Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Science and Technology,

an International Journal
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jestch

Review

Synthesis and characterization of hybrid nanofluids and their usage in

different heat exchangers for an improved heat transfer rates: A critical
review
L. Syam Sundar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University, 31952 Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The heat exchangers are commonly used in thermal power companies, chemical factories, petroleum
Received 1 January 2023 industries, and etc for the purpose of exchange heat from one fluid to another fluid. Wide varieties of heat
Revised 29 April 2023 exchangers are available and those are working with single phase fluids and they offer less thermal effi-
Accepted 14 June 2023
ciency. The miniaturization of heat exchangers and its energy efficiency improvements has become an
Available online 30 June 2023
attractive point for the researchers. Improvement of energy efficiency of heat exchangers is possible by
replacing the working fluid with high thermal conductivity fluids called as nanofluids. The nanofluids
Keywords:
are recently developed fluids that promises, pronouncedly, greater heat absorbing and heat transport
Hybrid nanofluids
Heat exchangers
ability. Apart from that, the hybrid nanofluids are defined as the dilution of hybrid nanoparticles into
Heat transfer the base fluids, which gives a synergistic properties compared to mono nanofluids as well as the base flu-
Improvement ids. The hybrid nanofluids flow in heat exchangers may give higher energy efficiency because of the syn-
ergistic thermophysical properties. This review article attempts to discuss the available literature on the
utilization of hybrid nanofluids in a wide variety of heat exchangers. First section of this paper will dis-
cuss about the availability of various hybrid nanoparticles synthesis techniques and followed by hybrid
nanofluids production, stability and thermo-physical properties. The second section of this paper will dis-
cuss about the utilization of hybrid nanofluids in a different heat exchangers. The review is also inspects
the use of hybrid nanofluids in a heat exchangers based on the experimental and numerical studies. A
review of previously suggested research works for the use of hybrid nanofluids and also discussed its
overall performance.
Ó 2023 Karabuk University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Synthesis of hybrid nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1. Physical synthesis method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1. Atom beam sputtering method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.2. Laser-induced heating process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.3. Ion implantation method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2. Chemical synthesis method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.1. Sol-gel method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.2. Sonochemical synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.3. Chemical reduction method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.4. Photochemical method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.5. Hydrothermal and thermal decomposition processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.6. Co-precipitation method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.7. Seed-mediated growth method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3. Characterization of hybrid nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4. Hybrid nanofluids production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

E-mail address: sslingala@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2023.101468
2215-0986/Ó 2023 Karabuk University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
L. Syam Sundar Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468

Nomenclature

Cp Specific heat, J/kg K v Volume, m3

Dp Particle diameter, nm
hnf Heat transfer coefficient of mono nanofluids, W/m2 K Greek symbols
hhnf Heat transfer coefficient of hybrid nanofluids, W/m2 K / Particle volume concentration, %
knf Thermal conductivity of mono nanofluids, W/m K DT Change in temperature
khnf Thermal conductivity of hybrid nanofluids, W/m K qp Density of the particle, kg/m3
m Mass, Kg qo Density of the base fluid, kg/m3
Nu Nusselt number qhnf Density of hybrid nanofluids, kg/m3
Q Neat energy, W x Angular velocity, rad/s
Rep Reynolds number of the particle lbf Viscosity of base fluid, mPas
Re Reynolds number lnf Viscosity of mono nanofluids, mPas
X distance between rotation and tube centrifuge lhnf Viscosity of hybrid nanofluids, mPas
Vt Settling velocity, m/s

4.1. Single-step method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4.2. Two-step method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5. Hybrid nanofluids stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.1. Sedimentation and centrifugation method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2. Zeta potential analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.3. Spectral analysis method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.4. 3-x method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.5. Electron microscopy and light scattering methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.6. Methods to increase the stability of hybrid nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.6.1. Use of surfactant or pH method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.6.2. Stability mechanisms of nanofluids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6. Thermal properties of hybrid nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.1. Density of hybrid nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.2. Specific heat of hybrid nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.3. Thermal conductivity of hybrid nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.4. Viscosity of hybrid nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7. Heat exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.1. Plate heat exchangers (PHE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.1.1. Experimental study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.1.2. Numerical studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.2. Double pipe heat exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.2.1. Numerical studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7.3. Shell and tube heat exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
7.3.1. Numerical studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7.4. Shell and helical coil heat exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7.4.1. Numerical studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
8. Hybrid nanofluids challenge on performance of the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9. Advatanges and disadvantages of the hybrid nanofluids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9.1. Advantages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9.2. Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
10. Selection of hybrid nanoparticles and base fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
11. Current status, challenges and the future direction of technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
12. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

1. Introduction transfer takes place due to the temperature difference without

The heat exchangers are commonly considered in various ther-
mal applications/processes, including oil and gas (petroleum) com-
panies, petro-chemical companies, thermal power sectors and etc,
where the heat (temperature) transfer takes place from hot fluid to
the cold fluid. There are wide varieties of heat exchangers (HE),
such as double pipe heat exchangers (DPHE), shell- tube heat
exchangers (STHE), shell-helical coil heat exchangers (SHCHE),
plate heat exchangers (PHE) micro/mini channel based heat
exchangers (MCHE) and etc. In these heat exchangers the heat
use of any external energy. Mostly the heat exchangers are direct
contact type, and indirect contact type.
The effectiveness and heat transfer coefficient improvement of
single-phase fluids (water or air) using in different heat exchanger
is necessary, but with the use of these fluids, it is difficult to
achieve the higher efficiencies. By replacing the working fluid with
higher thermal conductivity fluids a larger effectiveness has been
achieved. Nanofluids offer larger thermal conductivity values over
the base fluid. Choi [1] invented nanofluids and found higher ther-
mal conductivity values. Moreover, Sundar et al. [2] for ethylene

2
L. Syam Sundar
glycol and water (EG/W) mixture based Al2O3 and CuO nanofluids,
Liu et al. [3] for water based Cu nanofluid, Mintsa et al. [4] for
Al2O3/water (29 nm), and CuO/water (47 nm) nanofluids, Esfe
et al. [5] for water based 5 nm size Al2O3 nanofluid, and Sundar
et al. [6] for Fe3O4/water nanofluid have also obtained the higher
thermal conductivity values than their own base fluid. Apart from
that, there are 1-dimensional and 2-dimensional nanomaterials for
the development of nanofluids and used them for the thermophys-
ical properties evaluations. Liu et al. [7] found thermal conductivity
increase of 12.4% and 30% for 1 vol% of CNT-ethylene glycol nano-
fluid and 2 vol% of CNT-synthetic engine oil nanofluid. Zadkhast
et al. [8] prepared water based MWCNT-CuO hybrid nanofluids
and measured the thermal conductivity by using KD 2 pro instru-
ment and they observed thermal conductivity enhancement of
30.38% at T = 50 °C and u = 0.6%. Phuoc et al. [9] measured the ther-
mal conductivity of MWCNT/cationic chitosan nanofluid and
observed thermal conductivity enhancement from 2.3% to 13%
for 0.24% to 1.43% vol. loadings. Farbod et al. [10] analyzed the sta-
bility and thermal conductivity of water based CNT nanofluids and
observed upto 80 days, the nanofluids are stable and also observed
the thermal conductivity is larger compared to water. Ahammed
et al. [11] noticed thermal conductivity augment of 37.2% at
0.15% vol. of graphene/water nanofluid at a temperature of 50 °C.
Rodríguez-Laguna et al. [12] observed thermal conductivity and
specific heat increase of 48% and 18% for graphene based N,N-
dimethylacetamide (DMAc) and N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF)
nanofluids. Ali [13] measured thermal conductivity and viscosity
of graphene/water nanofluids and observed thermal conductivity
enhancement of 125.72% and specific heat reduction of 28.12%
for the graphene/water nanofluids, compared to water.
Use of various nanofluids in different heat exchangers is given
below. Due to its compact size, simplicity in manufacture, and high
usage in commercial and industrial applications, the double pipe
heat exchanger (DPHE) is one of the most popular types of heat
exchanger. In a twin pipe heat exchanger, Sarafraz and Hormozi
[14] observed heat transfer improvement of 67% at 1.0% volume
concentration of nanofluid flow employing produced silver
nanoparticles and silver nitrate in 50:50% ethylene glycol/water.
Using Cu/water nanofluids, El-Maghlany et al. [15] reported an
increase in the efficiency and number of transfer units (NTU) of
the double pipe heat exchanger. With an Al2O3/water nanofluid
flow concentration of 3% volume, Khedkar et al. [16] observed an
overall heat transfer enhancement of 16% in a concentric tube heat
exchanger. For 0.02% volume concentration of a 40:60% ethylene
glycol and water mixture-based TiO2 nanofluid flow in a double
pipe heat exchanger at a Reynolds number of 15,000, Reddy and
Rao [17] reported heat transfer and friction factor enhancement
of 10.73% and 8.73%. In double pipe and plate heat exchangers,
Zamzamian et al. [18] studied the flow of Al2O3/ethylene glycol
and CuO/ethylene glycol nanofluids and found that the heat trans-
fer enhancements were 26% for Al2O3 at 1.0% weight concentration
and 37% for CuO at 1.0% weight concentration. For plate heat
exchangers, the enhancements were 38% and 49%, respectively.
In a double pipe heat exchanger (DPHE) with particle concen-
trations ranging from 0.005% to 0.02% and particle sizes of 60, 50,
40, and 20 nm, Hemmat Esfe and Saedodin [19] calculated convec-
tive heat transfer of MgO/water nanofluid flow and reported
increased heat transfer rates. In a double pipe heat exchanger,
Darzi et al. [20] calculated the heat transfer and pressure drop of
an Al2O3/water nanofluid flow at various working fluid tempera-
tures and observed improved heat transfer with reduced friction.
The heat transfer of TiO2/water nanofluids flow in a double pipe
heat exchanger was examined by Arani and Amani [21] in the par-
ticle concentration range of 0.002% to 0.02% and the Reynolds
number range of 8000 to 51,000. Subramanian et al. [22] analyzed
3
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
the heat transfer and pressure drop of the TiO2-water nanofluids
flow in a double-tube counter-flow heat exchanger and observed
heat transfer coefficient enhancement of 15% at 0.5 vol% of nano-
fluid over the base fluid.
The shell and tube heat exchangers (STHE) are industrial type
heat exchanger and its thermal performance may enhanced by
using nanofluids. Godson et al. [23] used silver/water nanofluids
in a shell and tube heat exchanger and observed heat transfer coef-
ficient enhancement of 12.4% and effectiveness increase of 6.14% at
particle loading of 0.04% and at a Reynolds number of 25000. Lotfi
et al. [24] used two heating power inputs of 280 W and 630 W and
observed an enhanced overall heat transfer coefficients of MWNT-
water nanofluid in a shell and tube heat exchanger. Farajollahi
et al. [25] studied heat transfer characteristics of c-Al2O3/water
and TiO2/water nanofluids flow in a shell and tube heat exchanger
and observed c-Al2O3/water nanofluids offer higher values than
TiO2/water nanofluids. Ghozatloo et al. [26] have observed by add-
ing 0.075% of graphene to water, thermal conductivity is enhanced
to 31.83% and heat transfer coefficient is enhanced to 35.6% at a
38 °C and at 0.1 wt% compared to water. Zebua and Ambarita
[27] studied numerically about the baffle spacing on the perfor-
mance of the shell and tube heat exchanger. Anitha et al. [28] used
Al2O3-Cu/water and Cu/water nanofluids in a shell and tube heat
exchanger. They observed heat transfer coefficient increase of
hybrid nanofluids is 139% and Cu nanofluid is 25% at higher Rey-
nolds number.
The plate heat exchangers (PHEs) are comes under indirect type
and it needs few floor space [29] against other type of HEs. In these
PHEs, the two fluids are separated by thin corrugated metal plates.
At the corner of the metal places, ports are provided for the passage
of hot and cold fluids, and then the heat transfer will take place.
These plates are assembled to a fixed frame and the leakage of
the fluids can prevent by provided gaskets. Providing the corruga-
tion on plates creates the fluids turbulence on both sides [30,31].
Initial research work on PHEs is related to conventional fluids such
water-water or air–water fluids. Peng and Howell [32] used liquid–
air fluids in plate heat exchanger for dehumidification process,
which is applicable for many industrial and comfort air-
conditioning applications. Saman and Alizadeh [33] also consid-
ered air–water fluids in plate heat exchanger and estimated the
heat transfer rates. Bobič et al. [34] studied the transient tempera-
ture response as well as the overall temperature drop, and heat
transfer rate of liquid–liquid counter flow plate heat exchanger
based on the numerical analysis. Al-Dawery et al. [35] is also stud-
ied the transient responses of a plate heat exchanger based on both
predicted and experimental study by using the frequency response
analysis. Prabhakara Rao et al. [36] studied the heat-capacity rate
ratio, flow configuration, number of channels and heat transfer
rates of plate heat exchanger. Selbas et al. [37] carried out experi-
ments for the determination of heat transfer coefficient of water-
water plate heat exchanger. Khan et al. [38] studied the pressure
drop characteristics of a gasketed commercial plate heat exchanger
configured for single-phase water-to-water plate heat exchanger at
two symmetric 30°/30°, 60°/60° and a non-symmetric 30°/60°
(mixed) chevron plate configurations at Reynolds number range
from 500 to 2500.
By using these nanofluids in PHEs can provide the augmented


heat transfer coefficient hnf , effectiveness and thermal perfor-
mance. By using water mixed CuO and Al2O3 nanofluids in PHEs
the Gherasim et al. [39] revealed an improved heat transfer coeffi-
cient. From the water diluted CuO fluids, Khairul et al. [40] have
obtained heat transfer raise of 27.20%, exergy decrease by 24%
and exergestic heat transfer effectiveness of 34% at particle loading
of 1.5% compared with base fluid. In one study, Pantzali et al. [41]
noticed that, enhanced thermal performance factor by using
L. Syam Sundar
nanofluids in PHE; in another study of Pantzali [42] with CuO/wa-
ter nanofluids have also obtained improved effectiveness. From the
experimental data of / = 0.5% vol. of Al2O3/60:40% EG/W nanofluid,
the Ray et al. [43] found that heat transfer coefficient enhancement
of 11%, overall heat transfer coefficient enhancement of 4.85% and
pumping power reduction of 5.65% at mass flow rate of 0.2 kg/s.
Based on the experimental evaluation the Haghshenas et al. [44]
and Pandey and Nema [45] enhancement of heat transfer coeffi-
cient for hot ZnO/water nanofluids and Al2O3/water nanofluid were
obtained.
Maré et al. [46] noticed an improvement of 42% and 50% of heat
transfer coefficient for water mixed Al2O3 and CNTs nanofluids,
respectively, in PHE at laminar flow. The author, Khoshvaght-
Aliabadi et al. [47] have shown an augmented performance of plate
heat exchanger for water dispersed Cu fluid. At / = 3% of lithium
bromide based Al2O3 nanofluid, Chen et al. [48] showed an
enhancement of heat transfer and effectiveness of 116.5% and
93.7%, respectively. With the circulation of Al2O3 nanofluid at
/ = 4%, Kabeel et al. [49] provided heat transfer enhancement
and pressure drop increase of 13% and 45% with a maximum power
consumption of 95%.
For Al2O3 nanofluid, Jokar and O’Halloran [50], and for water
based SiO2 nanofluid Majdi and Abed [51] have revealed an
improvement of heat transfer rate. Tiwari et al. [52] seen overall
heat transfer raise by 28% at / = 0.75% of CeO2 nanofluid at 3 lit/
min. Tiwari et al. [53] also used various water dispersed nanofluids
of CeO2, Al2O3, TiO2 and SiO2 in PHEs and shown heat transfer
increase with these nanofluids. Tiwari et al. [54] provided an
improved heat transfer data for water dispersed CeO2 and Al2O3
fluids in a PHE based on numerical analysis. Utility of ZnO nano-
fluid Fard et al. [55], and also utility of Al2O3 and MWCNT in PHE
Huang et al. [56] indicated increased heat transfer values.
It is understood that by using nanofluids in a heat exchanger, the
heat transfer coefficient, thermal performance factor and effective-
ness is enhanced. Most of the earlier studies are related to mono-
nanofluids. The further heat transfer coefficient and effectiveness
increase of heat exchangers is possible by using hybrid nanofluids
than mono-nanofluids. This regards, nanofluids approach can be
utilized with the right material components to lead in the enhance-
ment of the fluid properties including knf and can lead, at the same
time, in mentioning and/or enhancement of other desired proper-
ties, such as density, viscosity, and specific heat. The hybrid
nanofluids are high thermal conductivity fluids compared to
mono-dispersed nanofluids. The hybrid nanoparticles size is under
the order of <100 nm. Sundar et al. [57] have seen thermal conduc-
tivity rise of 28.46% and viscosity increase of 1.5-times for / = 0.3%
vol. of water mixed MWCNT-Fe3O4 nanofluids at 60 °C. Esfe et al.
[58] have found 8.6% enhancement of thermal conductivity and
24% enhancement of viscosity with the use of / = 0.02% vol. of
Ag-MgO/water nanofluid. Sundar et al. [59] from the thermal con-
ductivity data of water and ethylene glycol diluted 3.03 wt% of
ND-Ni have observed 21% and 13% increment. Sundar et al. [60]
have shown with the utilization of ND-Fe3O4 hybrid nanofluids
thermal conductivity and viscosity leads to higher than its base
fluid under measured particle loadings. The thermal conductivity
of CNT-Al2O3 and Cu-TiO2 hybrid nanofluids larger than the base
fluid (water) and further larger at incremented particle loadings
have been observed by Esfe et al. [61,62]. Similarly, by using
80:20% of SiO2-MWCNT/water and 50:50% of SiO2-MWCNT/water
hybrid nanofluids, Baghbanzadeh et al. [63] obtained an increased
viscosity. Bahrami et al. [64] also observed an increased viscosity
for Fe-CuO nanofluids with an increase of particle loadings. Eshgarf
and Afrand [65] also found an increased viscosity of MWCNTs-
SiO2/50EG-50W hybrid nanofluids. Sundar et al. [66] have obtained
an increased viscosity of ND-Co3O4/water, ND-Co3O4/EG and ND-
4
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
Co3O4/EG-water mixture nanofluids compared to their own base
fluids. Kumar et al. [67] have prepared vegetable oil, paraffin oil
and society for automotive engine oil based Cu-Zn (50:50) hybrid
nanofluids and obtained an increased viscosity.
It is seen that with the hybrid nanofluids (HNF), the thermal
conductivity and viscosity is enhanced, hence the heat transfer of
these hybrid nanofluids are important. Sundar et al. [57] found
an increased heat transfer of 31.1% and friction factor increase of
1.18-times for 0.3% vol. of MWCNT-Fe3O4/water hybrid nanofluid
flow through a pipe at Reynolds number of 22000. Sundar et al.
[68] found from the 0.3% vol. ND-Ni/water hybrid nanofluid an
augmented heat transfer and friction factor of 35.43% and 1.12-
times, respectively. Maddah et al. [69] have seen higher heat trans-
fer data for the utility of Al2O3-TiO2 hybrid nanofluids flow in a
tube. The flow of hybrid nanofluid in a PHE has dealt by Bhattad
et al. [70], they studied the heat transfer for Al2O3-TiO2/water
hybrid nanofluid and seen 16.91% larger values than base fluid.
Kumar et al. [71] used wide variety of water dispersed Al2O3-
MWCNT, TiO2-MWCNT, ZnO-MWCNT, and CeO2-MWCNT, fluids
in a plate heat exchanger and found 24.75% exergy loss for CeO2-
MWCNT nanofluid compared to others. Bhattad et al. [72] have
deal the energetic and exergetic of 20EG:80 W and 20PG:80 W dis-
persed MgO-Ag and Al2O3-Ag nanofluids in PHE and found higher
efficiencies.
Salmi et al. [73] considered the Eringen’s theory and generalized
Fourier law for modeling of flows and related mechanisms like heat
and mass transfer and they solved the equations numerically and
they observed mass flux in hybrid nanopolymers is less than that
in mono nanopolymers and they also found magnetic field inten-
sity is directly proportional to the mass flux. Arif et al. [74] consid-
ered the Joule heating and Cattaneo–Christov heat flux for the
thermal transport in the Maxwell hybrid nanofluid model via gen-
eralized heat flux theory and also verified the shear stress and heat
transfer rate. They observed that, the Maxwell hybrid nanofluid
offer higher heat transfer rates. Nawaz and Sadiq [75] analyzed
the thermal performance of ethylene glycol based mono MoS2
and SiO2 and hybrid MoS2 + SiO2 hybrid nanofluids and they found
that ethylene glycol with a single type of nanoparticles is a less
efficient coolant than the efficiency of ethylene glycol with hybrid
nanoparticles. Nawaz and Arif [76] numerically analyzed entropy
generation and Bejan number of Maxwell engine oil based copper
and aluminum oxide hybrid nanofluids passing over a pipe and
they observed decrease of Deborah number has shown a decreas-
ing behavior on the motion of the particles of both mono–nano-
engine oil and hybrid nanoengine oil. Entropy generation is
boosted when curvature is raised. Salmi et al. [77] analyzed the
two-phase chemical reactions heat transfer in tangential hyper-
bolic fluid with nanoparticles by using mathematical laws and
models, they noticed the increasing behavior of homogeneous
chemical reaction strength on concentration. Salmi et al. [78] ana-
lyzed the heat and mass transfer in non-Newtonian fluid for the
case of chemical reaction and heat generation of Ag and Fe3O4
mono and hybrid nanofluids and observed that, the Ohmic dissipa-
tion of hybrid nanofluid Ag-Fe3O4-Prandtl fluid is stronger than the
Ag-Prandtl fluid.
Salmi et al. [79] analyzed the solution relaxation for mono and
hybrid nanoparticles based on the Hall and ion slip currents and
they observed the solutal relaxation time for hybrid nanofluid is
greater than the mono nanofluid and also observed mass diffusiv-
ity of the fluid with hybrid nanofluid is less than that of mono
nanofluid. Salmi et al. [80] analyzed the heat flux of Cu-Ag polymer
and Ag-polymer nanofluids over a cylindrical heated body elongat-
ing in a radial direction with non-uniform velocity and observed
that, the thermal performance of Cu-Ag polymer is better than
the thermal enhancement of Ag-polymer.
L. Syam Sundar
Arif et al. [81] analyzed the heat and mass transfer of copper
(Cu) and a combination of copper (Cu) and aluminum oxide
(Al2O3) in sodium alginate liquid moving over a circular pipe and
observed that particles of Cu/ sodium alginate have a greater veloc-
ity than the velocity of Cu–Al2O3/sodium alginate. Arif et al. [82]
analyzed the mixed convection and magnetohydrodynamics
effects on tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow generated by elongat-
ing surface based on the Soret-Dufour phenomenon and they
observed Solute concentration profiles are decreasing trend. Mad-
khali et al. [83] analyzed the themal and solutal relaxation times
for the Maxwell fluid with mono and hybrid nanoparticles based
on the Fourier and Fick law by considering the ordinary and partial
differential equations and they observed the solutal time for hybrid
nanofluids are lower than the mono nanofluids. Nawaz and Sadiq
[84] used the Non-Newtonian constitutive equations and models
for hybrid particles based on the conservation laws, and observed
the velocity of Williamson fluid decreases as a function of Wil-
liamson parameter. Rana et al. [85] analyzed the effect of magnetic
field, chemical reaction parameters on velocity, thermal enhance-
ment and mass transport of MXene base material titanium carbide
and aluminum oxide (TiC-Al2O3)/ethylene glycol based hybrid
nanofluids and observed an increased thermal performance.
Pandey and Gupta [86] explained about the mono and hybrid
nanofluids heat pipe efficiency in the review paper. Gupta et al.
[87] analyzed the temperature distribution, thermal resistance,
and the efficiency of a heat pipe working with CeO2/H2O nanofluid
at different power inputs and observed an increased efficiency of
heat pipe. Gupta [88] analyzed the heat pipe efficiency by using
TiO2/water and TiO2 + MWCNT/water at different heat inputs and
observed an enhanced heat pipe efficiency with TiO2 + MWCNT/
water compared TiO2/water. Gupta et al. [89] in their review paper
explained about the nanofluids utilization and heat transfer perfor-
mance of heat pipe and observed that an enhanced heat pipe effi-
ciency. Gupta et al. [90] used TiO2/H2O nanofluids in a heat pipe
and analyzed performance at different heat inputs and observed
maximum of 17.2% reduction in thermal resistance and maximum
of 13.4% enhancement in thermal efficiency of HP at 1.0 vol% nano-
fluid as compared to water. Gupta et al. [91] conducted experi-
ments on heat pipe at heat input range from 50 to 150 W,
different inclination angles of 0°, 15°, 30°, 45°, and 60°, and various
volume flow rates of 20, 25, 30, and 35 mL and observed a maxi-
mum thermal efficiency of 69% at 150 W heat input, 30° inclination
angle, and charged with 35 mL of working fluid. Gupta et al. [92]
conducted experiments on heat pipe by using CeO2/H2O nanofluids
at different power inputs of 50, 100, and 150 W and different
weight loadings and observed increase of thermal efficiency of heat
pipe with nanofluids compared to base fluid. Gupta et al. [93] con-
ducted experiments on heat pipe by using CuO/water nanofluids at
different heat inputs 50–150 W and at different inclination angles
of 0°, 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°, and 90° from horizontal and observed a
maximum thermal efficiency of 66.5% at 150 W and at 1.0 vol%.
Gupta et al. [94] conducted parametric optimization of the thermal
performance of nanofluid-filled heat pipe by using the response
surface methodology and they observed thermal efficiency, ther-
mal resistance and wall temperatures as 66.40%, 0.3884 °C/W
and 78.86 °C, respectively, at 112 W power input, 55% filling ratio,
1.1% nanofluid concentration and at 58.5° inclination angle.
The authors made an attempt to overview the utilization of
hybrid nanofluids in a wide variety of heat exchangers. The effi-
ciency and performance of heat exchangers are straight propor-
tional to the execution of hybrid nanofluids. This review also
provides information related to the availability of the different
techniques for the preparation and characterization of hybrid
nanoparticles. The preparation steps and thermophysical proper-
ties of hybrid nanofluids evaluations are also covered. The experi-
mental and numerical techniques for the use of mono nanofluids as
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
well as hybrid nanofluids flow in different heat exchangers like
double pipe heat exchangers, plate heat exchangers, shell and tube
heat exchangers, shell and helical coil heat exchangers and micro/
mini channel-based heat exchangers are also discussed. Moreover,
the review is also aiming to identify the future scope of research
towards the use of hybrid nanofluids in heat exchanger systems.
2. Synthesis of hybrid nanoparticles
Availability of hybrid nanoparticles is an important issue before
they utilize in the production of hybrid nanofluids and used in any
of the thermal equipments. In general most of the nanoparticles
are produced by various companies and mostly they are concen-
trated on the production of single nanoparticles and also very
few types of hybrid nanoparticles. For any specific type of hybrid
nanofluids applications it is necessary to synthesize the hybrid
nanoparticles in the laboratory. Commonly physical synthesis
method and chemical synthesis method of hybrid nanoparticles
are used. The detailed explanation about these methods is men-
tioned below. The line diagram of sub-methods under physical
and chemical methods is provided in the Fig. 1 and the more
details are provided in the following subsections.
2.1. Physical synthesis method
2.1.1. Atom beam sputtering method
With this atom beam sputtering method, atoms are retaining on
the work piece by hitting of electrons. Pannu et al. [95] used 1 keV
argon atom source at an angle of 45° towards the direction of sput-
tering target and they prepared 3 cm diameter pure SiO2 disc by
considering Au (gold) and Fe (iron) are the atomic beam sources
and their results are indicated in Fig. 2. Mohapatra [96] have pre-
pared the Ag particles by mixing GeO2-SiO2 nanocomposite from
the atom beam sputtering. Avasthi et al. [97] produced gold and
silver materials using atom beam sputtering technique. They pro-
duced gold–silicon nanomaterial and Au-ZnO hybrid nanomaterial
with tunable by atom beam co-sputtering technique.
Mishra et al. [98] prepared Ag and SiO2 hybrid nanomaterials
for larger concentrations of Ag from the sputtering of Ag and Si
for utilizing 1.5 keV Ar (Argon) atoms. The stable film thickness
was reached by revolving the substrate with a direct current
motor. Beam delivery by atom source is about a diameter of
5 cm, and those provided a distance of 10 cm from the sputtering
target. Singh et al. [99] synthesized highly enhanced photo cat-
alytic activity material of Ag-TiO2 nanohybrid thin films by atom
beam co-sputtering method. Tiwary et al. [100] by using atom bean
co-sputtering method for the preparation of Au-alumina nanocom-
posites. Mishra et al. [101] synthesized tunable Au-ZnO hybrid
nanofilm by using the sputtering procedure by annealing of the
sample from 200 to 600 °C in Argon.
2.1.2. Laser-induced heating process
Laser can be utilized in this process for heating the material and
any surface is under conduction. Due to the laser light the material
temperature is increased. The laser power beam and the material
relation is an important thing in the laser technique. The laser
induced heating process indicates the change of local chemistry,
crystal structure, and morphology of the metals. This method
purely depends on the melting behavior of the metal nanoparticles
and its resonant absorption at a given wavelength. The Au
nanoparticles melt and form liquid when it irradiated at 532 nm.
Singh and Soni [102] considered Ag@Al2O3 hybrid nanomaterial
using this laser-induced technique by heating the Ag and Al by uti-
lizing 532 nm laser beam. Zhang et al. [103] have synthesized new
nanostructured catalyst, made of small (
5 nm in diameter) and
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 1. Synthesis methods of hybrid nanoparticles.
Fig. 2. Schematic of the atom beam sputtering setup (Pannu et al. [95]).
uniform gold nanoparticles and ceria nanotubes (CeO2 NTs) by
using laser ablation in liquid (PLAL) method. Siuzdak et al. [104]
reported the preparation method of nanocrystalline titanium diox-
ide modified with platinum by using nanosecond laser ablation in
liquid (LAL) with a 1064 nm laser.
Based on the laser-driven proton acceleration techniques, Bar-
berio et al. [105] synthesized the solid gold nanoparticles onto
the plasma by interaction of a high-intensity (I > 1  1018 W/
cm2), and short pulse (<1 ps) laser beam. Peng et al. [106] synthe-
sized Au-Ag nanoalloys, by using laser induced heating, by consid-
ering three techniques: (i) mixture of Au nanoparticles and Ag+
ions irradiated by 532 nm laser, (ii) mixture of Au and Ag nanopar-
ticles irradiated by a 532 nm laser, and (iii) mixture of Au and Ag
nanoparticles irradiated by a 355 nm laser. Hashimoto et al.
[107] have explained the interaction of pulsed lasers with plas-
monic gold nanoparticles toward light manipulation, heat manage-
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
ment, and nanofabrication in their review paper. Zhang et al. [108]
also explained the laser synthesis process for the manufacturing of
the nanoparticles (Fig. 3). The detailed explanation related to the
laser-induced thermal processes has been explained by Shugaev
et al. [109] in their handbook.
2.1.3. Ion implantation method
This is the low temperature method where the ions are pene-
trates into the target piece and there it alters the physical, chemi-
cal, or electrical properties. This method in general considered in
semiconductor manufacturing. The ionized (guest) atoms were
accelerated and directed onto the target (host) substrate.
Garaj et al. [110] have considered ion implementation tech-
nique for the preparation of bulk quantity of graphene films at a
controlled thickness in size. Popok et al. [111] considered this
method for the production of SiO2 nanoparticles by providing
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 3. (a) Line diagram of laser interplay with nanoparticles, (b) laser beam melting, and (c) molten particles (Hashimoto et al. [107] and Zhang et al. [108]).
Fig. 4. Left-side to right-side the ion concentration is higher in the sputtering process (Stepanov [113]).
Ag + ions at energy of 30 keV. Armelao et al. [112] have prepared
Ag and Ag-S nanocomposite materials using sol–gel and ion-
implantation technique. From this method they observed that
the formation of Ag–Ag2S nanoclusters core shells.
Stepanov [113] has reviewed this method and provided infor-
mation of the optical absorption properties of Ag nanoparticles
by considering different authors research work (Fig. 4). In another
review, Stepanov [114] has explained the polymer nanoparticles
which are exposed by 30 keV of Ag + ions under an ion current
of 4 lA/cm2. Wang et al. [115] prepared the Au nanoparticles
mixed with TiO2 single crystal by 2 MeV Au2+ implantation to an
ion fluence of 6.0  1016 cm2 at 300 K and 975 K through the cool-
ing process at 1275 K for 10 h. Chang et al. [116] utilized this ion
implantation method for the development of TiO2 thin films at a
calcinations temperature of 550 °C. The advantages and disadvan-
tages of various physical method of synthesis of hybrid nanoparti-
cles are provided in Table 1.
2.2. Chemical synthesis method
2.2.1. Sol-gel method
This method is a fabrication wet-chemical technique to form a
gel like mixture/material consisting of liquid and solid. With the
sol–gel method, a fine controlled nanoparticles size has been
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
achieved but the problem with this method is the bonding
between two materials is weak. The schematic diagram of sol–
gel process is given in Fig. 5. To make a sol–gel, two or three type
of precursor salts is diluted in a solution with adding any type of
surfactant as a stabilizing agent. Thiagarajan et al. [117] explained
about the synthesis of metal oxide nanostructures by using the
methodology of sol–gel in their book chapter.
Chen and He [118] prepared nickel ferrite (NiFe2O4) spinal mag-
netic material from the sol–gel technique based on the utilization
of polyacrylic acid as a surfactant. Xu et al. [119] prepared mag-
netite (Fe3O4) nanoparticles successfully based on the sol–gel pro-
cedure. They studied phase transformation, morphologies, particle
sizes, chemical composition, and magnetic properties of prepared
Fe3O4 nanoparticles. Ueno et al. [120] synthesized Ag nanoparticle
contain SrTiO3 nanocompsites using the sol–gel hydrothermal
techniques. They developed a TiO2 solution gel by utilizing Ag+ and
Sr2+ ions under different molar ratios and they observed successful
formation of Ag-SrTiO3 hybrid nanocomposites.
Gianni et al. [121] have prepared polymer/TiO2 mixture
nanoparticles by using the sol–gel procedure. They prepared TiO2 -
particles by in-situ in the polymer solution by means of a sol–gel
process starting from Ti(iOPr)4 as a precursor. Ovejero et al. [122]
synthesized Au-Fe3O4 hybrid nanoparticles using the sol–gel
method. Islam et al. [123] prepared SiO2-TiO2 hybrid nanoparticles
L. Syam Sundar Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468

Table 1
Advantages and disadvantages of various physical methods.

Physical synthesis method Advantages Disadvantages

Atom beam sputtering
method
Laser-induced heating
process
Ion implantation method
(1) High Energy. (1) Very low hit of target area result that lower deposition.
(2) Wide applications. (2) Impossible to deposit constant thickness.
(3) The synthesized nanoparticles are in good uniformity. (3) Sputtering equipment is too difficult and its price is
(4) The synthesized nanoparticles are good stability in the base larger.
fluids.
(5) The nanoparicle are high precision.
(1) High production rates. (1) High energy consumption.
(2) Good particle size control. (2) Huge cost for equipment and maintenance.
(3) Good monodispersity.
(1) Low temperature process (1) The process is expensive.
(2) Wide selection of masking materials. (2) Ions damage the semiconductor lattice.

Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of sol–gel processing (Thiagarajan et al. [117]).

from the sol–gel procedure and studied the structural and optical
characteristics. Olteanu et al. [124] have synthesized a new class
of fluorescent Au@SiO2 and SiO2@Au core–shell fluorescent
nanoparticles using micro-emulsion assisted sol–gel method cou-
pled with photo reduction reaction procedure. Zhou et al. [125]
synthesized the silver (Ag)/titanium dioxide (TiO2) hybrid
nanoparticles using sol–gel process. Sakai et al. [126] prepared
core–shell type titanium nanocapsules containing a single Ag
nanoparticle using sol–gel method. Xin et al. [127] by using sol–
gel method Ag-TiO2 hybrid nanoparticles have been prepared and
they observed an improved absorption capability for the visible
light of the photo catalysts.
2.2.2. Sonochemical synthesis
Sonochemical method uses the principle of sono-chemistry in
which the molecules take place a chemical reaction with the sup-
ply of powerful ultrasound radiation (20 kHz–10 MHz). In one way
the sonochemical process is called as acoustic cavitations.
Vivekanandan et al. [128] used sonochemical synthesis for the
preparation of NiMnO@pr-GO nanocomposite material (Fig. 6).
They considered crump like NiMnO@rGO nanohybrids through
high-resolution ultrasonic bath (ultrasonic frequency of 37 kHz
and power of 150 W).
Potdar et al. [129] synthesized the hybrid nanoparticles with
ZnO and polymethyl methacrylate (inorganic/polymer) through
the exploitation of ultrasound approach. Sivasankaran et al.
[130] have fabricated Pd-CuO hybrid nanoparticles by using the
sonochemical synthesis procedure. Their procedure indicates
1 mmol of C4H6O4Pd and 1 mmol of Cu(CH3COO)2 considered in
a flask and then agitated under 70 mL water and 20 mL ethanol.
The mixer was continuously ultrasonicated for 1 hr by utilizing a
20 kHz frequency 1/2in probe operating at 45% amplitude. Siva-
sankaran et al. [131] also synthesized palladium-copper oxide
nanoparticles by considering a mixture of palladium salt or palla-
dium metal, water and metal salts. They observed the diameters
of Pd-CuO particles are 1.548 lm and 82 nm based on the
dynamic light scattering method. Jhuang and Cheng [132] fabri-
cated and characterized Ag/TiO2 composite from the sonochemi-
cal technique. Pol et al. [133] used ultrasound irradiation of
silica sub microspheres paste, silver nitrate, and NH3 in a water
medium about 90 min with an atmosphere of Ar to H2 yields
95:5 silver-silver nanocomposite.

8
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 6. Sonochemical method for NiMnO@rGO nanohybrids (Vivekanandan et al. [128]).
2.2.3. Chemical reduction method
The chemical reduction method comprises reduction of re-
agent chemicals, when they react with reducing agent. Wang
et al. [134] used the polyvinyl pyrrolidone, silver nitrate solution
for the preparation of AgNO3 nanoparticles. They used glucose
for the chemical reduction of the solution. Khan et al. [135] also
prepared AgNO3 nanoparticles by the chemical reduction of silver
nitrate solution with aniline in dilute aqueous solutions. They also
used cetyltrimethlyammonium bromide as a stabilizing agent.
Singh et al. [136] prepared Ag-TiO2 hybrid nanoparticles using
CTAB assisted wet chemical synthesis of TiO2 combined with
citrate reduction of Ag + ions and they observed Ag-TiO2 hybrid
nanoparticles exhibited enhanced photocatalytic activity. Shukla
[137] explained the chemical reduction method of preparation of
Fe and rGO based composites in the review paper. The process of
chemical reduction method is shown in Fig. 7.
Lim et al. [138] prepared Au@TiO2 plasmonic nanostructures by
using one-step chemical reduction technique without considering
any stabilizing agent. These nanostructures have shown 5.61% of
Fig. 7. Chemical reduction method of preparation for Fe and rGO based composites (Shukla et al. [137]).
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
solar-to-electrical energy conversion efficiency. Damato et al.
[139] synthesized TiO2 spheres bonded with Au nanoparticles
using chemical reduction method and they studied the catalytic
activities. Pearson et al. [140] developed an improved photocat-
alytic efficient TiO2 nanostructure based metal particles contain
Cu, Ag, Pt, and Au. They considered TiO2 bonded phosphotungstic
acid molecules (a polyxometalate, POM) to act as a larger UV-
switchable reducing agent. Liu et al. [141] utilized chemical reduc-
tion method for the synthesis of Pd-CeO2, Au-Fe3O4 and Ag-
Mn3O4 nanocomposites and studied catalytic activities. Zhang
et al. [142] produced the Ag@TiO2 core–shell structure nanoparti-
cles by using the chemical reduction method. Li et al. [143] pre-
pared Ag@TiO2 core–shell nanoparticles by using the chemical
reduction method by considering silver nitrate (AgNO3) and tita-
nium butoxide (TBT) in N,N-dimethylformamide as raw materials
and hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (CTAC) as both an
inducer and a protective agent. They observed that, the prepared
hybrid nanoparticles surface plasmon resonance (SPR) peak is
between 414 and 499 nm.
L. Syam Sundar
Tom et al. [144] used one-step route of chemical reduction
method for the synthesis of Au@TiO2, Au@ZrO2, Ag@TiO2, and
Ag@ZrO2 nanoparticles in nanometer dimensions and studied the
cyclic voltammetric studies. Huang et al. [145] used chemical
reduction method for the preparation of highly efficient photo cat-
alytic catalyst Ag-ZnO nanocomposite material. Zhang et al. [146]
synthesized Au-Cu2O core–shell nanoparticles and studied tunable
optical properties. Albiter et al. [147] synthesized the Ag nanopar-
ticles on TiO2 using chemical reduction process and studied the
structural and photo activity properties. Tanaka et al. [148] synthe-
sized plasmonic Au/TiO2 photo catalyst nanoparticles from chemi-
cal reduction process. Leong et al. [149] synthesized palladium/
TiO2 hybrid nanoparticles using chemical reduction process.
2.2.4. Photochemical method
It is a chemical reaction process where the substrate molecules
attract light energy. This process confirms the substrate molecules
undergo excite state, which leads to variation of physical and
chemical nature from the original substrate molecules. Korir
et al. [150] used this process for the production of Au/Ag hybrids
by using surface Plasmon resonance with highest peak centered
at
400 nm and
550 nm (Fig. 8).
Jara et al. [151] conducted a review for the production of Ag-Au
hybrid composites using this method. McGilvray et al. [152] pre-
pared water based Au nanoparticles from the HAuCl4 by consider-
ing the water solution based benzoin (Irgacure 2959) as a
photochemical source. Petrucci et al. [153] prepared silver
nanoparticles using the photochemical method and observed
420 nm SPR peak from the spectrophotometry. Fernández-
Merino et al. [154] synthesized rGO/Ag hybrid nanocomposites
based on the photochemical method and observed highest cat-
alytic activity. Bharath et al. [155] synthesized Au deposited a-
Fe2O3@rGO using photochemical process and they studied various
analytical techniques for nucleation growth process, photo-
induced electron-transfer mechanism and physico-chemical prop-
erties of the Au@a-Fe2O3@rGO ternary nanocomposites. Xu et al.
[156] synthesized Ag nano-islands on ZnO nanosheets (Ag@ZnO
nanocomposites) successfully by a green and effective strategy
based on ultraviolet light induced-photochemical reaction.
2.2.5. Hydrothermal and thermal decomposition processes
In this method, the heat is the main source. The decomposition
temperature of the substance takes place at which the substance is
chemically decomposed. This is endothermic reaction at which the
chemical bonds of the substance break and it is decomposed.
Fig. 8. The process diagram of production of Au-Ag nanohybrids (Korir et al. [150]).
10
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
Chen et al. [157] synthesized the c-ZnO photo catalyst material
from the hydrothermal method with the deposition of Zn4(CO3)
(OH)6H2O. Bakr et al. [158] synthesized both Fe3O4@Ag and Fe3-
O4@Au core–shells from the hydrothermal method and showed
the reflection planes of Fe3O4 and additional planes of Ag or Au
(Fig. 9).
Wu et al. [159] produced Au@TiO2 core–shell particles under
the truncated wedge shaped TiO2 from the simple and flexible
hydrothermal route. They observed that, the core–shell of Au@TiO2
photo catalyst presents high photo catalytic activity when exposed
to UV or visible light irradiation. Song et al. [160] synthesized the
hetero-structured Au@TiO2 core–shell nanoparticles using
hydrothermal process, and observed that a larger efficiency. Brollo
et al. [161] considered a thermal decomposition process for the
production of Ag@Fe3O4 core–shell nanoparticles. Lopes et al.
[162] used solution phase thermal deposition route to prepare
Ag-Fe3O4 colloidal dimer nanoparticles with a dumb-bell like
shape. Padmanaban et al. [163] synthesized Ag/TiO2 composites
by using thermal decomposition technique by considering tetra-
ethyl orthotitanate, AgNO3 and C6H12N4 as stabilizing agents.
2.2.6. Co-precipitation method
Using the co-precipitation process, the hybrid nanoparticles
may be produced at atmospheric temperature. The chemical salts
are reacting with reducing agent to form a precipitate which
is called as nanoparticles. Deepa and Rajendran [164] synthesized
Cu-WO3 nanohybrids and studied their physical–chemical behav-
iors from the cyclic voltammetry. The Cu-WO3 offers lower peak-
to-peak separation than pure and it increase the electro-catalytic
activity (Fig. 10).
Ahmed et al. [165] synthesized decorated Ag-ZnO nanoparticles
on f-MWCNTs using co-precipitation method. Wang et al. [166]
also used the chemical co-precipitation method for Au-Fe2O3, Au-
NiO, and Au-Co3O4 hybrid nanoparticles preparation. Khasraghi
et al. [167] used chemical co-precipitation method to load super-
paramagnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticle on oxidized nanodiamond (Ox-
ND) and subsequently, they observed the formation of Ox-ND/
Fe3O4 hybrid nanoparticle. Viswanathan [168] synthesized and
characterized fluorescent Ag coated magnetic hybrid nanoparticles
using a combination of coprecipitation, polymerization and sol–gel
method with fluorescent dye. Thakur et al. [169] synthesized the
super-paramagnetic nanoparticles of Mn0.5Zn0.5LaxFe2  xO4
(x = 0, 0.025, 0.050, 0.075, 0.1) ferrites by co-precipitation proce-
dure (Fig. 11).
Donkova et al. [170] synthesized Au-ZnO nanocomposites of
different gold contents (0.8, 2.5, and 9%) and specific surface areas
L. Syam Sundar Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468

Fig. 9. Line-diagram description of procedure of Fe3O4@Ag and Fe3O4@Au core–shell nanoparticles by the two methods (Bakr et al. [128]).

Fig. 10. Co-precipitation method of Cu doped WO3 nanocomposite (Deepa and Rajendran [164]).

(from 41 to 51 m2/g) were synthesized by using co-precipitation
method. Kim et al. [171] considered chemical co precipitation tech-
nique Au-ZnO nanoparticles preparation. Ma et al. [172] synthe-
sized one-dimensional Ag-Fe3O4 core–shell hetero nanowires
using effective co precipitation procedure. Sundar et al. [60] used
chemical co-precipitation method of ND-Fe3O4 hybrid nanofluids
by using sodium hydroxide as a reduction agent (Fig. 12). Saleh
and Sundar [173] used co precipitation technique for the prepara-
tion of MWCNT-Fe3O4 nanocomposites (Fig. 13). Wan and Li [174]
used co-precipitation method to disperse CoFe2O4 nanoparticles in
the cellulose aerogels matrixes, and the cellulose aerogels based on
11
a green NaOH/polyethylene glycol solution. Sundar et al. [66] syn-
thesized ND-Co3O4 hybrid nanoparticles by considering NaOH as a
reaction agent. From the chemical co-precipitation process, Sundar
et al. [57,59] produced both MWCNT-Fe3O4 and ND-Ni hybrid
particles.
2.2.7. Seed-mediated growth method
From this method, the shape of the novel nanocrystals can be
perfectly controlled. Wu et al. [175] used this method for the
preparation of magnetic iron oxides-TiO2 hybrid nanoparticles in
methylene blue solutions. Liu et al. [176] developed Fe3O4-Au
L. Syam Sundar Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468

Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of co-precipitation method to synthesize Mn0.5Zn0.5LaxFe2  xO4 (x = 0, 0.025, 0.050, 0.075 and 0.1) ferrites (Thakur et al. [169]).

Fig. 12. Chemical co precipitation procedure of ND-Fe3O4 hybrid nanoparticles (Sundar et al. [60]).

nanocomposites using seed-mediated growth method and
observed the reduction in saturation magnetization. Chen et al.
[177] reviewed about the seed-mediated method for the growth
of Au nanorods (Fig. 14). Pradyasti et al. [178] synthesized Ag-
Ag2S@Ag-Au hybrid nanostructures using as seed-mediated
method and studied for the photothermal conversion.
Hodges and Schaak [179] have explained that this method is
more effective for providing large grade hybrid nanoparticles. Fen-
ton et al. [180] have used seed growth technique for production of
Fe3O4-Pt-MnO nanohybrids. Shi et al. [181] used seed growth
method to synthesize the Au-Fe3O4 hybrid nanoparticles. Du
et al. [182] synthesized Au@Ag nanorods (Au@AgNRs) by using

12
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 13. Synthesis procedure of MWCNT + Fe3O4 hybrid nanoparticles (Saleh and Sundar [173]).
Fig. 14. Schematic diagram of seed-mediated method for the growth of Au nanorods (Chen et al. [177].
seed growth method and studied for the replication of porcine epi-
demic diarrhea virus. Rajkumar and Prabaharan [183] explained in
their chapter the synthesis of Fe3O4-Au hybrid nanoparticles using
seed growth method and they also explained that, these nanopar-
ticles can be used for hyperthermia therapy, photodynamic ther-
apy, targeted drug delivery, as well as molecular imaging.
Among all the methods, the chemical co precipitation method is
more economical and effective method for the synthesis of hybrid
nanoparticles, because the chemical reaction was done under the
atmospheric conditions. For the physical techniques, the costly
equipments are required for the synthesis of hybrid nanoparticles.
For the chemical techniques, the reaction temperature is higher
than the atmospheric temperature. The size of the hybrid nanopar-
ticles is depends on the reaction temperature. If the reaction tem-
perature is higher is the size of the hybrid nanoparticles is higher.
So, if the reaction temperature is atmospheric temperature, the
size of the nanoparticle is remains constant, which can be possible
by using the chemical co precipitation method. Hence this is eco-
nomical and less expensive technique.
3. Characterization of hybrid nanoparticles
From the physical method and the chemical method, one can
synthesize the hybrid nanoparticles. The next step is to understand
whether the hybrid nanoparticles are formed or not by evaluating
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
their characteristics and this task is considered as an essential step
and a good screening for the effectiveness of the used synthesis
method. The basic characterization techniques are x-ray diffrac-
tion, scanning electronic microscopy, transmission electron micro-
scopy, Fourier transmission infra-red, Raman spectra, and vibrating
sample magnetometer.
From the x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis one can understand
the characteristic peaks available in the synthesized hybrid
nanoparticles. The characteristic peak of each and every material
is different. We can compare the obtained characteristic peak from
the instrument with the international centre for diffraction data
(ICDD) for validating the synthesized hybrid nanoparticles. Reddy
et al. [184] used XRD technique for NiO-ZnO nanoparticles and
its patterns are mentioned in Fig. 15(a). Tung et al. [185] studied
the Fe3O4-Ag hybrid nanoparticles and their patterns are men-
tioned in Fig. 15(b).
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) can be used by focus-
ing the high-energy electronic beam on to the surface of the spec-
imen. The signal from the instrument provides the details about
the sample such as morphology, chemical composition, and crys-
talline structure. Sundar et al. [59] synthesized ND-Ni hybrid
nanoparticles and studied the surface morphology by using SEM
analysis. Their SEM results along with elemental mapping are indi-
cated in Fig. 16. Abu-Okail [186] prepared alumina nanoparticles
(Al2O3) and graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) and studied the surface
morphology using SEM analysis.
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 15. XRD patterns. (a) ZnO-SiO nanoparticles (Reddy et al. [184]), and (b) Fe3O4-Ag nanoparticle (Tung et al. [185]).
The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) technique is used
to analyze the surface morphology, size and shape of the nanoma-
terials. Generally the TEM samples are prepared on the copper grid
and which can be inserted into the equipment. Sundar et al. [59]
prepared ND-Ni nanostructures and studied the surface morphol-
ogy by using high-resolution TEM analysis (Fig. 17). Wang et al.
[187] studied surface morphology using TEM analysis for the pre-
pared ZnO-Au hybrid nanoparticles.
The Raman spectroscopy is very suitable to understand the
chemical structure, phase and polymorphy, crystallinity and
molecular interactions. Generally this technique is used for carbon
related materials. The G-band and D-band of the carbon related
hybrid nanoparticles are analyzed from the Raman spectroscopy.
Tung et al. [188] prepared hybrid materials of Fe3O4-decorated
reduced graphene oxide (Fe3O4-rGO) and poly (3,4-
ethylenedioxythiophene) with mediated hybridization and their
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
XRD, Raman and XPS results are shown in Fig. 18. Doanh et al.
[189] synthesized hybrid zinc oxide-silver nanoparticle arrays
and studied surface-enhanced Raman scattering detection. Yang
et al. [190] prepared and studied the Raman spectroscopy for
SiO2@Si with Au-hybrid nanoparticles.
The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is used to
know the spectrum of absorption, emission, and photoconductivity
of solid, liquid, and gas. Generally this technique detects various
functional groups such as carboxyl or hydroxyl groups of the
hybrid nanomaterial. The FTIR spectrum is recorded between
4000 and 400 cm1. Shahmoradi et al. [191] prepared
neodymium-doped ZnO hybrid nanoparticles by mild hydrother-
mal conditions and studied the FTIR spectrum (Fig. 19). Vignesh
and Sundar [192] synthesized Sn and Cu doped ZnO nanoparticles
using microwave assisted method and investigated FTIR spectrum
and also structural, optical and photocatalytic performance.
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 16. SEM and elemental mapping of ND-Ni (a–d) (Sundar et al. [59]).
The vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) is to characterize
the magnetic properties like DC magnetization. Different magnetic
fields can be set, depending on the magnet pole gap. Yu et al. [193]
synthesized magnetic Fe3O4-Ag hybrid nanoparticles and their
magnetic data is mentioned in Fig. 20, they have found that, the
prepared sample contains magnetic property. Sundar et al. [59]
produced ND-Ni material and studied the magnetic property of
the sample and its data is provided in Fig. 21. They have noticed
the prepared sample contain magnetic property.
4. Hybrid nanofluids production
Hybrid nanofluids preparation is a key task before they wanted
to use in any thermal components or devices. The synthesized
hybrid nanoparticles from the physical method and chemical
method can be diluted into any base fluid of water, ethylene glycol,
propylene glycol, engine oil and etc. Two methods are considered
for the development of hybrid nanofluids, (i) single-step method,
and (ii) two-step method. The detailed description related to these
methods is provided here.
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
4.1. Single-step method
The meaning of development of hybrid nanofluids by this tech-
nique is called as physical vapor deposition approach. With this
method, the hybrid nanofluids can be stable and the particle sedi-
mentation is very less in the base fluid. By using this method of
hybrid nanofluids preparation, the nanoparticle size is controlled.
Pulse wire evaporation method is considered for preparing hybrid
nanofluids. It consists of capacitors, direct current power supply,
gap switch, and a condensation chamber. A high voltage pulse
(300 V) within skinny wire passing through it, which resulting in
the evaporation of wire before converting into plasma and this
plasma is condensed to nano-sized power by contacting it with
argon and nitrogen inert gases. The obtained nano-sized power is
dispersed in the base fluid for getting hybrid nanofluids. Some of
the researchers have used this technique for the preparation of
hybrid nanofluids and the details are discussed here.
Munkhbayar et al. [194] used single-step technique for the
preparation of Ag-MWCNT hybrid nanoparticles. They used pulse
voltage of 300 V and Ag wire of 90 mm diameter and found that,
the weight percentage of MWCNT is 0.05% in the final Ag-
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 17. High-resolution TEM image of ND-Ni sample, (a) general scan and (b) EDX spectra (Sundar et al. [59]).
MWCNT nanocomposite. Zhu et al. [195] from the single-step
method by using copper sulfate pentahydrate and sodium
hypophosphite monohydrate in EG and then they prepared Cu-
EG nanofluids. Yu et al. [196] also used single-step procedure for
n-octane based graphene oxide nanofluid preparation. Shahsavar
et al. [197] utilized one-step procedure for the development of
Fe3O4-CNT/water hybrid nanofluid. They used tetra-methyl ammo-
nium hydroxide (TMAH) and Gum Arabic (GA) surfactants for coat-
ing to Fe3O4 and CNT nanoparticles. Jaiswal et al. [198] also used
single-step method for the preparation of Cu- Pd hybrid nanofluids.
The most popular methods for creating metal and metal oxide
nanofluids are submerged arc nanoparticle synthesis and arc spray
nanoparticle synthesis, which both involve vaporizing source
material submerged in the dielectric liquid in a vacuum chamber
[199,200]. By ablating metals and metal oxides in deionized water
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
and solvents, laser ablation in liquid has been shown to be the
method that may produce stable colloids comprising nano-sized
particles without the usage of any dispersants or surface reactive
reagents [201,202].
By using sodium hypophosphite as the reducing agent in ethy-
lene glycol as the base fluid, Ananda Kumar et al. [203] employed a
one-step approach to create stable, non-agglomerated copper
nanofluids. They noticed that this one-step process produces a high
output of product while requiring less time. By combining sodium
borohydride, and hydrazine as a reducing agents, and
polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as surfactant and silver nitrate as a
chemical dispersion in water, Salehi et al. [204] employed a one-
step chemical approach to create stable silver nanofluids.
Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) was utilized as a stabilizing ingredient
in a one step approach by Shenoy and Shetty [205] to prepare
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 18. FTIR, (b) XRD, (c) Raman, and (d) XPS Fe2p spectrum of Fe3O4-rGO/PIL (Tung et al. [188]).
water-based stable cuprous oxide, and they found that the
nanofluids remained stable for nine weeks. Shenoy and Shetty
[206] prepared copper glucose based nanofluids by dispersing cop-
per nitrate in the presence of sodium lauryl sulfate.
4.2. Two-step method
After synthesizing the hybrid nanoparticles using any type of
the physical or chemical methods, the obtained dry hybrid
nanoparticles will be dispersed in any of the base fluids to produce
hybrid nanofluids. The hybrid nanoparicle agglomeration in base
fluids occurs because of the powerful Vander-wall forces. For over-
come of this problem in the two-step method, the ultrasonic
waves, nanofluid exposure, pH changes, and surfactants are used
for stable hybrid nanofluids. Some of the research works related
to the stable hybrid nanofluids are mentioned below.
By employing ball milling to create Al2O3-Cu hybrid nanopari-
cles from Al2O3 and CuO nanoparticles, Niihara [207] and Oh
et al. [208,209] showed how to create stable hybrid nanofluids
based on a two step process. The creation of Cu-Al2O3 nanoparti-
cles from CuO-Al2O3 mixtures was described by Jena et al. [210]
using the hydrogen reduction process. Copper and aluminum sol-
uble nitrates, Cu (NO3)23H2O and Al (NO3)39H2O, have been syn-
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
thesized into nanocomposite (Cu-Al2O3) powder using the
thermochemical technique by Korac [211] and Andic et al.
[212,213]. CNTs and Ag nanoparticles were taken into account by
Jana et al. [214] while creating CNT-Ag/water hybrid nanofluids
via a two-step process. They used laurate salt as a stabilizing agent
and for uniform dispersion of the nanoparticles they used Bran-
sonic ultrasonic cleaner under low-power sonication. Suresh
et al. [215] prepared alumina–copper hybrids by using the thermo-
chemical synthesis method after that by using the two step
method, they prepared the stable hybrid nanofluids. By using the
chemical reduction method, Baby and Ramaprabhu [216] synthe-
sized CuO decorated graphene (CuO/HEG) by hydrogen induced
exfoliation of graphite oxide. They prepared stable hybrid nanoflu-
ids by considering water and ethylene glycol as a base fluids and
they also used ultrasonicator for the samples up to 45 min to
1 h. From the one step method, Botha et al. [217] synthesized
the silver and silica hybrid nanoparticles and then prepared
nanofluids by a mixture of transformer oil. Baby and Ramaprabhu
[218] used a new synthesis technique for the preparation of silver
decorated functionalized hydrogen induced exfoliated graphene
(Ag/HEG) and then prepared water and ethylene glycol based
stable nanofluids without using any surfactant. By using the chem-
icals of MWNTs and NH4HCO3 with cylindrical roller ball milling
Chen et al. [219] prepared their hybrid nanoparticles and then
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 19. (a) purchased ZnO, (b) surface modified un doped ZnO, (c) 2 mol. % of neodymium-ZnO@0.8 M surfactant, (d) 2 mol. % of neodymium-ZnO@1.6 mol surfactant, (e)
5 mol% neodymium-ZnO@0.8 M surfactant, and (f) 5 mol% neodymium-ZnO@0.8 M surfactant, and (g) 5 mol% neodymium-ZnO@1.6 M surfactant. I) n-butylamine and II)
caprylic acid (Shahmoradi et al. [191]).
prepared Ag/MWNT hybrid nanofluids by using sodium dodecyl
sulfate (SDS) as a surfactant based on two step method. Bhosale
and Borse [220] prepared Al2O3-CuO/water hybrid nanofluids and
studied the critical heat flux in a pool boiling application. Aravind
and Ramaprabhu [221] prepared graphene wrapped MWNT
nanocomposite and synthesized by chemical vapor deposition
technique. By using the wet ball milling process, Nine et al. [222]
synthesized the copper/cuprous oxide (Cu/Cu2O) nanoparticles
and then prepared water mixed hybrid nanofluids. Khairul et al.
[223] considered two-step method for the preparation of TiO2-Cu
by using SDBS as a surfactant.
Harandi et al. [224] applied two-step method for the prepara-
tion of MWCNT-Fe3O4/EG hybrid nanofluids. Afrand et al. [225]
developed Fe3O4-Ag/EG hybrid nanofluid and Ramachandran
et al. [226] prepared water diluted Al2O3-CuO/water hybrid
18
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
nanofluids from the two-step method. Asadi et al. [227] also
adopted two-step method for the preparation of thermal oil-
based MWCNT-Al2O3 hybrid nanofluid. Urmi et al. [228] consid-
ered two-step technique for the development of 40:60% EG and
water based TiO2-Al2O3 hybrid nanofluids. Hamid et al. [229] uti-
lized the same two-step procedure for the development of water-
EG mixed TiO2-SiO2 hybrid nanofluids. Baby and Sundara [230]
also adopted two-step method for the development of CuO-
graphene/EG@heavy water hybrid nanofluids. Seen from the
reports, the hybrid nanoparticles are stable in the base fluids, by
adding various kinds of surfactants. In the two-step technique of
hybrid nanofluids development, the surfactant is necessary and it
plays wide role for achieving stable nanofluids. The production of
nanofluids with single-step and two-step techniques is mentioned
in Fig. 22.
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 20. Magnetization hysteresis (A) Fe3O4 (B) Fe3O4/Ag (FA-3), and (C) Fe3O4/Ag, (D) the sample of FA-3 and (E) separation of FA-3 by an external magnetic field (Yu et al.
[163]).
Fig. 21. (a) Magnetic hysteresis of Ni, and ND-Ni, (inset. coercivity is 80 Oe), and (b)
photo of ND-Ni separation from the water with external magnetic field (Sundar
et al. [59]).
5. Hybrid nanofluids stability
Stability of hybrid nanocomposites in the referenced fluid is
important in order to study their accurate thermophyscial and heat
transfer characteristics. When the hybrid nanoparticles are dis-
persed in various base fluids, due to the density difference between
base fluid molecules and hybrid nanoparticles, after several weeks
or months, the hybrid nanoparticles may settle at the bottom of the
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
base fluids. This problem can be overcome, by providing the sur-
face charge either negative or positive on the surface of the hybrid
nanoparticles, which resulting that the hybrid nanofluids are
stable. Available methods for the stability of hybrid nanofluids
are discussed below.
Before analyzing the stability of hybrid nanofluids, first we have
to understand the stability evaluation methods. The sedimentation
of hybrid nanocomposites in the reference fluid can be analyzed by
using (a) sedimentation and centrifugation technique, (b) zeta
potential analysis, (c) spectral analysis method, (d) 3-x method,
(e) electron microscopy and (f) light scattering method.
5.1. Sedimentation and centrifugation method
The simple method to evaluate the nanofluids stability is sedi-
mentation and centrifugation method. This method explains that
the weight of the sediment nanoparticles or volume of the sedi-
ment nanoparticles is subjected to an outside force field is an iden-
tification of the prepared hybrid nanofluids stability.
Singh et al. [231] centrifuged the silver/water nanofluids at
3000 rpm and 10 hr. They used polyvinylpyrrolidone as a surfac-
tant and revealed that the nanofluids are remains stable for larger
than one month. Whereas Zhu et al. [232] adopted the sedimenta-
tion balance method for the graphite suspensions. The suspension
volume of graphite at particular time is calculated. The main limi-
tation is the necessity of long-term observation, and to overcome
this limitation centrifugation method is used to know the stability
of nanofluids. Li and Kaner [233] prepared the aqueous polyaniline
colloids and used the centrifugation procedure to determine the
colloidal stability. Fig. 23 represents the schematic diagram of
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 22. Preparation of hybrid nanofluids.
nanofluid stability estimation techniques (Chakraborty and Pani-
grahi [234]). The settling velocity ðV t Þ of the particles may be


determined from stokes law regime Rep < 1 [235].
 
D2p qp  qo x2 X
Vt ¼ ð1Þ
18l
where, particle diameter is Dp , distance between rotation and tube
centrifuge is X, density of the particle is qp , densty of the base fluid
is qo , angular velocity is x, and fluid viscosity is l, respectively.
From the Eq. (1) it is understood that size of the particle, larger
viscosity, and fewer variance of nanoparticle and base fluid are the
key parameters for obtaining lager stability of the nanofluid.
5.2. Zeta potential analysis
The zeta potential is other technique for the determination of
hybrid nanofluids stability. The zeta potential value lower than
±30 mV, the nanofluid is poor stability, moreover, its value is
between 30 and 60 mV, the prepared nanofluids are in good stabil-
ity, whereas, its value is higher than 60 mV, the nanofluids are in
excellent stability.
Chen and Xie [236] used the cationic gemini surfactant as stabi-
lizer for water mixed MWCNT nanofluids. Wang et al. [237] evalu-
ated the stability of the nanofluids with zeta potential and also
evaluated the thermal conductivity of nanofluids with the effects
of nanofluid pH and SDBS surfactant. In general, the attractive
and repulsive potentials are calculated based on the Derjaguin-
Laudau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory. Kim et al. [238] used
zeta potential method for the determination of Au nanofluids sta-
bility and they observed the prepared nanofluids are stable for
more than one month. Zhu et al. [239] determined the zeta poten-
tial of water mixed Al2O3 nanofluids under various pH values and
SDBS concentrations.
5.3. Spectral analysis method
By using the UV–vis spectrophotometer, the stability of the
nanofluids is analyzed. This method gives the quantitative results
with respect to the particle volume concentration. Hwang et al.
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
[240] used UV–vis spectrophotometer for analyzing the stability
of MWCNT nanofluids. Sharif et al. [241] have used 4 step UV–vis
spectral absorbency analysis for the SiO2/PAG lubricant based
nanofluid and they found that the nanofluids are in good stability
in stationary position even after 30 days. Li et al. [242] considered
Cu nanofluids for the analysis of zeta potential at various pH, var-
ious loadings, and surfactant type.
5.4. 3-x method
Munson et al. [243] explained that the stability of suspensions
may be estimated by evaluating the thermal conductivity growth
caused by the nanoparticle agglomeration at different volume con-
centration range, and this approach is known as the 3-x method.
Several works have used this method as discussed by Ali et al.
[244]. Oh et al. [245] determined the stability of water diluted
Al2O3 and ethylene glycol dispersed Al2O3 nanofluids by examining
the nanofluids thermal conductivity for 1 hr. They found that the
thermal conductivity is increased with respect to time. Similarly,
Martinez et al. [246] analyzed stability of water dispersed TiO2
nanofluids and noted that, the nanofluids are unstable at
5.55 min and the nanofluids are stable at 7.18 min, respectively.
5.5. Electron microscopy and light scattering methods
The particle size uniformity can be identified by using micro-
scopy and light scattering methods to identify the nanoparticle
agglomeration. High resolution microscopes of TEM and SEM are
used to take digital image of nanoparticles. Fig. 24 indicates the
SEM photographs of Fe3O4 and MWCNT-Fe3O4 nanoparticles (Sun-
dar et al. [57]). Park et al. [247] studied the particle size of synthe-
sized ZnO-CuO core branch hybrid nanoparticles using TEM
analysis and they also observed a remarkable enhancement of cat-
alytic activity and stability which is seen in Fig. 25. Sundar et al.
[248] also determined the size and shape of the synthesized GO-
Co3O4 hybrid nanoparticles using TEM analysis (Fig. 26).
The scanning electronic microscopy is used for imaging the sur-
face of nanoparticles in a sub microscopic scale. The transmission
electronic microscopy is used to image the internal structure of
the nanoparticle in a nano-meter scale. The TEM has a higher
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 23. Line diagram of the stability analysis; (a) sedimentation determination, (b) transmittance/absorbance determination, and (c) DLS determination (Chakraborty and
Panigrahi [234]).
resolution than the SEM by an order of 10 or more. It depends upon
the researchers interest to characterize the synthesized hybrid
nanoparticles they have to choose the proper microscopic
technique.
5.6. Methods to increase the stability of hybrid nanofluids
5.6.1. Use of surfactant or pH method
The stability of hybrid nanofluids is important and various
authors used various techniques to achieve the stability of hybrid
21
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
nanofluids. By dispersing surfactant into the base fluid also the sta-
bility of hybrid nanofluids can be possible. The surfactant creates
negative or positive charge onto the surface of the hybrid nanopar-
ticles resulting that the hybrid nanofluids are stable. Commonly
used surfactants are such as sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate
(SDBS), oleic acid (OA), nanospherse (NS), sodium dodecyl sul-
fonate (SDS), gum Arabic (GA), cetyl trimethyle ammoniumboro-
hydrate (CTAB), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and etc. Earlier the
authors are used surfactants for the stability of the single phase
nanofluids, in the similar way, for hybrid nanofluids stability also
L. Syam Sundar Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468

Fig. 24. SEM results. (a) Fe3O4 nanoparticles, and (b) MWCNT-Fe3O4 (Sundar et al. [57]).

22
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 25. TEM results. (a) ZnO-Cu2O nanohybrids (b) ZnO-CuO core-branch, (c) HAADFSTEM image, (inset. elemental mapping, Zn is red and Cu is green, and (d) XRD spectra of
ZnO-Cu2O and ZnO-CuO (Park et al. [247]). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
surfactants are required. Sundar et al. [249] utilized sodium dode-
cyl benzene sulfonate surfactant for the preparation of stable
Al2O3/water nanofluid.
Xuan and Li [250] used oleic acid for the preparation of stable
Cu nanofluids. Sundar et al. [59] used nanospherse surfactant for
the preparation of stable ND-Ni hybrid nanofluids. Sundar et al.
[57] also used nanospherse surfactant stable water-MWCNT-
Fe3O4 hybrid nanofluids. Bahari et al. [251] prepared Al2O3-SiO2-
water hybrid nanofluid with different volume fractions and surfac-
tant types of anionic (SDS), cationic (CTAB) and nonionic (PVP) sur-
factants towards its stability. Baghbanzadeh et al. [252] used CTAB
for stable silica–carbon nanotubes hybrid nanofluids; Megatif et al.
[253] used SDBS for stable CNT-TiO2 hybrid nanofluids; Esfe et al.
[254] used CTAB for stable Ag-MgO hybrid nanofluids; Chen et al.
[255] used SDS for stable Ag/MWCNT hybrid nanofluids.
In addition to the surfactant method, some researchers have
used change of pH method for the preparation of stable nanofluids.
The base fluid pH can be adjusted to 3 or 10 by adding few drops of
hydrochloric acid (HCl) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Sundar et al.
[256–258] used change of pH method for the preparation of Fe3O4/
water, Ni/water and nanodiamond/proplylene glycol–water mix-
ture nanofluids.
5.6.2. Stability mechanisms of nanofluids
Due to the gravity the nanoparticles are settled in the base fluid,
whereas the meaning of stability is, the nanoparticle does not form
sedimentation in the base fluid. The rate of particle sedimentation
is expressed by frequency of collisions. Derjaguin, Verway, Landau,
and Overbeek (DVLO) developed a theory which dealt with col-
loidal stability [259,260].
The stability of nanofluids is expressed in terms of polydisper-
sity index (PDI). Less PDI provides the larger nanofluid stability.
Zeta potential is also another technique for nanofluid stability
23
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
measurement. The layer thickness around the particles is men-
tioned in Fig. 27. Zeta potential lower than 30 mV stands for less
stability, it is 30–60 mV stands for physical stability, and greater
than or equal to 60 mV indicates excellent stability [261,262].
6. Thermal properties of hybrid nanofluids
The flow properties of density, specific heat, thermal conductiv-
ity and viscosity of hybrid nanofluids are important for the estima-
tion of heat transfer coefficient. Various instruments are used to
determine the fluid flow properties.
6.1. Density of hybrid nanofluids
With the dispersion of hybrid nanoparticles in reference fluid its
density is increased. Eq. (2) gives the determination of hybrid
nanofluids density. The density of hybrid nanofluids is depends
on the particle weight or volume concentrations, temperatures
and base fluids.
Mass m
qhnf ¼ ð2Þ
Volume v
where qhnf is density of hybrid nanofluid, m is mass, and v is vol-
ume. The units of density are kg/m3.
The density of nanofluids can be measured by using a device
called as hydrometer; it can be measured liquid density (weight
per unit volume) or specific gravity (weight per unit volume com-
pared with water).
Based on the Archimedes’ principle, the density of liquids can be
measured. Based on this method, the liquid is placed on the elec-
tronic balance and measure the weight and then converted into
density by using the Eq. (2).
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 26. TEM results of GO and GO/Co3O4 particles (a) general scan (b) high resolution (Sundar et al. [248]).
When the hybrid nanoparticles weight or volume loadings are
increased, simultaneously, the density of hybrid nanofluids is
raised. Similarly, by the raise of temperatures, the density of the
hybrid nanofluid is decreased.
Law of mixtures can also be utilized to estimate the hybrid
nanofluids density.
qhnf ¼ /np1 qnp1 þ /np2 qnp2 þ qbf ð1  /np1  /np2 Þ
Where q is the density, / is volume concentration (%). The suf-
fixes, hnf, np1, and np2 are hybrid, nanoparticle 1 and nanoparticle
2, respectively, while ‘bf’ represents base fluid.
It is necessary to estimate or measure the hybrid nanofluid den-
sity. The density is the main parameter, which resulting that the
sedimentation of hybrid nanoparticles in the base fluid. Esfe
et al. [254] observed density increase of 9.59% at / = 2.0% vol. of
Ag-MgO/water hybrid nanofluid. Sundar et al. [264] noticed den-
sity rise of 4.45% at / = 0.2% of rGO-Co3O4/water hybrid nanofluid.
Mehryan et al. [265] revealed 1.74% increase of density of 1.0% vol.
of Al2O3-Cu/water nanofluid. Yarmand et al. [266] have observed
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
0.14% enhancement in density of 0.1 wt% of GNP-Ag/water nano-
fluid. Ramalingam et al. [267] also observed the density rise for
using 50 W:50EG based Al2O3-SiC nanofluids. Oliveira et al. [268]
also observed the increased density of ND-Ag/EG hybrid nanofluid.
Sundar et al. [269] also obtained an increased density with
60 W:40EG based ND-Fe3O4 nanofluids. The density of different
nanofluids has been shown Fig. 28.
ð3Þ
6.2. Specific heat of hybrid nanofluids
By utilizing the differential scanning calorimeter, the nanofluids


specific heat C p can be determined. The C p is the amount of heat
or energy required to change one unit mass of a substance of a con-
stant volume by 1 °C and the equation is given below.
Q
C p;hnf ¼ ð4Þ
mðDT Þ
where, Q is the heat energy, m is the mass, C p is the specific heat, DT
is the change in temperature.
24
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 27. Interfacial phenomena of particles suspended in fluid (Timofeeva et al. [263]).
Mixture model for hybrid nanofluids density evaluation:


/np1 C p;np1 þ /np2 C p;np2 þ 1  /np1  /np2 C p;bf
C p;hnf ¼
qhnf
The base fluid or hybrid nanofluids specific heat may be esti-
mated and seen that, the hybrid nanofluids offering lower specific
heat values than the base fluid. Moldoveanu and Miena [270]
observed 18.38% decrease of specific heat at / = 3% vol. of Al2O3-
Si2O3/water hybrid nanofluid. Wole-Osho et al. [271] also noticed
30.12% decreases in specific heat at / = 1.67% vol. of Al2O3-ZnO/
water. Ho et al. [272] also found a decrease of specific heat by
13.17% at / = 3% vol. of Al2O3-MEPCM/water hybrid nanofluid. Said
et al. [273] found 0.17% decrease in specific heat of / = 0.2% rGO-
Co3O4/water hybrid nanofluid. Akilu et al. [274] observed the
decrease of specific heat for glycerol and ethylene glycol mixture
based SiO2-CuO/C hybrid nanofluid compared to base fluid.
Fig. 28. (a) Density of 60 W:40EG ND-Fe3O4 nanofluid (Sundar et al. [269]), (b) rGO/Co3O4-water (Sundar et al. [264]).
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
Wanatasanappan et al. [275] found 26.22% lower of specific heat
at / = 0.6% Al2O3-CuO hybrid nanofluid. Fig. 29 indicates the speci-
fic heat of hybrid nanofluids.
ð5Þ
6.3. Thermal conductivity of hybrid nanofluids
Hybrid nanofluids are may be called as two or more single
phase nanoparticles combined together. This combination may
be of chemical bonding or physical bonding. The determination
of thermal conductivity is necessary while they use in particular
applications. The instrument such as KD-2 pro is considered for
utilizing the estimation of thermal conducitivty. These thermal
conductivities are with respect to wide range of particle loadings
and temperatures. The hybrid nanofluids are offering lager thermal
conductivity data against to mono nanofluids. This enhancement
depends on the influence of base fluid, loadings, particle size, par-
ticle shape and temperatures.
25
L. Syam Sundar Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468

The particle size and shape are the influencing parameters on
thermal conductivity. In general, the cylindrical and spherical
shape nanoparticles are scope for these investigations. Cylindrical
shaped nanoparticles present higher thermal conductivities than
the spherical shape because of the large surface area. The hybrid
nanofluids thermal conductivity is also depends on the tempera-
ture of the fluid. Increased temperature of the hybrid nanofluids
is an advantage for higher thermal conductivity values. Few
research works related to thermal conductivity are presented here.
Initial research related to thermal conductivity of water dis-
persed CNT-Cu and CNT-Au nanofluids have been carried by Jana
et al. [276] and they found lower of thermal conductivity against
the pure Au and Cu based nanofluids. Shahsavar et al. [277] have
prepared Fe3O4-CNT nanofluid using gum arabic and tetramethy-

Fig. 29. Specific heat of various hybrid nanofluids, (a) SiO2-CuO/C@60:40 glycerol and ethylene glycol mixture (Akilu et al. [274]) and (b) rGO-Co3O4/water (Sundar et al.
[264]).

Fig. 30. Thermal conductivity of various hybrid nanofluids. (a) ZnFe2O4/water (Gupta et al. [284]), (b) SiO2-CuO/C@60:40 glycerol and ethylene (Akilu et al. [274]), (c) rGO/
Co3O4/water (Sundar et al. [264]) and ND-Fe3O4/60 W:40EG (Sundar et al. [269]).

26
L. Syam Sundar Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468

Table 2
The khnf values are summarized.

Particle type Reference Fluid khnf enhancement in % Authors

Al2O3- MEPCM Water Significant intensification in the thermal conductivity of hybrid nanofluids by 13% Ho et al. [288]
at particle loadings of 10 %Al2O3 and 10% MEPCM at a temperature of 30 °C.
MWCNT-c-Al2O3 Water In this study, the hybrid nanofluids were prepared by diluting the MWCNT-Al2O3 Abbasi et al. [289]
nanoparticles into water and noted down the TC augment of 20.68% by the
dispersion volume loading of 0.1% and at a temperature of 25 °C.
Al2O3-Cu Water In this work, the khnf of hybrid nanofluids were studied up to 2 percent volume Suresh et al. [283]
loadings. In this study, evidence showed that the TC is increased by 12% at / = 2%
and at a temperature of 32 °C.
80 %SiO2-20 %MWCNT Water In the current study, the water mixed 80:20% SiO2-MWCNT hybrid nanofluids were Baghbanzadeh et al. [253]
studied the khnf at various concentrations. The study evidence shows, the khnf is
raised by 16.7% under the particle loading of 1% and at a temperature of 40 °C.
SiO2-MWCNT (50:50) Water In the current study, 50:50% SiO2-MWCNT hybrid nanofluids khnf was investigated Baghbanzadeh et al. [253]
up to / of 1 percent. In this work, evidence showed that the khnf is 12.3% higher
against water data and at a temperature of 27 °C.
CNT-Au DI water In this study, the evidence showed that the khnf is enhanced by boosting the / in Jana et al. [277]
CNT-Cu this experiment and observed that the use of nanoparticles has a substantial impact
on growing the khnf compared with the base fluid.
Fe3O4-CNT Water The khnf is enhanced with an increase of particle loadings as well as temperatures in Shahsavar et al. [278]
this study. The research is evident that, the khnf is augmented to 34.26% with a
particle loadings of 2.428% of Fe3O4 and 1.535% of CNT (weight percent) and at a
temperature of 55 °C.
CNT-Al2O3 Water In the current study, the khnf was investigated in a / concentration of 1 percent. In Esfe et al. [279]
this work, evidence showed that the khnf is 18 percent higher compared to water at
/ = 1% and at a temperature of 57 °C.
f-MWCNTs-Fe3O4 Ethylene glycol In this work, the khnf of EG based hybrid nanofluids were investigated. It is evidence Harandi et al.
that, the khnf is raised by 30% at a particle concentration / of 2.3% and at a
temperature of 50 °C.
Ag-MgO DI water The evidence of the research indicates that, the khnf of hybrid nanofluid is Esfe et al. [290]
augmented by 10% at volume concentration / of 2%.
Cu-TiO2 60 %W:40 %EG The outcome of the research work shows an increase of thermal conductivity of Esfe et al. [280]
mixture hybrid nanofluid by 24 percent under the particle volume loadings of 2 percent and
at a temperature of 60 °C.
SWCNT-MgO (20:80) Ethylene glycol The research outcome mentioned that, the khnf of EG based hybrid nanofluid is Esfe et al. [281]
augmented to 18 percent with the particle volume loading / of 2% and at a
temperature of 50 °C.
ND-Fe3O4 Water In this study, HNF at 20  T  600 C and at 0  /  0:2% was investigated. The Sundar et al. [59]
20:80% evidence of this study provides an augmented khnf by 17.8% by introducing particle
EG/W volume loading of 0.2% and at a temperature of 60 °C.
40:60% EG/W It is evidence from the study, the khnf is raised by 13.4 percent with particle
60:40% EG/W concentrations of 0.2% and at a temperature of 60 °C.
The study reveals that, the khnf was raised by 13.6% for / = 0.2% and at 60 °C.
Provided from the above experimental study, the khnf is raised by 14.6% at for
/ = 0.2% and at 60 °C
Fe3O4-graphene Kerosene Evident from the current study, the khnf is increased by 31.0% at weight Askari et al. [291]
concentration of 1.0% and at a temperature of 50 °C.
GNP-Ag Water The outcome of the current research indicates that the khnf is enhanced by 22.22% at Yarmand et al. [292]
a weight loadings of 0.1% and at a temperature of 40 °C.
GNP-Pt Water Significant enhancement in khnf of hybrid nanofluids by 17.7% at particle weight Yarmand et al. [293]
loadings of 0.1% with a temperature of 40 °C.
ND-Ni Water This study has been performed at 20  T  600 C and at 0  /  0:3%. For this Sundar et al. [59]
analysis, the particle sizes of Ni and ND were considered as 9 and 5 nm, where the
final ND-Ni size is 23 nm. They observed that khnf enhancement with higher
temperatures and particle loadings.
ND-Co3O4 Water The study was conducted under the conditions of 20  T  600 C and at Sundar et al. [66]
EG 0  w  0:15%. The results showed that the khnf of HNF is directly relied on
20:80% temperature. At the elevated temperatures and loadings, the khnf is enhanced. The
W/EG
khnf is raised at 60 °C and a fraction of 0.15 wt%, a rate of 15.7 percent.
40:60 % W/EG
Results indicated that an increment of 8.71% for the khnf of hybrid nanofluid at
60:40 % W/EG
0.15 wt% and at 60 °C.
Significant augment in khnf was found with hybrid nanofluids of 13.4% at 0.15 wt%
and at 60 °C.
Results indicating the augment in khnf of 11.3% at 0.15 wt% and at 60 °C.As
the nanoparticles loadings and temperatures, the khnf is largely enhanced. It is seen
that khnf augment of 10.1% with 0.15 wt% and at 60 °C.
SiO2-Cu Water The hybrid nanofluids provide a larger khnf than the base fluid and those are also Amiri et al. [294]
larger with higher / and temperature values. The hybrid nanofluids khnf is increased
to 15.9% at / = 1.0% vol. and at 40 °C.
Ethylene glycol Significant enhancement in khnf was seen in the current study of 18% with a particle
volume loadings of 1% and at a temperature of 40 °C.
Co3O4/GO Water The study was conducted at 20  T  600 C and at 0  /  0:2%. As results Sundar et al. [265]
EG mentioned that, the khnf was boosted with larger volume loadings of 0.2% and at
Water and EG larger temperatures of 60 °C.

27
L. Syam Sundar
lammonium hydroxide and found thermal conductivity increase of
34.26% at a temperature of 55 °C at mass concentration of 2.42% of
Fe3O4 and 1.535% of CNT.
Esfe et al. [61] considered water mixed CNT-Al2O3 fluids and
studied thermal conductivity under the temperature range from
27 to 57 °C and / vary from 0.02% to 1.0%. Another studies, Esfe
et al. [62,278] considered Cu-TiO2/60 W:40E and 20 %SWCNT-
80 %MgO@EG nanofluids for thermal conductivity study, respec-
tively. Harandi et al. [279] performed thermal conductivity for f-
MWCNTs-Fe3O4 (50:50)/EG hybrid nanofluid in / vary from 0.1%
to 2.3% and temperature vary from 25 to 50 °C. Suresh et al.
[280] observed 12.11% enhancement in thermal conductivity at
/ = 2% Al2O3-Cu/water hybrid nanofluid. Aravind and Ramaprabhu
[281] noticed 13.7% and 24% in thermal conductivity enhancement
at / = 0.04% of graphene wrapped water immersed MWCNT
nanofluids at temperatures of 25 °C and 50 °C, respectively. By
using 60 %SiO2-20 %CuO-C@60G:40EG, Akilu et al. [274] deter-
mined thermal conductivity and seen its rise of 6.9% at / = 2%.
Taherialekouhi et al. [282] have seen increased thermal conduc-
tivity of GO-Al2O3 hybrid nanofluids opposite to base fluid. Sundar
et al. [264] observed thermal conductivity raise of 7.77%, 9.90% and
17.76% for 0.05%, 0.1%, and 0.2% vol. of rGO-Co3O4 nanofluids at a
temperature of 60 °C against its base fluid. The increased thermal
conductivity ratio was noticed by Oliveira et al. [268] with EG
diluted ND-Ag fluids. Munkhbayar et al. [266] found thermal con-
ductivity higher by 14.5% for Ag-MWCNT hybrid nanofluid when
compared with MWCNT nanofluid alone. Thermal conductivity of
Fig. 31. (a) ZnFe2O4/water (Gupta et al. [284], (b) SiO2-CuO/C@60:40water + ethylene glycol (Akilu et al. [274]), (c) rGO/Co3O4/water (Sundar et al. [264] and ND-Fe3O4/
60 W:40EG (Sundar et al. [269]).
28
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
different hybrid nanofluids is shown in Fig. 30 at different particle
concentrations and temperatures. In Table 2 the avilable literaure
related to the enhancment percentage of thermal conductivities
for various kind of hybrid nanofluids are summarized.
6.4. Viscosity of hybrid nanofluids
The absolute viscosity of fluids will be affected by dispersing
nanoparticles into them. Viscosity definition says the fluid resis-
tance. A Newtonian fluid is said to obey Newton’s law, whereas,
a non-Newtonian fluid is said to be viscosity change with respect
to shear rate. The rise in viscosity of nanofluid effects on the drop
in pressure of the fluid. Utilizing the hybrid nanofluids in a system
leads to higher viscosity. Glycerin.
Akilu et al. [274] have seen the viscosity rise by 1.33-times at
/ = 2% of 80 %SiO2-20 %CuO-C@60 %Glycerin:40 %EG mixture
nanofluids. The viscosity of various kinds of hybrid nanofluids is
mentioned in Fig. 31. By using the water based ND-Fe3O4 nanoflu-
ids Sundar et al. [60] revealed larger viscosities. Similar nature of
viscosity rise with nanfluids has been found by Kazemi et al.
[289]. From EG based ND-Ag nanofluids data Oliveira et al. [268]
has seen larger viscosity values. Soltani and Akbari [290] found
similar larger viscosities with EG mixed MgO-MWCNT nanofluids.
Asadi and Asadi [297] observed 85% enhancement in viscosity for
MWCNT-ZnO engine oil hybrid nanofluid. Table 3 indicates the
summarization of viscosity of various hybrid nanofluids.
L. Syam Sundar Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468

Table 3
The lhnf values are summarized.

Particle type Refrence lhnf increase in terms of percentage Authors

fluid
Al2O3-Cu Water Significant enhancement in viscosity of hyrbid nanofluids was observed in this study. From the Suresh et al. [283]
reuslts one can noticed that, the visocsity is enahnced to 115% at particle volume loading of 2%
and at 32 °C.
Ag-MgO Water The hybrid nanofluids provide a larger lhnf than the base fluid and those are also larger with Esfe et al. [290]
higher / values. The hybrid nanofluidslhnf is increased by 24% at / = 2 vol
SiO2-MWCNT DI-water The outcome of the current research indicates that the lhnf is enhanced by 13% at a particle Baghbanzadeh et al. [63]
loadings of 1% and at a temperature of 40 °C.
Fe-CuO EG/W The hybrid nanofluids provide a larger lhnf than the base fluid and those are also larger with Bahrami et al. [64]
higher / and lowered to the temperature values. The hybrid nanofluids lhnf is increased to 1.1% at
/ = 1.5% vol. and at 25 °C.
MWCNT-SiO2 EG/W Current study shows an enhanced lhnf than the base fluid and the hybrid nanofluid is enhanced Eshgarf and Afrand [298]
by 20% at a volume loadings of 2% and at 27.5 °C.
MWCNT-ZnO EO The present study gives a larger viscosity enhancements with hyrbid nanofluids by diluting more Asadi and Asadi [297]
nanoparitcles into the base fluid. The augments are upto 45% % at / = 1.0% and 55 °C.
SiO2-MWCNT SAE 40 As the current study provides an information about the augment of viscosity, which is euqals to Afrand et al. [299]
37.4% by diluting 1% laodings of nanoparticles in the base fluid and at 60 °C.
Al2O3-MWCNT SAE 40 The results significantly shows that because of the increased resistance between the fluids layers Dardan et al. [300]
the viscosity of the nanofluids is enhanced. The enhanceemnt is nealy equals to 46% at / = 1% and
at 25 °C
MWCNT-SiO2 SAE 40 As one can observe that the augmented viscosity because of the augmented shear resistance and Esfe et al. [301]
which is higher at higher volume loadings. The augmented values are 30% at / = 1% and at 40 °C.
Fe3O4-Ag EG Significant enhancement of viscosity with the hybrid nanofluids was provided in this current Afrand et al. [302]
study, the increased values are nearly equals to 70% at 0.3 percent volume loadings and at 25 °C.
MgO-MWCNT EG The evidence of the research indicates that, the lhnf of hybrid nanofluid is augmented by 168% at Soltani and Akbari [296]
volume concentration / of 1% and at a temperature of 60 °C.
MWCNTs-ZnO SAE 40 Hybrid nanofluids give a larger lhnf than the base fluid and those are also larger with higher / and Esfe et al. [303]
lowered to the temperature values. The hybrid nanofluids lhnf is increased to 33.3% at / = 1% vol.
and at 40 °C.
ND-Fe3O4 Water The hybrid nanofluids shows an augmented lhnf values against base fluid and those are also larger Sundar et al. [59]
20:80% with higher / and lowered to the temperature values. The hybrid nanofluids lhnf is increased to
EG/W 70.84% at / = 0.2% vol. and at 60 °C.
40:60% Results have seen from the present study, the lhnf is increased to 119.05% at / = 0.2% vol. and at
EG/W
60 °C.
60:40%
The outcome results provides a lhnf is increase of 50.85% at / = 0.2% vol. and at 60 °C.
EG/W
The overall viscosity of nanofluids is enhanced with larger volume loadings. It is observed from
the present study, the lhnf is increased to 79.5% at / = 0.2% vol. and at 60 °C.
Fe3O4-GNP Kerosene Results have seen from the present study, the lhnf is increased to 65% at 1% weight loading and at Askari et al. [291]
25 °C
GNP-Ag Water Current study provides a viscosity enhancement of 30% at 0.1% weight loading and at 40 °C Yarmand et al. [292]
MWCNT-MgO SAE 50 Results have seen from the present study, the lhnf is increased to 65% at 2% weight loading and at Asadi et al. [304]
25 °C.
GNP-Pt Water Results have seen from the present study, the lhnf is increased to 33% at 0.1% weight loading and Yarmand et al. [293]
at 40 °C.
ND-Co3O4 Water The study was conducted at 20  T  600 C and at 0  w  0:15%. As results mentioned that, the Sundar et al. [66]
EG lhnf was boosted with larger volume loadings of 0.2% and at lower temperatures of 20 °C. It is
20:80% augmented to 28% at 0.15% weight concentration and at 20 °C.As
EG/W the results are mentioned that, the lhnf was boosted 37.5% at 0.15 wt loadings and at 20 °C.
40:60%
One can observe that the larger viscosity was noticed for 0.15 wt% of 36% at 20 °C.As
EG/W
the current data provides the lhnf was boosted 50% at 0.15 wt loadings and at 20 °C. The present
study results provides a larger viscosity enhancemebt upto 47% at 0.15 wt concentration and at
20 °C.

7. Heat exchangers
Wide varieties of heat exchangers are used in various industries
such as food, power sectors, water treatment, production, heating-
vetilation and air-conditioning and many more. The heat exchange
from hot and cold fluids occers in PHE, when both the fluids are at
different temperatures. From the past one decade, the effective
heat transfer between the hot and cold fluids has increased.
7.1. Plate heat exchangers (PHE)
The first commerical plate heat exchanger was invented by
Richard Seligman in the year 1923 [297] and it contains plates, gas-
29
ket and supporting end frames, which are seen in Fig. 32. The PHE
has many advangies including its compact size. The corrugated
plate are provided in the PHE for the purpose of swirl flow of the
fluid and otbaining higher heat tranfer rates. Another advantage
of PHE is its eais to replace the gasket [297]. The hot and cold fluid
flows in an one over another plates channel which is distingushed
by corrugated plates and then the fluid leaving through the inlet
and outlet ports. Fig. 33 shows the wide varieties of PHEs (Tiwari
et al. [53]).
The Fig. 34 indicates the various types of factor used PHEs (Pan-
dya et al. [298]) and provides (a) the brazzed plate heat exchnager
are made with thin stainless-steel plates pack and brazed with
each other with copper material, (b) thermal and hydraulic perfor-
mance of PHEs can highly increase by providing corrugatation, (c)
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 32. A plate heat excahnger diagram (Courtesy Alfa Laval) [297].
Fig. 33. Different types of PHEs (Tiwari et al. [53]).
the semi-welded PHE is made by welding the plates in pair, (d)
fully welded PHEs called as one pair, which are bolted bto the
frame, and (e) wide gap PHEs are needed large flow area.
7.1.1. Experimental study
The performance improvement of PHEs is important. As we all
know that the knf (mono or hybrids) are higher compared to base
fluids like, water, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, engine oil
and etc. By replacing the fluids with nanofluid, PHE can achieve
higher heat transfer performance.
The initial research work has been done by the researchers in
PHE is with single-phase nanofluids. Saleh and Sundar [299] have
utilized Ni/water nanofluid in a PHE. They found that, the overall
heat transfer coefficient, convective heat transfer and Nusselt
number is enhanced by 38.6%, 57.35% and 42.68% at 0.6 vol% of
nanofluid at a Re of 707, compared to water. They also observed
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
that, the 15.70% decrease of thermal entropy generation, 68.29%
increase of frictional entropy generation and 61.73% increase of
pumping power at Reynolds number of 707 over the water data.
The experimental schematic diagram of Saleh and Sundar [299]
is shown in Fig. 35(a) and the specifications of the used PHE are
shown in Fig. 35(b). The Nusselt number of Ni/water nanofluid
and hnf of Ni/water nanofluid of Saleh and Sundar [299] is shown
in Fig. 36 (a-b).
Sarafraz and Hormozi [300] utilized MWCNT/water aqueous
nanofluids through PHE under Reynolds number ranging from
700 < Re < 25000, 0.5% < / < 1.5%, and fluid entrance temperature
ranging from 50 °C to 70 °C and obtained an increased overall heat
transfer coefficient and pressure drop.
Pantzali et al. [42] have used single phase CuO/water nanofluid
and obtained increased heat transfer coefficient. Moreover, Ray
et al. [43] also seen 11% hnf enhancement for use of 0.5% vol. of
L. Syam Sundar Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468

Fig. 34. Different PHEs geometry. (a) Brazed, (b) Corrugated, (c) Semi welded, (d) Fully welded, and (e) Wide gap (Pandya et al. [298]).

Fig. 35a. Schematic diagram of a plate heat exchanger (Saleh, and Sundar [299]).

Al2O3/60:40% EG/W nanofluid in a PHE. Similarly, Haghshenas et al.
[44] used ZnO/water nanofluid and Pandey and Nema [45] used
water mixed Al2O3 in PHE and seen hnf larger values.
For / = 4% vol. of water diluted Al2O3 in PHE, Kabeel et al. [49]
found hnf and pressure drop rise of 13% and 45% with a maximum
power consumption of 95%. Maré et al. [46] have noticed 42% and
50% of hnf enhancements for water dispersed Al2O3 and CNTs nano-
fluds in PHE. For / = 3% vol. of lithium bromide mixed Al2O3 fluid
Chen et al. [48] found hnf and e increase of 116.5% and 93.7%,
respectively.
Zheng et al. [301] used water based Al2O3 (30 nm), SiC (40 nm),
CuO (30 nm) and Fe3O4 (25 nm) fluids in a PHE and studied hnf in
the particle weight loading between 0.05% wt. to 1.0% wt. and in
the flow rate between 3 l/min to 9 lit/min. Their observations indi-
cates nanofluid of Fe3O4 is better performance than nanofluid CuO
and also seen hnf and Dpnf rise of 21.9% and 10.1% for nanofluid of
Fe3O4 at 1% wt. opposite to base fluid. The lines diagram of [302] is
seen to Fig. 37. The overall heat transfer coefficients of various
nanofluids are shown in Fig. 38. The pressure drop of various
nanofluids in PHE at various fluid velocities [301] is provided in

31
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 35b. Specifications of the plate used in plate heat exchanger (Pandya et al. [298]).
Fig. 36. Ni nanofluids (a) Nu, and (b) hnf (Saleh, and Sundar [299]).
Fig. 39. Khoshvaght-Aliabadi et al. [47] used water mixed Cu fluids
in a PFHE and studied heat transfer coefficient up to 0.4% vol. and
observed hnf rise of 24.14%. Zamzamian et al. [302] studied hnf of
aluminum oxide/EG and copper oxide/EG in DPHE at turbulent
flow. Their result proves hnf of nanofluids are larger than their base
fluid and those are raised from 2% to 50%.
Later, the studies have been extended to hybrid nanofluids flow
in a PHE. Bhattad et al. [70] have used Al2O3–TiO2 hybrid nanofluid
in a PHE and they conducted heat transfer experiments in the flow
rate range between 2 lit/min to 4 lit/min and fluid entrance tem-
perature ranges between 10 °C and 25 °C. They seen maximum
hnf raise of 16.91% at 4 lit/min flow rate. Their results are plotted
in Fig. 40. They also observed 4.01% lower of the exergetic effi-
ciency for TiO2 (0:5) hybrid nanofluid.
Kumar et al. [303] used four variety of hybrid nanofluids circu-
late in a PHE and performed exergy data with an optimized con-
centrations and found 24.75% exergy loss with CeO2 + MWCNT/
water hybrid nanofluid and their data is mentioned in Fig. 41.
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
Huang et al. [304] have prepared MWCNT/water (/ = 0.011%)
and Al2O3/water (/ = 1.89%) nanofluids in volume ration of 1:2.5,
which is circulate through PHE, they studied the hnf and observed
Al2O3-MWCNT hybrid mixture offers larger hnf values than the
Al2O3/water nanofluid and base fluid. Their experimental data is
mentioned in Fig. 42.
Bhattad et al. [72] have prepared magnesia- silver and alumina-
silver hybrid nanofluids in the EG + W and PG + W at 20:80% and
studied hnf and heat transfer rates. They have seen hnf rise by
1.6% and heat transfer rate rise by 9.4%, respectively, compared
to base fluid. They observed that Ag + Al2O3 nanofluids perform
better than the other hybrid nanofluid.
7.1.2. Numerical studies
In addition to the experimental analysis for flow of nanofluids
in a PHE, some authors have done the numerical analysis. Tiwari
et al. [305] used numerical analysis to study hnf of CeO2/water
and Al2O3/water by using ANSYS FLUENT. They have observed from
L. Syam Sundar Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468

Fig. 37. The experimental setup of plate heat exchanger (Zheng et al. [301]).

Fig. 38. Overall heat transfer coefficients versus volume flow rate (Zheng et al. [301]).

this analysis, the utilization of nanofluids in a PHE device reduces
the pumping cost and it provides higher heat transfer coefficients
(Fig. 43).
Goodarzi et al. [306] considered GA-MWCNT, f-MWCNT-
cysteine, f-MWCNT-Ag nanofluids in a PHE and hnf by using FOR-
TRAN code under turbulent flow regime. They understand from
the numerical analysis, the increase of particle loadings and
decrease of Peclet number are the key parameter for the rise of
pressure drop and pumping power. They also observed the heat
transfer coefficient increase of 1% vol. of MWCNT-GA nanofluids
is 41.30% compared to water. Khoshvaght-Aliabadi et al. [307] uti-
lized water dispersed Cu nanofluid in PFHE and studied heat trans-
fer coefficient both experimentally and numerically at laminar
flow condition. They have observed 31.25% enhancement in heat
transfer coefficient. Heidary and Kermani [308] used SIMPLE
method to study the hnf of water mixed Cu in a PHE and / ranges
between 0% and 20% and Re ranges between 5 and 1500. They have
seen 25% larger of hnf than base fluid.
Ahmed et al. [309] utilized water mixed Cu nanofluids in a PHE
and study hnf numerically under Re vary from 100 to 1000, and /
vary from 0% to 5%, respectively. They obtained hnf enhancement
of 43.9% at Reynolds number of 200 and at 5% vol. of nanofluid.

33
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 39. Pressure drop versus volume flow rate (Zheng et al. [301]).
Pantzali et al. [310] used both numerical and experimental meth-
ods to study the hnf and Dp of CuO–water nanofluid in a PHE with
4 vol%. They observed that, the overall hnf is raised to 29.41%.
Sheikholeslami and Ganji [311] used homotopy perturbation
method (HPM) to study the Nusselt number of Cu/water nanofluids
in parallel plates and observed Nu increased with an increase of
volume fraction. Sözen et al. [312] prepared TiO2-deionized water
nanofluid by using Triton X-100 nanofluid at a volume concentra-
tion of 0.2% and they performed heat transfer experiments at dif-
ferent temperatures of 40 °C, 45 °C, 50 °C and varying cold fluid
mass flow rates as 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 lpm, while the nanofluids flow
in a PHE and simulated the experimental results with ANSYS Flu-
ent software. They observed maximum improvement rate of 11%
and also observed experimental and numerical results are in good
agreement. Flow of Fe3O4 (30 nm)/water nanofluids in a PHE,
Chtourou et al. [313] studied the heat transfer coefficient numeri-
cally by using k-x turbulence model in the volume concentration
range 0.2% to 1% and at a Reynolds number range of 400–1400.
Fig. 40. Comparison of Nusselt number with Reynolds number for hybrid nanofluids (Bhattad et al. [70]).
34
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
They observed that, heat transfer coefficient and the pressure drop
increase of 5.85 and 2.36-times compared to the standard fluid
with a new PHE design. Fard et al. [314] conducted experiments
for the estimation of heat transfer coefficient of ZnO/water
nanofluids flow in a PHE and concentric tube heat exchangers.
They observed PHE heat transfer coefficient of nanofluid is
enhanced about 20%, similarly for concentric heat exchanger of
nanofluid is augmented up to 14% compared to base fluid. Bozor-
gan et al. [315] used water-based c-Al2O3 nanofluid gasketed plate
heat exchanger and studied heat transfer coefficient. They
observed heat transfer rate augment of 12.3% and pumping power
increase of 1.15% at / = 0.028% compared to water. Singh and
Ghosh [316] used water based Al2O3, graphene nanoplatelet, and
MWCNT nanofluids flow in a PHE and studied heat transfer rate
numerically by using k-epsilon turbulent model. They observed
heat transfer rate enhancement of 9.86, 14.86 and 17.27% using
Al2O3, GnP and MWCNT nanofluids, respectively, at 1% vol. loading.
Singh and Ghosh [317] used Al2O3/water nanofluids in a PHE and
estimated heat transfer coefficient using 3D CFD model. They have
seen numerical results indicate
10% and
7% improvement.
Gherasim et al. [318] used CuO/water and Al2O3/water in a PHE
and studied heat transfer coefficient numerically using k-e turbu-
lence model and their results shows an increased heat transfer
coefficient. Afshari et al. [319] used TiO2-Al2O3/water hybrid
nanofluids in a PHE with 1% particle weight ratio in the Reynolds
number range from 1600 to 3800 and they observed heat transfer
coefficient improvement of 7.5%, 9.6% and 12.3% with heat
exchangers plates with 8, 12 and 16 plates, respectively. Among
all the used numerical analysis methods, most of the researchers
used k-e turbulence model for the heat transfers analysis, because
the flow of nanofluids in PHE is turbulent flow.
7.2. Double pipe heat exchangers
By using hybrid nanofluids in a double pipe heat exchangers its
heat transfer coefficients are increased. Some of the reports related
to the flow of hybrid nanofluids in a double pipe heat exchanger is
provided below. Karouei et al. [320] studied the thermal perfor-
mance of silver-graphene/water and MWCNT-Fe3O4/water hybrid
L. Syam Sundar Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468

Fig. 41. The exergy efficiency of various hybrid nanofluids (Kumar et al. [303]).

Fig. 42. Heat transfer coefficient versus pumping power (Huang et al. [304]).

nanofluids flow in a helical double-pipe heat exchanger numeri-
cally up to 0.3% volume loadings and they found that, the Ag-
HEG/water hybrid nanofluids provides higher thermal perfor-
mance at low mass flow rate. Hussein [321] observed heat transfer
coefficient augmentation of 160% and thermal performance
improvement of 35% at / = 4% aluminum nitride/EG hybrid nano-
fluid under laminar flow. Maddaha et al. [322] studied exergy effi-
ciency of Al2O3-TiO2 hybrid nanofluids flow in a double pipe heat
exchanger under turbulent flow and observed enhanced exergy
efficiency with the use of hybrid nanofluids.
Nasirzadehroshenin et al. [323] studied exergy efficiency exper-
imentally and numerically for the flow of CNT-10 wt% of copper
oxide/water hybrid nanofluids flow in a double pipe heat exchan-
ger and observed enhanced exergy efficiency with the use of
hybrid nanofluids. Singh and Sarkar [324] observed Nusselt num-
ber and friction factor augmentation of 84%, 71% and 47%, and

35
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 43. Temperature profiles. (a) Water, (b) / = 1% of Al2O3, (c) / = 0.75% of CeO2 (all the flow rates of 3 lit/min) (Tiwari et al. [305]).
68%, 57% and 46%, for Al2O3 + MgO hybrid nanofluid by using D-
type, C-D type and C-type wire coil inserts in a double tube heat
exchanger and their experimental Nusselt number is presented
in Fig. 44 and friction factor is provided in Fig. 45. Singh and Sarkar
[325] have observed Nusselt number and friction factor increase of
132% and 55% for Al2O3 + TiO2 hybrid nanofluid flow in a double
pipe heat exchanger and with V-cuts twisted tape inserts.
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Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
Gelis and Akyurek [326] performed heat transfer analysis for
Al2O3-MWCNT/water nanofluids flow in a DPHE by using experi-
mental as well as response surface method at the volume concen-
trations of 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3% and they observed 0.37% and 1.84%
deviations of Nusselt number between experimental and numeri-
cal data. Gelis and Akyurek [327] used factorial resign approach
for the flow of Al2O3-TiO2/de-ionized water hybrid nanofluids flow
L. Syam Sundar Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468

Fig. 44. Nusselt number enhancement of Al2O3 + MgO hybrid nanofluid with wire coil inserts (Singh and Sarkar [324]).

Fig. 45. Friction factor enhancement of Al2O3 + MgO hybrid nanofluid with wire coil inserts (Singh and Sarkar [324]).

in a DPHE and found that this method is an appropriate method for
the analysis. Kanthimathi et al. [328] conducted experiments for
20:80% EG-water SiC nanofluid flow in a double pipe heat exchan-
ger (DPHE) with a U-bend and they observed 55.29% and 1.148 of
heat transfer and thermal performance enhancement at 0.08% vol.
and at a Reynolds number of 9000.
37
7.2.1. Numerical studies
The numerical analysis related to the use of nanofluids in a
DPHE is provided here. Naik et al. [329] considered water based
Al2O3, Cu, Ag, TiO2, SiO2, and Fe nanofluids in a DPHE and analyzed
heat transfer numerically. They generated DPHE model in solid
works and used SIMPLE technique and discretized using finite vol-
L. Syam Sundar
ume approach to solve the governing equations and observed that
the heat transfer rate increases with the increase of the flow rates
and concentration of nanoparticles. Ali and Shehab [330] consid-
ered the double pipe heat exchanger as shown in the Fig. 46 and
they analyzed thermal performance factor numerically and
observed at a Reynolds number of 10000, the thermal performance
factor is enhanced by 9.07. Mohanty et al. [331] analyzed the per-
formance of a Double Pipe Heat Exchanger [DPHE] by using Com-
putational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) package [FLUENT 14.0] and
observed an enhanced heat transfer rates and friction factor of
the fluid. Anitha and Pichumani [332] considered CNT-Cu/water,
CNT-Al2O3/water, CNT-Cu/SA, and CNT-Al2O3/SA nanofluid in a
DPHE and analyzed the overall heat transfer coefficient numeri-
cally and observed that, with Newtonian hybrid nanofluid, the heat
transfer rate of double-tube heat exchanger is increased to 30%,
and the overall heat transfer coefficient is increased to 25%, and
the performance index of heat exchanger is increased to 67% with
Fig. 46. Mesh generation (a) general models; (b) dimples tube with stagger arrangement; (c) dimples tube with in-line arrangement (Ali and Shehab [330]).
Fig. 47. Temperature distribution in shell wall (a) Water (b) Al2O3 + Cu/water hybrid nanofluid at 20% nanoparticle volume concentration and 90:10 nanoparticle proportions
(Anitha et al. [335]).
38
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
Newtonian hybrid nanofluid. Asadi et al. [333] considered Ag-
MoS2 and Fe3O4-SiO2 hybrid nanofluids in a DPHE and observed
heat transfer coefficient enhancement of 62.21% for 1% vol. of Ag-
MoS2 hybrid nanofluid numerically.
7.3. Shell and tube heat exchangers
Goldanlou et al. [334] have conducted numerical analysis for
the estimation of heat transfer coefficient of Fe3O4-CNT/water
hybrid nanofluid flow in a shell and tube heat exchangers with
blade shaped inserts and observed an enhanced heat transfer coef-
ficient. Anitha et al. [335] have observed heat transfer coefficient
enhancement of 139% and 25% for Al2O3-Cu/water hybrid nanoflow
and Cu/water nanofluid flow in a shell and tube heat exchanger
and their obtained temperature profiles are provided in Fig. 47.
Malika et al. [336] have observed Nusselt number and pressure
drop increase of 33% and 13% for CuO + ZnO (80:20)/water hybrid
L. Syam Sundar
Fig. 48. Schematic of geometry and grid network (Heydari et al. [342]).
Fig. 49. Effective heat transfer coefficient vs. weight concentration by different temperature for laminar flow (Re = 1698.927) (Aghabozorg et al. [301]).
nanofluid flow in a shell and tube heat exchanger using ANSYS
software. Singh and Sarkar [337] used Al2O3 + MWCNT, Al2O3 + Ag,
Al2O3 + Cu and Al2O3 + TiO2 hybrid nanofluids as a coolant in shell
and tube heat exchanger and found maximum exergy efficiency of
29.97% for Al2O3 + Ag and minimum exergy efficiency of 29.81% for
Al2O3 + MWCNT at 1% vol.
Aghabozorg et al. [338] observed heat transfer coefficient
enhancement for laminar and turbulent flow at 0.1 wt% of hybrid
Fe2O3-CNT magnetic nanofluids of 13.54% and 27.69%, respectively,
they also observed at 0.2 wt% for laminar and turbulent flow
enhanced up to 34.02% and 37.50%, comparison with distilled
water (Fig. 48). Esfahani and Languri [339] conducted exergy loss
experiments for graphene oxide/water nanofluids flow in a shell
and tube heat exchanger under both laminar and turbulent condi-
tions. They observed higher exergy loss of 109% for graphene oxide
nanofluids than water under laminar conditions.
39
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
7.3.1. Numerical studies
The numerical analysis related to the use of nanofluids in a shell
and tube heat exchangers (STHE) are provided here. Bellahcene
et al. [340] considered water based Al2O3 nanofluids in a shell
and tube heat exchanger and analyzed convective heat transfer
phenomena numerically and observed an enhanced heat transfer
rates. Ghazanfari et al. [341] used CFD realizable k-e and realizable
k-e 2nd order models to anlyze the heat transfer coefficient of
Al2O3/water nanofluid in a shell and tube heat exchanger and
observed heat transfer increased of 20%, compared to base fluid.
Fig. 49 indiactes the grid network of shell and tube heat exchanger
generated by Heydari et al. [342] and they considered water and
ethylene glycol based Al2O3, CuO, Fe2O3, Cu, Fe, SiO2, and Au
nanofluids and analyzed heat transfer rates by using the three
dimensional approach while they flow in a shell and tube heat
exchanger and observed ethylene glycol based nanofluid leads
L. Syam Sundar
higher effectiveness compared with water based nanofluid in
exchanger. Hajabdollahi and Hajabdollahi [343] considerd Boeh-
mite alumina nanoparticles of four different shapes including pla-
telets, blades, cylindrical and bricks for the shell and tube heat
exchanger numerical analysis and observed effectiveness increase
of 1.24% and reduction in annual cost of 3.75% for blade shape
nanoparticle compared with other shape nanoparticles (Fig. 50).
7.4. Shell and helical coil heat exchangers
Maghrabie et al. [344] conducted heat transfer experiments for
the flow of Al2O3/water, and SiO2/water nanofluids in a shell and
helically coiled tube heat exchanger (SHCHE) in the volume con-
centrations (/) of 0.1%, 0.2%, and 0.3% and in the Reynolds number
range from 6000 to 15000. They observed at a Reynolds number of
6000 by using Al2O3/water nanofluid at a 0.1% vol., the Nusselt
number and the effectiveness is enhanced by 35.7% and 35.5%,
respectively. Srinivas and Vinod [345] prepared water based
Al2O3, CuO and TiO2 nanofluids by using cetyltrimethyl ammo-
nium bromide (CTAB) surfactant and conducted effectiveness
experiments while they flow in a shell and helical coil heat exchan-
ger. They observed effectiveness increase of 30.37%, 32.7% and
26.8% for Al2O3, CuO and TiO2 nanofluids, respectively. Falahat
et al. [346] evaluated exergy efficiency and pumping power of
Al2O3/water nanofluid through a helically coiled tube heat exchan-
ger under turbulent flow and observed nanofluids volume concen-
tration from 2% to 6%, the thermal exergy destruction reduced to
3.64% to 20.21% compared to pure water. Palanisamy and Kumar
[347] used MWCNT/water nanofluids in a shell and helical coil heat
exchanger and conducted experiments at 0.1%, 0.3%, and 0.5% vol-
ume loadings and at Dean number range from 2200 < De < 4200.
They observed Nusselt number augment of 28%, 52% and 68%
higher than water for the nanofluids of 0.1%, 0.3% and 0.5% respec-
Fig. 50. Effective heat transfer coefficient vs. weight concentration by different temperature for laminar flow (Re = 1698.927) (Palanisamy and Kumar [347]).
40
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
tively. They also found that, the pressure drop of 0.1%, 0.3% and
0.5% nanofluids are 16%, 30% and 42% respectively higher than
water.
7.4.1. Numerical studies
The numerical analysis related to the use of nanofluids in a shell
and helically coiled tube heat exchangers (SHCHE) are discussed
below. Omidi et al. [348] numerically analyzed the Al2O3-water
nanofluids flow in a helical coil heat exchanger and observed Nus-
selt number increase of 28% compared to water. Fuxi et al. [349]
analyzed numerically for the flow of hybrid nanofluids in a shell
and tube heat exchanfer with different tuhe helical coil pitch and
observed for the helical coil pitch of 20 mm, the maximum Nusselt
number is 15.8%, 26%, and 45.3% more than that of 25, 40, and
50 mm, respectively. They also observed, Nusselt number increase
of 45.7%, 61.7% and 76% between the / = 4% and / = 0 for the heli-
cal coil pitch of 20 mm, against 25, 40 and 50 mm, respectively.
Fsadni et al. [350] considered numerical analysis for the Al2O3-
water nanofluid flow in helically coiled, hybrid rectangular-
circular tubes under constant wall heat flux and observed an
enhanced heat transfer coefficients. Hasan et al. [351] considered
Al2O3, CuO, SiO2, and ZnO nanofluids in a helical heat exchanger
and analyzed heat transfer rates numerically and observed heat
transfer rate increase of 80% by utilizing 2 rib head geometry and
66% by using 30 coil revolutions. Naik and Vinod [352] used
Fe2O3, Al2O3 and CuO nanoparticles in aqueous carboxymethyl cel-
lulose (CMC) base fluid nanofluids and observed CuO/CMC-based
nanofluid showed better heat transfer than the other Fe2O3 and
Al2O3 nanofluids. Shafiq et al. [353] observed numerically (RNG -
k-e model), the Nussel tnumber and pressure drop increase of
31.5% and 47.35% for 0.5% vol. of MWCNT/water nanofluid in a
helical coil tube heat exchanger.
L. Syam Sundar
8. Hybrid nanofluids challenge on performance of the system
The hybrid nanofluids are the discovered fluids and currently
under heat transfer examination stage. These hybrid nanofluids
have several challenges while using them in a system (Fig. 51).
There are various contradictory statements between experimental
results, theory, and practical use in a system. The main challenge
raised with the hybrid nanofluid is it stability and it is a big chal-
lenge. For the case of single nanoparticle based nanofluids, the sta-
bility was achieved with known techniques, but for hybrid
nanoparticle based nanofluids, the solution can have hybrid
nanoparticles resulting that positive and negative surface charges.
Hence, for the preparation of hybrid nanofluid an intension must
be given by considering these points (Sundar et al., [354]). It is nec-
essary to know the things of suitable nanoparticles, synthesis of
hybrid nanoparticles, bonding between the various nanoparticles
and proper surfactant before use in the system.
Cost of hybrid nanoparticles is also one of the main challenges.
To overcome this challenge, the commercialization of hybrid
nanoparticles should be considered. This can be achieved through
the governments worldwide by providing a subsidy for the
nanoparticles manufacturing multi-national companies (Yang
et al., [355]). Another challenge for using hybrid nanofluids is its
increased viscosity opposite to base fluid. The increased viscosity
leads to larger values of drop in pressure and also pumping power
(Kumar and Arasu [356]). So, more focus is required to establish
low viscosity hybrid nanofluids.
9. Advatanges and disadvantages of the hybrid nanofluids
There are several advantages and disadvantages with the hybrid
nanofluids while they use in the thermal devices.
9.1. Advantages
The hybrid nanofluids demonstrate higher thermal conductivi-
ties when compared to suspended particles of nanometer diame-
ters that were utilized in base fluids to enhance the heat transfer.
To create hybrid nanofluids, a variety of particles, including metal-
Fig. 51. The challenges of hybrid nanofluids.
41
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
lic and nonmetallic ones, can be incorporated into the base fluids.
The heat transmission rates are improved by the significantly
greater relative surface area of hybrid nanoparticles compared to
those of ordinary milli and micro sized particles. The hybrid
nanofluids provide faster heat transfer rates than the mono
nanofluids. The synergestic properties can be achieved by using
the hybrid nanoparticles to prepare the hybrid nanofluids.
9.2. Disadvantages
Wide varieties of hybrid nanoparticles are not freequantly man-
ufacturing and producing by several commercial companies,
because of the lack of customers, this is major disadvantage.
Researcher has to prepare the hybrid nanoparticles and to verify
whether the hybrid nanoparticles are formed or not through vari-
ous characterization techniques, this is also major disadvantage.
The long term stability of hybrid nanofluids is also a big challenge.
Dispersed hybrid nanoparticles may result in a number of serious
issues, including the blockage of flow channels and the erosion of
pipe lines due to the particles’ abrasive effect. The pumping power
is boosted when hybrid nanofluids are used.
10. Selection of hybrid nanoparticles and base fluid
The production procedure and choosing of the hybrid nanopar-
ticles are both essential in the process of forming of hybrid
nanofluids. Choosing the simple synthesis technique and hybrid
nanoparticles can save the fabrication and characterization time.
Few necessary steps/points to follow for selecting the hybrid
nanoparticles and reference fluid are shown here (Chamsa-ard
et al., [357]).
 The particle size, shape, type, temperature, and so on is the nec-
essary parameter for producing the hybrid nanoparticles.
 The proper proportion of hybrid nanoparticle to the diluted
fluid is required for obtaining significant enhancement in knf
and less viscosity from the prepared hybrid nanofluid. It is nec-
essary to match the larger hnf and smaller drop in pressure.
L. Syam Sundar
 Choosing the proper hybrid nanofluid pH is important and it is
related to temperature, particle loadings and variety of base flu-
ids, etc., because these affect the hybrid nanofluids thermo-
physical properties.
 Few reports related to the fouling factor impact of nanofluids,
but they overlooked the effect on the fluid dynamics. For exam-
ple if fouling takes place (nanoparticles settle) inside the tube it
will give the similar wettability property when the coatings will
take place.
The young researchers and scientists should consider the above
mentioned points for selecting the synthesis of proper hybrid
nanoparticles and base fluids for their fourth coming research
work.
11. Current status, challenges and the future direction of
technology
Literature survey provides to obtain a knowledge related to the
use of hybrid nanofluids flow in various heat exchangers. The
research gap for future research work is identified and listed
below.
The main task is the preparation of highly stable of hybrid
nanofluids, because the thermophysical properties of hybrid
nanofluids is purely depends on the stability of the nanofluids. If
the nanofluid is not stable, it is no more called as nanofluids, it is
like a simple base fluid.
Identifying, developing, and characterization of cheap price and
high thermal conductivity hybrid nanofluids is another future
direction work, which can be done by synthesizing high quality
hybrid nanoparticles.
The thermal efficiency analysis related to the plate heat
exchangers with wide variety of hybrid nanofluids need to be
focused on.
Investigations are required to understand the optimum combi-
nation of hybrid nanofluids and with optimum particle loadings.
The applications of phase change material hybrid nanoparticles
in plate heat exchangers need to be analyzed.
More research is necessary to understand the effect hybrid
nanoparticles shape, size, surfactant, and base fluid on the hnf of
hybrid nanofluids, while they flow in various heat exchangers.
The hnf may vary for utilizing the hybrid nanofluids in a PHE,
once plate thickness, corrugate pattern, angle, and pitch varies,
that means it needs further investigations.
Use of various surfactants on the heat transfer characteristics
and stability of hybrid nanofluids.
12. Summary
This review paper explains about synthesis of hybrid nanoflu-
ids, characterization, and hybrid nanofluids production, thermo-
physical properties of nanofluids and use of hybrid nanofluids in
different heatt exchanger systems. Some of the identified findings
after the review process are summarized below.
There are two types of methods such as physical synthesis and
chemical synthesis techniques are utilized for the production of
hybrid nanoparticles. Among them, the chemical synthesis tech-
nique is easy and cost effective.
The various procedures for the stability of hybrid nanofluids are
mentioned. The particle surface charge is an important technique
to achieve stable hybrid nanofluids.
The khnf property of hybrid nanofluid is larger than mono nano-
fluid. Hybrid nanoparticle surface morphology like shape and size
are the major factors on the thermal conductivity. Under fixed par-
42
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 44 (2023) 101468
ticle loading, lesser size hybrid nanoparticles are providing better
performance than the large size nanoparticles.
Lesser size nanoparticles generate higher particle Brownian
motion resulting that higher heat transfer rates.
Hybrid nanofluid viscosity rises due to the rise in particle load-
ings and lowers to the larger temperatures. Decreased viscosity of
the hybrid nanofluid with respect to temperature provides larger
velocity of nanoparticles in the reference fluid resulting that
enhanced knf and heat transfer rate.
Utilization of hybrid nanofluids in different heat exchangers
was examined to understand the heat exchanger efficiency.
The heat exchangers with hybrid nanofluids provide a larger
effectiveness at larger mass flow rates and particle volume
loadings.
Different types of PHEs like corrugated, chevron and
corrugated-chevron, the corrugated type PHE gives a promisable
heat transfer rates.
The increase in Reynolds number and operating temperature is
the key parameter for obtaining higher heat transfer coefficients.
Conclusively the use of hybrid nanofluids in PHE with wide
variety of base fluids is necessary for fully understanding.
The hybrid nanoparticles manufacturing and price, after that,
the hybrid nanofluids stability, power required to pump, and prop-
erties are the main drawback that restrict the larger scale produc-
tion of nanofluids. In spite of all the difficulties, the hybrid
nanofluids are offering higher effectiveness while they flow in a
HE.
In spite of various challenges for utilizing hybrid nanofluids in a
system, the fast growth of nanoscience and nanotechnology, the
researchers should identify the effective methods to produce the
long-term stable hybrid nanofluids for obtaining higher heat trans-
fer rates. This review focuses on the hybrid nanoparticles synthesis
procedures, characterization techniques, properties, and applica-
tions in HE. This review also addresses various challenges faced
towards the utilization of hybrid nanofluids. More research is nec-
essary to overcome all the challenges to use the hybrid nanofluids
form laboratory experiments to commercialization.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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