Chapter 1
schools)
The Human Organism
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy:
•investigates body structure •the
term means to dissect Physiology
•investigates processes and
functions
•Human Physiology •studies
the human organism Systemic
Physiology: • studies body organ-
systems Cellular Physiology:
•studies body cells
Importance of Anatomy and
Physiology
Understand how the body:
• responds to stimuli
• environmental changes
• environmental cues
• diseases
• injury
Types of Anatomy
Systemic:
•studies body organ-systems
•studies body regions (medical
Surface:
•studies external features, for
example, bone projections
Anatomical imaging:
•using technologies (x-rays,
ultrasound, MRI)
Six levels from chemical to
organism:
1.Chemical:
•smallest level •atoms,
chemical bonds, molecules
2.Cellular:
•cells: basic units of life
•compartments and organelles
•examples are mitochondria,
nucleus
3.Tissues:

•group of cells with similar

structure and function plus
extracellular substances they
release

•four broad types

Epithelial
Connective Muscular 6.Organisms
Nervous
•all organ systems working
together

•includes associated
microorganisms such as intestinal
bacteria
4.Organs:

•two or more tissue types acting

together to perform
function(s)

•Examples: stomach, heart, liver,

ovary, bladder, kidney

5.Organ-System:

•group of organs contributing to

some function

•for example, digestive system,

reproductive system
MAJOR ORGANS OF THE
BODY
Characteristics of Life
Organization:
•functional interrelationships
between parts
Metabolism:
•sum of all chemical and physical
changes sustaining an organism
•ability to acquire and use energy
in support of these changes
Responsiveness:
•ability to sense and respond to
environmental changes
•includes both internal and
external environments
Characteristics of Life2
Growth:
•can increase in size
•size of cells, groups of cells,
extracellular materials
Development:
•changes in form and size
•changes in cell structure and
function from generalized to
specialized—differentiation
Reproduction:
•formation of new cells or new
organisms
•generation of new individuals
•tissue repair
Homeostasis1
Homeostasis:
•maintenance of constant
internal environment despite
fluctuations in the external or
internal environment
Variables:
•measures of body properties
that may change in value
Examples of variables:
body temperature
blood glucose levels
heart rate
blood cell counts
blood pressure
respiratory rate
Homeostasis
Normal range: normal extent of
increase or decrease around a set
point
Set point: normal, or average
value of a variable
Over time, body temperature
fluctuates around a set point
 correction: reversal of deviation
toward set point and normal
range

Homeostasis
Homeostasis
Set points for some variables can
be temporarily adjusted The components of feedback:
depending on body activities, as
1.Receptor:
needed:
•detects changes in variable
Examples
2.Control center:
body temperature Common
cause of change body •receives receptor signal
temperature
•establishes set point • sends
-fever signal to effector

heart rate, blood pressure 3.Effector:

respiratory rate
•directly causes change in
Common cause of change body
variable
temperature

-exercise

Homeostasis

Negative feedback is the main

mechanism used homeostatic
regulation.

• A negative feedback response

involves:

detection: of deviation away from

set point and
HOMEOSTASIS
Negative Feedback
Control of Body
Temperature
Homeostasis

Positive feedback mechanisms

occur when the initial stimulus
further stimulates the response

•system response causes

progressive deviation away from

•set point, outside of normal

range

•not directly used for

homeostasis

•some positive feedback occurs

under normal conditions Example:
childbirth

•generally associated with injury,

disease

•negative feedback mechanisms

unable to maintain homeostasis

Homeostasis

Comparison of negative feedback

and positive feedback
Terminology
and the Body
Plan

Anatomical position:

•person standing
erect with face and
palms forward

•all relational
descriptions based on
the anatomical
position, regardless of
body orientation
Superior: above

Inferior: below

Anterior: front
(also: ventral)

Posterior: back
(also: dorsal)

Note: In four-legged
animals, the terms
ventral (belly) and
dorsal (back)
correspond to
anterior and
posterior in humans
Medial: close to
midline

Lateral: away from

midline

Proximal: close to
point of attachment

Distal: far from point

of attachment

Superficial: structure
close to the surface

Deep: structure
toward the interior of
the body
 Body Planes 1

Sagittal plane: separates the body

into right and left parts

Median plane: a sagittal plane

along the midline that divides body
into equal left and right halves

Transverse plane: a horizontal

plane that separates the body into
superior and inferior parts.

Frontal plane: a vertical plane that

separates the body into anterior
and posterior parts.
Planes of Section Through an Organ
Body Regions
Upper limbs:

• upper arm, forearm, wrist,

hand Lower limbs:

• thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot

Central region:

• head, neck, trunk

Subdivisions of the Abdomen

Body Cavities
1

Thoracic cavity:
• space within chest wall
and diaphragm
• contains heart, lungs,
thymus gland,
esophagus, trachea
Mediastinum:
• space between lungs
• contains heart, thymus
gland, esophagus,
Abdominal cavity:
• space between
diaphragm and pelvis
• contains stomach,
intestines, liver, spleen,
pancreas, kidneys

Pelvic cavity:
• space within pelvis
• contains urinary bladder,
reproductive organs,
part of large intestine Figure 1.13

Pericardium and Pericardial Cavity

Pericardium
• visceral pericardium
covers heart
• parietal pericardium
thick, fibrous
• pericardial cavity
reduces friction
 Pleura and Pleural Cavity
Pleura
• visceral pleura
covers lungs
• parietal pleura
lines inner wall
of thorax
• pleural cavity
• reduces friction
• adheres lungs to thoracic wall

Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity

Peritoneum
• visceral peritoneum
• covers, anchors organs
• double layers called
mesenteries
• parietal peritoneum
lines inner wall of
abdominopelvic
cavity
• peritoneal cavity
reduces friction