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 POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

Historical
Antecedents in which
Social Considerations
Changed the Course of
Science and
Technology
 POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

Historical antecedents in
which social considerations
changed the course of
science and technology:
In the World: Ancient,
Middle, and Modern Ages
The First Inklings of
Science
Egyptians
• Egyptian medicine employed methods that involved trial and error.
• Ancient Egyptian physicians discovered that applying moldy bread to an
open wound promoted faster and cleaner healing. In modern science,
it's understood that certain molds found on bread can produce
penicillin, a compound known for its antimicrobial properties.
• Egyptian doctors administered poppy seeds to patients in pain.
Consumption of these seeds appeared to alleviate discomfort, a practice
rooted in the fact that poppy seeds contain morphine and codeine, both
of which are potent pain-relieving substances still utilized in
contemporary medicine.
Egyptians
Egyptians
• Papyrus - an ancient form of paper, made from a
plant of the same name.
• As early as 3,000 BC, Egyptians took thin slices of the
stem of the papyrus plant, laid them crosswise on top of
each other, moistened them, and then pressed and
dried them. The result was a form of paper that was
reasonably easy to write on and store.
• The invention of this ancient form of paper
revolutionized the way information was transmitted
from person to person and generation to generation.
Egyptian Science:
Society and Culture
• Believed that their gods controlled the forces of
nature, such as the flooding of the Nile River, the
sun's movement, and the changing seasons
• For Egyptians, the annual flooding of the Nile was
not only a natural event but also a religiously
significant one.
• Believed it was the tears of the goddess Isis that caused the
flood, and influenced their agricultural practices and calendar
Birthplace of Western
Science
Pre-Socrates
• Thales
• Believed that water was the fundamental substance
• Emphasis on observation and naturalistic/rational explanation
• Anaximander
• Proposed the idea of an "infinite" or "boundless" universe called
the "apeiron," which contained all things
• Introduced the notion that living organisms could undergo
transformation and adaptation. He suggested that land and sea
animals might share a common ancestor.
• Anaximenes
• Believed that air was the fundamental substance
• Air could change in density and quality, giving rise to various
substances.
Pre-Socrates
• Leucippus
• Together with his student Democritus, they proposed the idea of atoms as
the fundamental building blocks of the universe
• Their atomic model posited that everything was composed of tiny,
indivisible particles called "atoms." These atoms were eternal, unchanging,
and in constant motion, combining and recombining to form all matter.
• Democritus
• According to him, atoms were eternal, unchanging, and differed in size,
shape, and arrangement. These variations in atoms explained the diverse
properties of different substances.
• Democritus emphasized that all natural phenomena could be explained by
the interactions of atoms in motion, including chemical reactions and
changes in matter.
Socrates
• Not a scientist
• Prided himself on claiming not to know things
• He asked a lot of questions: Socratic Method
• He is a teacher of Plato. Plato was more of a philosopher
than a scientist.
Aristotle
• Observed the world based on empirical evidence
• Believed in teleology, the idea that natural phenomena have
inherent purposes or goals
• Aristotle's writings covered topics such as biology, ethics,
physics, and metaphysics.
• In biology, Aristotle conducted extensive observations and
categorizations of animals and plants, laying the foundation
for the field of biology.
Aristotle's concentric shells of the element

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Aristotle-Concentric-shells-of-the-elements_fig1_263294204
Archimedes (ark uh me’ deez)
• Archimedes did great work in mathematics, and he used
much of what he discovered in math to advance science.
• Archimedes was really one of the first scientists to
demonstrate how closely mathematics and science are
linked.
• Archimedes is probably best known for his work with fluids.
He was the first to show how you could predict whether or
not an object would float in a liquid.
The Golden Age of Islam
Key Highlights
• Advancements in Mathematics:
• The development of algebra by mathematicians like Al-
Khwarizmi, whose name gave rise to the term
"algorithm."
• Astronomical Discoveries:
• Accurate measurement of celestial objects and the
creation of precise astronomical tables.
• Pioneering work in understanding planetary motion and
the development of the astrolabe.
Key Highlights
• Medical Breakthroughs:
• The compilation and translation of medical texts from Greek,
Roman, and Indian sources.
• Contributions to pharmacology, surgery, and the understanding of
contagious diseases.
• House of Wisdom:
• The establishment of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad as a center
for translation and scholarly activities.
• The translation of numerous ancient Greek, Persian, and Indian
texts into Arabic, preserving and disseminating knowledge.
Notable factors that help science
thrive that time
• Stable Sociopolitical Environment
• Influence of Earlier Islamic Scholars
• Cross-Cultural Exchange
• Patronage of Science and Scholarship
• Collaboration of Diverse Cultures
• Availability of Resources
The Progress of Science
Stalls for a While
“Dark Ages of Science”
• Medieval Europe: Europe experienced political turmoil,
economic instability, and a decline in education and
scholarship. Scientific inquiry in the Western world was
limited, and much of the scientific knowledge of ancient
Greece and Rome was lost or preserved only in fragmented
forms.
• The Islamic World: Factors contributing to this decline
included political instability, social changes, and a shift away
from the patronage of scientific endeavors.
“Dark Ages of Science”
• Ming Dynasty China: During the later Ming period, there
was a decline in scientific progress, partly due to political
and economic factors, as well as changes in societal
priorities.
• Post-Classical Maya Civilization: The reasons for this decline
are complex and include factors such as environmental
changes, political unrest, and the loss of knowledge.
Alchemy
• Alchemy has ancient roots, with early practices dating back
to Hellenistic Egypt and ancient China. The word "alchemy"
is derived from the Arabic "al-kīmiyā," which itself was
influenced by the Greek word "chēmeía," meaning "the art
of transmutation."
• Alchemy was closely tied to metallurgy, medicine, and
mysticism, making it a multidisciplinary field.
Alchemy
• Transmutation: One of the primary goals was to discover
the Philosopher's Stone, a mythical substance that could
transform base metals (like lead) into noble metals (like
gold).
• Elixir of Life: Alchemists sought the elixir of life, a potion
that would grant immortality or greatly extend human life.
• Spiritual Enlightenment: Alchemy often had a spiritual and
mystical dimension, with the idea that the pursuit of
material transmutation paralleled the spiritual
transformation of the alchemist.
Alchemy
• Symbolism: Alchemical texts were filled with symbolic
language and imagery, making it difficult for outsiders to
understand their writings.
• Laboratory Practices: Alchemists conducted experiments,
often involving the heating and distillation of substances.
While some of their methods were empirical, others were
based on mysticism.
Scientific Revolution and
Enlightenment
Some notable figures
• Andreas Vesalius (vuh sal’ ee us)
• his publication "De humani corporis fabrica," corrected many
anatomical misconceptions of his time
• Blaise (blayz) Pascal (pas kal’)
• Pascal's Triangle: A mathematical array with applications in various
fields.
• Probability Theory: Pioneered the study of randomness and
probabilities.
• Pascaline: Invented an early mechanical calculator for arithmetic.
• "Pensées": Writings on philosophy and theology, exploring faith and
the human condition.
Some notable figures
• Isaac Newton
• Newton's Laws of Motion revolutionized physics. They
explain how objects move and form the basis of classical
mechanics.
• 1st Law (Inertia): "An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in
motion stays in motion unless acted upon by an external force."
• 2nd Law (Force and Acceleration): "Force equals mass times
acceleration (F = ma)."
• 3rd Law (Action-Reaction): "For every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction.“
Some notable figures
• Isaac Newton
• Universal Law of Gravitation:
• Newton's law of universal gravitation described how every object in
the universe attracts every other object with a force proportional to
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
• Calculus:
• Newton independently developed calculus, a branch of mathematics
that deals with rates of change.
• Optics:
• Newton's experiments with light and prisms led to his groundbreaking
theory of colors and the discovery that white light is composed of a
spectrum of colors.
Some notable figures
• Antoni (an’ ton ee) van Leeuwenhoek (loo’ en hook)
• Leeuwenhoek revolutionized the study of life by building the first
microscope.
• His microscope allowed him to see a world that had been invisible up to
this point, which enabled him to discover many tiny (microscopic) life
forms, including bacteria.
• Robert Boyle
• Known for Boyle's Law, which relates gas pressure and volume
• Distinguished mixtures from chemical compounds
Some notable figures
• Carolus (kair’ uh lus) Linnaeus (lih nay’ us)
• In 1735, Carl Linnaeus pioneer a system for classifying living
creatures
• Linnaeus' classification system, including the rules for scientific
names (binomial nomenclature), is still used today in modern
biology and taxonomy.
• Antoine-Laurent (an twon’ law rent’) Lavoisier (luh vwah’ see ay)
• Law of Conservation of Mass
• Lavoisier provided a comprehensive explanation of the process of
combustion, shedding light on the nature of burning and the role of
oxygen in this chemical reaction.
Industrial Revolution
Highlights
• Technological Revolution: The era marked by game-changing inventions
like the steam engine, transforming manufacturing and transportation.
• Urbanization and Social Shifts: The shift from rural to urban living led to
the growth of cities, significant social changes, and the emergence of
the middle class and labor movements.
• Labor Challenges: Factories and industrialization brought harsh working
conditions, child labor, and the rise of labor movements and unions.
• Global Impact: The Industrial Revolution spread worldwide, reshaping
economies, societies, and contributing to imperialism.
• Environmental Impact: Rapid industrialization had negative
environmental consequences, including pollution and habitat
destruction.
Some notable figures
• John Dalton
• Atomic Model:
• Elements are composed of indivisible particles called atoms,
and chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of these
atoms.
• Law of Multiple Proportions:
• Describes how elements can combine in different whole
number ratios to form different compounds
• Dalton's Symbols:
• System of symbols to represent elements and compounds
Some notable figures
• Michael Faraday
• Foundation of modern electrical technology through
electromagnetic induction.
• Faraday's Law: Changing magnetic fields induce electric
currents.
• Electrochemistry: Laws of electrolysis reveal links
between electricity and chemistry.
• Gregor Mendel
• Laws of inheritance
Transition to Modern
Science
Revolutionizing Health-care: Pre-germ theory

• 1840s Vienna General Hospital

• Higher mortality from puerperal fever in First Clinic
• Cause unknown but leading maternal death factor
• Semmelweis's Investigation
• Identified staff differences: First Clinic - medical
students/physicians, Second Clinic - midwives
• Hypothesized link between autopsies and puerperal fever
• Key Observations and Actions
• Handwashing - aimed to reduce contamination transfer from autopsy
material
• Dramatic Reduction in Mortality - mortality fell from 18% to about 1%
Some notable figures
• Louis Pasteur
• Father of Microbiology
• Fermentation Studies: Pasteur's studies on fermentation
were instrumental in dispelling the notion of
spontaneous generation.
• Pasteurization
• Germ Theory of Disease: Pasteur's work on the germ
theory of disease revolutionized medicine.
• Vaccination: Pasteur created vaccines for several
diseases, including rabies and anthrax.
Some notable figures
• James Joule
• Joule's Law
• Founding the First Law of Thermodynamics
• Contributions to Kinetic Theory
• Max Planck
• Quantization of Energy: Planck's groundbreaking work introduced the idea
that energy exists in discrete units or "quanta”.
• Foundation for Quantum Theory: Planck's quantization concept laid the
foundation for Niels Bohr's atomic model and the development of quantum
mechanics.
• Recognized with the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918.
Some notable figures
• Niels Bohr
• Problem: Classical physics predicted electrons spiraling into the nucleus,
causing atom collapse.
• Solution: Quantized energy levels ("shells") where electrons exist, with
fixed orbits.
• Energy Transition: Electrons absorb/emits energy to move between levels.
• Stability: Fixed orbits prevent continuous energy emission.
• Modern Atomic Theory Foundation
Science is an ongoing cycle of discovery and self-
correction. Each generation continue to shape the
narrative with each new discovery and innovation.
Supplementary Course Materials
Watch:

• History of Science (YouTube Playlist)

• https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL8dPuuaLjXtNppY8Z
HMPDH5TKK2UpU8Ng
Points to ponder
1. Why should we invest time in understanding the history
of science, given that a considerable portion of earlier
scientific conceptions has been invalidated?
2. A popular saying goes: “History is written by winners”.
What can be done so that the history that we have now
or we will have is free of bias?
3. What are the contemporary parallels and lessons that can
be drawn from the history of science, and how do they
resonate with our current culture and society?
References
Harari, Y. N. (2015). Sapiens. Harper.
Module 1: A brief history of science. [PDF]. Retrieved from
https://www.rainbowresource.com/pdfs/products/prod01
7414_smpl0.pdf
Sagan, C. (1997). The demon-haunted world: Science as a
candle in the dark. Ballantine Books.