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THE SCIENCE OF RUGBY
Coaches, practitioners and medical staff working in the worldwide sport of rugby
will frequently apply scientific principles to their programmes to inform the
practice, performance, health, well-being and development of their athletes.
This book explores the scientific principles underpinning the preparation and
management of rugby players in both codes and modified versions of the sport.
Applied examples are also provided throughout to understand the practical
application of the material in a real-world context. This new edition of The
Science of Rugby offers a significant contribution to the field of rugby science that
will act as a useful resource to scientists, coaches, practitioners and students
interested in rugby.
New chapters and key topics include:
• Physical and psychological preparation for rugby

• Planning and monitoring of training
• Managing fatigue, recovery and nutrition
• Effects of different environmental conditions and travel on performance
• The mechanics of rugby techniques and injury
• Young players and talent identification
• Considerations for training the female rugby player
• Modified rugby, including rugby sevens, touch, tag and wheelchair rugby
No other book bridges the gap between theory and applied practice in rugby,
from grass roots to elite international standard, and therefore this is essential
reading for any student, researcher, sport scientist, coach, physiotherapist or
clinician with an interest in the game.
Craig Twist is Professor of Applied Sport & Exercise Science at Liverpool John
Moores University, UK, and has primary research interests in the training and
monitoring of rugby players. Craig is an accredited Sport and Exercise Scientist
with the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences.
Paul Worsfold is Head of Biomechanics at the UK Sports Institute and Professor

in Sports Biomechanics and Performance Analysis at the University of Chester,
UK. His applied and research interests are primarily focused on optimising athlete
movement and technology to enhance performance and reduce injury.
THE SCIENCE OF
RUGBY
Second Edition
Edited by Craig Twist and Paul Worsfold

Designed cover image: peepo / Getty Images
Second edition published 2023
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2023 Taylor & Francis
The right of Craig Twist and Paul Worsfold to be identified as the authors of
the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has
been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
[First edition published by Routledge 2015]
ISBN: 978-0-367-49213-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-49211-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-04505-2 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003045052
Typeset in Bembo
by MPS Limited, Dehradun
For Alfie, Harry and Suzy. I love you all so very much.
Craig Twist
To my family, for your continued love and support.

Paul Worsfold
CONTENTS
List of Figures x
List of Tables xii
About the Editors xiv
List of Contributors xv
Introduction 1
Craig Twist and Paul Worsfold
1 Physical Preparation for Rugby 2

Tim J. Gabbett
2 Strength and Power Training for Rugby 15

Daniel Travis McMaster, Michael R. McGuigan, and
Nicholas D. Gill
3 Monitoring the Match and Training Demands of Rugby 29

Mark Waldron, Erwan Izri, and Craig Twist
4 Monitoring Fatigue and Training Adaptations in Rugby

Players 47
Craig Twist and Jamie Highton
viii Contents
5 Match Day Strategies to Enhance the Physical and

Technical Performance of Rugby Players 68
Mark Russell, Samuel P. Hills, Christian J. Cook, and
Liam P. Kilduff
6 Strategies to Enhance Recovery in Rugby Players 83

Jamie Highton and Craig Twist
7 Nutrition for Rugby 101

Graeme L. Close, Andreas M. Kasper, and James P. Morton
8 Training and Playing in the Heat: Strategies for the Rugby

Player 126
Rudi Meir, Neil Chapman, and Mike Climstein
9 Practical Considerations for Team Travel, the Lifestyle

of Elite Athletes, Travel Fatigue, Infection and Coping
with Jet Lag 140
Ben J. Edwards, Tom Clark, Anna C. Fitzpatrick,
Colin M. Robertson, and Neil P. Walsh
10 Psychological Preparation for Rugby 159

Stephen D. Mellalieu and Rich Neil
11 Performance Analysis in Rugby 173

Nimai Parmar, Nic James, and Wilbur Kraak
12 The Biomechanics of Rugby 186

Neil E. Bezodis, Ezio Preatoni, Dario Cazzola, and
Elena Seminati
13 Injury Epidemiology in Rugby 207

Niki Gabb, Grant Trewartha, and Keith Stokes
14 Talent Identification, Development, and The Young

Rugby Player 222
Stephen Cobley and Kevin Till
Contents ix
15 The Female Rugby Player 239

Emma Ross
16 Modified Rugby 258

Craig Twist
Index 275
FIGURES
1.1 Influence of physical qualities on rugby performance 11

2.1 Force-power-velocity continuum. (McMaster 2012, with
permission.) 23
4.1 Factors influencing fatigue and recovery of players during and
after rugby-related activity 49
5.1 A timeline profiling the typical practices used on match day by
professional rugby players 69
5.2 Theoretical timeline of interventions for use on match day 77
7.1 Potential CHO periodisation strategy for a rugby player 106
7.2 Theoretical timeline of protein intake throughout the day for a
120 kg rugby player trying to achieve 2 g·kg-1 body mass per
day of protein, performing resistance training in the morning
and a field-based rugby session post lunch 109
8.1 Avenues of heat exchange for the rugby player 128
9.1 Mean circadian changes in core (rectal) temperature measured
hourly in 8 subjects: living normally and sleeping from 24:00 to
08:00 h (solid line); and then woken at 04:00 h and spending
the next 24 h on a “constant routine” (dashed line). (Based on
Reilly et al., 1997.) 144
9.2 Circadian rhythm of rectal temperature with a cosine curve
superimposed on 24 h of raw data 149
9.3 Schematic representation of advancing the circadian rhythm of
rectal temperature by 10 h or delaying it by 14 h after an eastward
flight across 10 time zones. Shading indicates night time 150
11.1 Example standardised performance profiles of opposing rugby
league teams, based on their previous five matches, according
Figures xi
to score margin (defined as unbalanced when the team won or

lost by more than 12 points (two tries) or balanced when less
than 12 points) 177
11.2 An example momentum graph of opposing rugby union teams
from a competitive match 180
12.1 Peak compression force at engagement 189
12.2 A summary of the differences in key biomechanical features
between tackle types 192
12.3 A summary of the key biomechanical features associated with
successful rugby place kicking performance 195
13.1 Injury incidence by body region for men’s elite rugby 210
13.2 Injury proportion by body region for community standard
men’s rugby 213
13.3 Comparison of the range of incidence rates recorded across the
rugby playing population 218
14.1 The biological and chronological age mismatch: maturity bias 228
14.2 Relative age distribution of junior rugby league players (i.e.,
Under 13–15s combined) according to generic TID system
stages. (Data from Till et al. (2010b) with permission.) 230
14.3 Percentage change in anthropometric and fitness indices across
a 2-year period according to maturity status in young rugby
league players. (Data redrawn from Till et al., 2013.) 231
14.4 Effect size changes and coefficient of variation (CV) in physical
indices over a 4-year period in academy rugby league players.
(Data redrawn from Till et al., 2015.) 233
15.1 A typical menstrual cycle, showing fluctuations of oestrogen
and progesterone, and the four points where hormone
concentrations, and/or ratio of oestrogen and progesterone
are distinctly different. (Published with permission from The
WellHQ.) 246
TABLES
1.1 Physiological and anthropometric qualities of high-performance

rugby league players selected to start the first National Rugby
League (NRL) game (i.e., professional ‘starters’), interchange
players (i.e., professional ‘non-starters’), and those not selected
(semi-professional players). (Data from Gabbett et al., 2011d.) 8
2.1 Dose-response guidelines for strength and power development
in rugby code athletes (see McMaster et al., 2013b) 21
4.1 Typical tests for assessing the physical qualities of rugby players 56
4.2 An overview of tools for measuring fatigue and recovery status
in rugby players 59
6.1 Types of cryotherapy used to enhance recovery of performance 87
7.1 Likely daily CHO requirements for rugby players during a
typical week 104
7.2 Summary of the major non-prohibited supplements used by
athletes 116
8.1 Strategies to assist players when training and playing in warm/
hot and humid environments 131
9.1 Circadian variation in various performance measures in males 144
9.2 Is there an optimal timing of performance after three-time-zone
travel eastwards or westwards? 145
9.3 Recommendation for the use of bright light to adjust the body
clock after time-zone transitions 152
9.4 Comments and considerations related to performance, timing
of training and roles of naps and habit in time of training 153
9.5 Ten recommendations to avoid infection and maintain immune
health in athletes (adapted from Walsh 2018) 154
13.1 Incidence and severity in community rugby literature 212
Tables xiii
13.2 Injury incidence in youth rugby 214

13.3 Injury incidence and injury severity in women’s rugby 216
14.1 A summary of England Rugby Union’s TID system 225
15.1 Anthropometric characteristics of female rugby players 241
16.1 Physical qualities of male and female representative sevens,
touch and tag players. Values are mean ± SD 261
16.2 Summary of movement variables during a typical match quarter
for national men’s wheelchair players. Values are mean ± SD 268
ABOUT THE EDITORS
Craig Twist is Professor of Applied Sport & Exercise Science at Liverpool John
Moores University and has primary research interests in the training and
monitoring of rugby players. Craig is an accredited Sport and Exercise Scientist
with the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences.
Paul Worsfold is Head of Biomechanics at the UK Sports Institute and Professor in

Sports Biomechanics and Performance Analysis at the University of Chester, UK.
His applied and research interests are primarily focused on optimising athlete
movement and technology to enhance performance and reduce injury.
CONTRIBUTORS
Neil E. Bezodis, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Swansea University,

Swansea, UK.
Dario Cazzola, Department for Health, University of Bath, UK.
Neil Chapman, Faculty of Health, Sport and Exercise Science, Southern Cross
University, Australia; Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Sport and Exercise
Science, Bond University, Australia.
Tom Clark, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores
University, UK.
Mike Climstein, Faculty of Health, Sport and Exercise Science, Southern Cross
University, Australia.
Graeme L. Close, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores
University, UK.
Stephen Cobley, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Sydney, Australia
Christian J. Cook, School of Science and Technology, University of New

England, Australia.
Ben J. Edwards, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores
University, UK.
Anna C. Fitzpatrick, School of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Central
Lancashire, UK.
Niki Gabb, Department for Health, University of Bath, UK.
Tim J. Gabbett, Gabbett Performance, Australia.

xvi Contributors
Nicholas D. Gill, New Zealand Rugby Union, New Zealand, Sports Performance
Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology,
New Zealand.
Jamie Highton, Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of
Chester, UK.
Samuel Hills, Faculty of Science and Technology, Bournemouth University.
Erwan Izri, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Swansea University,

Swansea, UK.
Nic James, School of Science and Technology, Middlesex University, UK.
Andreas M. Kasper, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John

Moores University, UK.
Liam P. Kilduff, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Swansea University,
Swansea, UK.
Wilbur Kraak, Department of Sport Science, Stellenbosch University, Cape
Town, South Africa.
Michael R. McGuigan, Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand
(SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand.
Daniel T. McMaster, School of Health, Sport and Human Performance, The
University of Waikato, New Zealand.
Rudi Meir, Faculty of Health, Sport and Exercise Science, Southern Cross
University, Australia.
Stephen D. Mellieu, Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff, UK.
James P. Morton, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores
University, UK.
Rich Neil, Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff, UK.
Nimai Parmar, School of Science and Technology, Middlesex University, UK.
Ezio Preatoni, Department for Health, University of Bath, UK.
Colin Robertson, Engineering, Sports and Sciences Academic Group, University

of Bolton, UK.
Emma Ross, The WellHQ
Mark Russell, School of Sport and Wellbeing, Leeds Trinity University, UK.
Elena Seminati, Department for Health, University of Bath, UK.
Keith Stokes, Department for Health, University of Bath, UK.

Contributors xvii
Kevin Till, Institute for Sport, Physical Activity and Leisure, Leeds Beckett
University, UK.
Grant Trewartha, Department for Health, University of Bath, UK.
Craig Twist, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores
University, UK.
Mark Waldron, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Swansea University,
Swansea, UK.
Neil Walsh, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores
University, UK.
INTRODUCTION
Craig Twist and Paul Worsfold
The application of science by coaches, practitioners and medical staff is now

commonplace in most worldwide rugby programmes. Indeed, rugby science
continues to be an evolving field of research that is used to inform the practice,
performance, health, well-being and development of rugby players and coaches at
all standards.
This book examines the scientific principles underpinning the preparation and
management of male and female rugby players in rugby union, league and
modified versions of the game (e.g., sevens, touch, tag, wheelchair). The intention
is to offer a contribution to the field of rugby science that will act as a useful
resource to scientists, coaches, practitioners and students interested in rugby.
Key topics include:
• Physical and psychological preparation for rugby

• Monitoring of rugby training and competition
• Managing fatigue, recovery and nutrition for rugby players
• Effects of environmental conditions and travel on rugby players’ performance
and health
• The mechanics of rugby techniques and injury
• Young rugby players and talent identification
• The female rugby player
DOI: 10.4324/9781003045052-1
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THE SCIENCE OF RUGBY

• Physical and psychological preparation for rugby

Paul Worsfold is Head of Biomechanics at the UK Sports Institute and Professor

Edited by Craig Twist and Paul Worsfold

ISBN: 978-0-367-49213-7 (hbk)

To my family, for your continued love and support.

1 Physical Preparation for Rugby 2

2 Strength and Power Training for Rugby 15

3 Monitoring the Match and Training Demands of Rugby 29

4 Monitoring Fatigue and Training Adaptations in Rugby

5 Match Day Strategies to Enhance the Physical and

6 Strategies to Enhance Recovery in Rugby Players 83

7 Nutrition for Rugby 101

8 Training and Playing in the Heat: Strategies for the Rugby

9 Practical Considerations for Team Travel, the Lifestyle

10 Psychological Preparation for Rugby 159

11 Performance Analysis in Rugby 173

12 The Biomechanics of Rugby 186

13 Injury Epidemiology in Rugby 207

14 Talent Identification, Development, and The Young

15 The Female Rugby Player 239

16 Modified Rugby 258

1.1 Influence of physical qualities on rugby performance 11

to score margin (defined as unbalanced when the team won or

1.1 Physiological and anthropometric qualities of high-performance

13.2 Injury incidence in youth rugby 214

Paul Worsfold is Head of Biomechanics at the UK Sports Institute and Professor in

Neil E. Bezodis, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Swansea University,

Christian J. Cook, School of Science and Technology, University of New

Tim J. Gabbett, Gabbett Performance, Australia.

Erwan Izri, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Swansea University,

Andreas M. Kasper, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John

Nimai Parmar, School of Science and Technology, Middlesex University, UK.

Ezio Preatoni, Department for Health, University of Bath, UK.

Colin Robertson, Engineering, Sports and Sciences Academic Group, University

Elena Seminati, Department for Health, University of Bath, UK.

Keith Stokes, Department for Health, University of Bath, UK.

The application of science by coaches, practitioners and medical staff is now

• Physical and psychological preparation for rugby

Strength and Power Training for Rugby

Monitoring the Match and Training Demands of Rugby

Monitoring Fatigue and Training Adaptations in Rugby Players

Match Day Strategies to Enhance the Physical and Technical

Nutrition for Rugby

Practical Considerations for Team Travel, the Lifestyle of Elite Athletes,

Psychological Preparation for Rugby

Performance Analysis in Rugby

The Biomechanics of Rugby

Injury Epidemiology in Rugby

The Female Rugby Player

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