibid., pp.145). This condition was present in the
work of Hans Wegner (see figures 18-20)- one of the great
Danish designers – whose Round chair and Y-chair became
timeless, supremely beautiful “modern reworking of tradition-
al furniture types that expressed both material and structural
honesty” (Fiell, 2014, pp.650).
Left to right:
FIGURE 18 - Wegner’s Y-chair 1950
FIGURE 19 - Wegner’s round chair 1949
FIGURE 20 - Photograph of former president JF Kennedy sat in
Wegner’s round chair 1960
Juhl also found instant success in America following his in-
troduction in 1948 by Edgar Kaufmann who described him as
“the fruit of a long Danish tradition of Cabinetry” (Halen, 2004,
pp.60). His work departed from the modern reworkings of Klint
and Wegner (see ), signalling a Danish direction toward “more
sculptural and abstracted organic forms” (Fiell, 2014, pp.326).
In 1950 he was commissioned to design a line of Danish mod-
ern furniture for the American furniture company Baker (see
figures 21,22), intended to specifically appeal to a younger
American market (Charney, 2013). In 1951 he found further
success when asked to design the 5,300 sq. ft pavilion for Mo-
MA’s Good Design Exhibition. International exhibitions like this
aimed to display the latest and greatest in the design world,
thus Scandinavia’s large presence at such events gave them
unprecedented exposure and success in the 50s.
Scandinavian products also found success in Britain following
the war, which would become one of its largest mid-century
markets (Davies in Halen, 2004, pp.104). Davies (1996, pp.42)
explains this was due to the weakness of Britain’s own indus-
try which was tightly constricted by the government’s
‘utility scheme’ – aimed at reducing furniture produc-
tion to essential utility furniture in order to preserve
material resources for war. It also reduced production
permits by 90%, forcing
skilled craftsmen “to work
in other industries that
contributed more directly
to the war effort such as
aircraft manufacture” (idib.)
making it an inviting pros-
pect for importers. Pivot-
+ +
al to the success of this market was the import firm ‘Finmar
Ltd’. In the immediate postwar years it was restricted to im-
porting inexpensive, factory-made Danish goods like Borge
Morgensen’s J52 chair (see figure 23) which he designed as a
Below right, clockwise:
FIGURE 25 - Finmar ltd. advert for Arne Jacobsen’s
seating and cutlery 1950s
FIGURE 24 - Finmar ltd. advert for Fritz Hansen
modern refinement of the classic English Windsor chair, under furniture company goods 1950s
FIGURE 23 - Morgensen’s J52 chair
his mentor Kaare Klint’s guidance (ibid.;Fiell, 2014, pp.454). By
1952 the British economy was above water meaning wartime
restrictions were lessened and a wider variety of Scandinavian
goods – the sort which became iconic in the golden era ahead
- were available for import (see figures 24,25) (Davies, 1996,
pp.50).
Top to bottom:
FIGURE 21 - Juhl’s Baker sofa 1950
FIGURE 22 - Juhl’s watercolour of 48 chair for Baker
furniture 1950
In America, prominent taste-maker of mid-century design and
editor of House Beautiful magazine, Elizabeth Gordon, played
an important role in introducing this region of design to mid-
dle America who, Halen states ”had never been comfortable
with the more radical directions of modernism in their homes”
(2004, pp.61). Halen (2004, pp.61-63) explains that Gordon was
driven, in part, by her opposition to modernism’s internation-
al style, the dominant movement pre-war. In essays like ‘The
Next Threat to America’ Gordon (1953) pitches modernism
as a threat to American freedom, describing its leaders as
“dictators in matters of taste” and the movement as “a threat
12 + +
of cultural dictatorship[...] the reign of error” (ibid., pp.26-51).
Threatening western freedom was particularly provocative at
that time, given i) the
post-war ‘red scare’ in
America (see figure 26):
a preoccupation with
the perception that
communists were “in-
filtrating or subverting
American society and
the federal government”
(Red Scare, 2023) and ii)
America’s fresh mem-
ory of Fascism and Na- FIGURE 26: American anti-communist poster 1950s
zism. In summary, Gordon “contended that the international
style was linked to totalitarianism[...] [and] Scandinavian mod-
ern – to the democratic lifestyle that Americans were striving
to serve” (Halen, 2004, pp.62). Gordon presented the human-
ism and democracy of Scandinavian modern as symbolic of
the freedom of the new post-war order; an antidote to the
constrained idiom of European modernism – of the past. It is
important to consider how such sentiment would have played
on western society.
In Monica Penick’s biography of Gordon, ‘Tastemarker: Eliza-
beth Gordon’, she suggests that there may be other under-
lying motivations driving Gordon’s contempt for modernists.
O’Neill (2019) quotes Penick, “Being ‘inextricably tied to the
consumption-centric business of American design’, the biog-
rapher writes, ‘the International Style’s minimalism and its lack
of storage for household goods was actually a ‘threat’ to her
own industry and livelihood.’. In contrast, O’Neill states there is
no disputing Gordon’s influence, noting her “indefatigable pur-
suit of good American architecture”.
Of all the Scandinavian nations, it was Finland who found uni-
versal admiration at Italy’s Milan Triennale exhibition of 51’.
Tapio Wirkkala, an astonishingly versatile designer who worked
across disciplines of glassware, ceramics, furniture, metalware,
and more exhibited some of his most seminal works here in
1951 (see figures 26,27)(Halen, 2004, pp.33), including his Kan-
tarelli vase, “the forms of which were inspired by chanterelle
mushrooms, [and] captured the fluid organic abstraction that
came to exemplify post-war Scandinavian design” (Fiell, 2002,
pp.664), as well as his Laminated birch platter demonstrating a
“mastery of expressive abstracted form” (ibid.). Elizabeth Gor-
don celebrated the platter as “The most beautiful object of the
year”, ”The best of the best” (Halen, 2004, pp.68). Wirkkala’s
designs during the 1951 and 54’ Triennale’s were awarded 6
Grand Prix awards, he also
Below: FIGURE 27 - Wirkkala’s Kantarelli vase 1951
Right: FIGURE 28 - Wirkkala’s Birch platter 1951
picked up the annual Lunning
prize in 1951 (awarded to 2
Nordic designers a year from
51’-70’) (ibid.) Other early suc-
cesses of the 50s included
13
Danish Arne FIGURE 29 - Jacobsen’s series 7 chair 1955
Jacobsen’s simplistic
Ant and Series 7 chairs
(see figure 29) compris-
ing a single-form mould-
ed seat with steel legs.
Designed for mass pro-
duction, it remains one
of the most commer-
cially successful prod-
uct ever produced (Fiell,
2014, pp.302). Like Aal-
to, Jacobsen was an architect-designer who often designed
every detail of his building’s interior. In the late 50s this would
birth some of his most iconic designs.
Post-war exhibitions were often about more than just de-
sign achievements; for host nation Italy, the Triennale’s
were an opportunity to celebrate their own achievements
and signify their progressive cultural and political direction
since the end of the war, which “emphasised a new and
democratic way of life. Fascism was to be relegated to his-
tory. A new Italy would emerge” (Halen, 2004, pp.33). This
was also true of travelling nations. As Ashby (2017, PP.187)
explains, post-war exhibitions could be considered a form
of cultural diplomacy, “The exchange of art and culture was
part of the process of negotiating and influencing alliances
between nations in the aftermath of the war” (ibid.) - some-
thing of particular importance to Finland which had fought
off multiple invasions from the USSR during war, and was
still “Barred by treaties with and pressure from the Soviet
+ +
Union against almost any kind of group action with Western
democracies[.] Finland is publicising her arts and craft to re-
mind the world – indirectly – that she is still culturally and ideo-
logically tied to the west” (Halen, 2004, pp.69).
Victory at the 51’ Triennale’s propelled Scandinavian design
onto the world stage. As a result, there was greater unity
amongst the nations at the following Triennale in 1954, where
the collective opted to be introduced as a united ‘Scandina-
via’ rather than individuals (Ashby, 2017, pp.85), reflecting
pan-Scandinavian cooperation post-war. Halen (2004, pp.8-
9) argues this also reflects a recognition of external percep-
tions of Scandinavia, consisting of idealised visions of culture
and design from the region that often disregard the nuances
of each nation’s craft in favour of the overarching concept of
‘Scandinavianism’. Internally, organisations from across the
region recognised this external bias and pushed the ‘Scan-
dinavian design’ brand through a coordinated PR campaign
(Halen, 2004, pp.8). After conferences in Copenhagen (1946),
Oslo (1948), Stockholm (1950), and Helsinki (1954) “A general
consensus emerged[…] Nordic countries could be perceived
as an entity when it came to design issues[...] to strengthen
the development of a Nordic design language” (Halen, 2004,
pp.8-9).
This was taken further in the Design in Scandinavia (DiS) tour
1954-57, which travelled 24 American and Canadian cities
over three years, and was initiated by Elizabeth Gordon. Guld-
berg describes the tour as a cultural event attracting national
media coverage, with radio and TV broadcasts dedicated to
Scandinavian music, film, and literature as well as design (Guld-
berg, 2011, pp.43). This exhibition is widely regarded as the most
important in solidifying Scandinavian design’s place in American cul-
ture. Guldberg (2011) unpicks the concept of ‘Scandinavian design’
in relation to the DiS tour. The exhibition catalogue, written by
Gotthard Johansson (president of Svenska Slojdforeningen) is
a good example of how projections of a unified ‘Scandinavi-
an design’ were problematic. Guldberg describes Johansson’s
anxiety in attempting to appeal to American readers. In order
to legitimise the concept of a unified Nordic design, the author
construes the true reality of Nordic values and history, failing
to describe “demographic and cultural differences[…] seg-
regation within the product cultures[…] centuries of warfare
and territorial confrontations” (pp.49) in favour of what Guld-
berg describes as the mythical conceptions of Scandinavian
design: ‘democratic’, ’egalitarian’, ’rooted in tradition’ (pp.48).
Further, he highlights that the few critiques of actual artifacts
which occurred at the time (as opposed to the event), would
conflate the product with America’s idealised view of the peo-
ple. He quotes Edgar Kaufmann’s appraisal of a product “clean,
well-finished, unobtrusive[…] ingenious, sensible” (pp.41) as
actually being more descriptive of human traits, pointing again
to the fact that the ‘Scandinavian design’ concept was con-
structed “as an American projection of desirable social and
psychological characteristics” (pp.42).
Falino (2021) argues that such nostalgic reactions to Scandi-
navian culture can be traced back in time “to the preferences
of white Americans for the fair skin, hair and Protestant religion
of Scandinavians[…] Anglo Americans who feared foreign im-
migrants[…] welcomed Scandinavians as extended kinfolk”
(pp.294). According to Leary (2016, pp.304) “The war changed
America’s position on the global stage and its racial politics.
Awareness of Nazi racial and eugenics programs quelled
14
Americans’ fervour”, or rather, redirected it. Leary states that
American race theories were then less explicitly about Scan-
dinavian people “as the postwar [put] emphasis on form and
material[…] [a] turn to object-based language”(ibid.), although
American critics and curators still “adopted the language of
blondness, craft, democracy, and tradition in the postwar peri-
od, extending the legacy of transatlantic, and especially Amer-
ican, racism”(ibid.). This coincides with Guldberg’s (2011) argu-
ments on American conflations of nation and region, people
and product.
CONCLUSION.
In conclusion, the text has revealed a great deal about the jour-
ney of the Scandinavian nations from their agricultural roots
to their industrious present. The text has made sure to mirror
the analysis of the supplying (Scandinavian) nation with that
of the consuming (mostly American) nation. By understand-
ing the complex cultural, political, and economic state of the
consumer nation following the exceptional circumstances of
the Second World War, one can infer why Scandinavian design
was met with such positive reception by many, why it was ide-
ally placed to succeed. The in-depth studies to support this
enable the reader to understand the movement’s significance
beyond reductive notions of it as just ‘democratic’ and ‘organic’
and therefore bound for success.
The influence of the war in creating ideal conditions for Scan-
dinavia’s catapulting fame can not be overstated: a democrat-
ic optimism amongst Americans, a reinvigorated consumer
economy and emerging suburban populations in search of a
furniture market, modernism’s fallout in light of its perceived
‘totalitarianism’, a history of underlying racial stereotypes and
much more were all conditions which, whether directly or not,
were influenced heavily by the fact of the war’s occurrence. At
times, America’s nostalgic enthusiasm caused a lack of criti-
cal judgement and the blind promotion of the stereotypes and
concepts attributed to ‘Scandinavian design’. That is not to
take away from the brilliance of the era’s designers, rather, it is
to recognise the tendency of western society to mythologise
the region as a whole.
The admirable values of well-crafted objects of natural beauty
and practical purpose were engrained in generations of skilled
craftsmen long before the war. They were retained and eventu-
ally modernised over time by the oldest design organizations
in the world. Never have these values resonated more than in
the aftermath of one of humanity’s darkest conflicts, reflecting
the transcendent ability of well made objects to reconnect us
with human values and morals.
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IMAGES.
• COVER PAGE: Alrath, D.A. (2021) The Kyrkesund Series. Available from
https://www.behance.net/gallery/133547389/KYRKESUND
• FIGURE 0: JUFFKINS, C.C.J. (2023) Map of Scandinavia [graphic].
• FIGURE 1: WikiArt (2012) The Kitchen. Available from: https://www.
wikiart.org/en/carl-larsson/the-kitchen
• FIGURE 2: The Peartree Collection (no date) Opal and silver dragonfly
buckle/brooch. Available from: https://www.thepeartreecollection.com
product/an-exceptional-early-georg-jensen-opal-and-silver-dragonfl
buckle-brooch/
• FIGURE 3: TheMet (no date) Vase. Available from: https://www.
metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/208194
• FIGURE 4: Modernity (2010) Carl Horvik, Cabinet and Chairs. Available
from: https://www.modernity.se/news/this-happened/
• FIGURE 5: Pamono (2010) Ph 3/2 Table lamp. Available from: https://
www.pamono.co.uk/red-anniversary-ph-3-2-table-lamp-with-light-
patina-by-poul-henningsen-for-louis-poulsen
• FIGURE 6: Kay Bojesen (no date) Grand Prix cutlery set. Available from
https://kaybojesen.com/shop/grand-prix-cutlery/polished-steel/24-
pieces-set-in-polished-steel/
• FIGURE 7: 1934 (no date) 4X Stool ro, Alvar Aalto, Artek, Finland, 1940
1950s. Available from: http://abelsloane1934.com/products/4x-stool-
60-alvar-aalto-artek-finland-1940-1950s/
• FIGURE 8: Ray, D.R. (2022) Marcel Breuer’s Wassily Chair. Available
from: https://www.iconeye.com/architecture/a-brief-history-of-marce
breuers-wassily-chair
• FIGURE 9: V&A (2006) Set of Stacking Dishes and Lid. Available from:
https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O121149/praktika-set-of-stacking-
kage-wilhelm/praktika-set-of-stacking-kåge-wilhelm/