SPE-183108-MS

Tectonic Map of Abu Dhabi, UAE

Abdelwahab Noufal, ADCO; Khalid Obaid, ADNOC; Mohammed Y. Ali, PI

Copyright 2016, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition & Conference held in Abu Dhabi, UAE, 7-10 November 2016.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
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Abstract
The study of tectonics deals with the broad architecture of the outer part of the Earth, the age, relationship,
evolution of regional structural, deformational, and crustal features.
Subsurface geological maps are perhaps the most important tool used to explore for undiscovered
hydrocarbons and to develop proven hydrocarbon reserves. However, the subject of subsurface mapping
is probably the least discussed in Abu Dhabi, yet most important, aspect of petroleum exploration and
development.
This paper presents the tectonic map for Abu Dhabi based on gravity, magnetic and seismic
interpretations, along with describing the various elements, their controlling faults and their effect on
basin development and also rationalizes previously published structural and tectonic elements to clarify the
kinematic relations and naming of individual tectonic elements.
The method, which combines geologic, geophysical data in a comprehensive way, incorporates these
data to simulate the interrelated effects of deposition and erosion of sediments and compaction, pressure,
petroleum generation and multiphase fluid flow.
The tectonic map of Abu Dhabi distinguishes three principal tectonic cycles: (1) Precambrian cycles are
interpreted using the magnetic data, as there are no wells that penetrated the basement in Abu Dhabi and the
seismic is mostly covering up to Jurassic layers. (2) The Paleozoic cycle began with continental rifting about
550 Ma, followed by inundation of much of Abu Dhabi by shallow seas. This cycle ended with the opening
of the Neo-Tethys, which caused the deposition of the Mesozoic Cycle. (3) The Mesozoic cycle represents
the legacy of ocean opening and the rise and fall of sea level created the stratigraphic and structural features
that would later trap vast quantities of oil and gas. On the tectonic map, major features record this history.
Abu Dhabi is affected by at least seven major tectonic events, which are shaping the present structures.
However, these events can be complicated by the salt-movements (halokinesis) in offshore areas of Abu
Dhabi, which resulted in change of structural relief and faults/fracture characterization particularly for deep
reservoirs.
Understanding of the kinematics and mechanics of the structures will highly impact the preservation of
most of the hydrocarbons, and in turn reveals the new ventures to add reserves for Abu Dhabi.
2 SPE-183108-MS

Introduction
Understanding the structural framework is a key aspect of regional exploration resource potential evaluation.
This enables to determine and predict the structural controls on deposition and understand the nature and
development of trap styles.
Arabian Plate (shield and shelf) was part of Gondwana supercontinent. About 540 million years the oldest
sedimentary rocks were deposited (4.5 to 14 km thick-clastic and carbonates) above the basement. The
closing of the Palaeo-Tethys took place during the late Permian 245 Ma. The Opening of the Neo-Tethys
started during the Early Triassic (extensional regime). The beginning of the salt movement in the offshore
area started during the Triassic time. Faulting in the basement started during the Permian and the Triassic
time. The Semail Ophiolite was emplaced during the Late Cretaceous, which had resulted in folding and
faulting. Closing of the Neo-Tethys started during the Early Tertiary. Opening of the Red Sea by the Middle
to Late Eocene (Noufal, 1997), culminated the start of the NE tilting. The movement of the Arabian crust
under the Iranian crust (Subduction Zone) is about 3 cm/year. During the Upper Jurassic time, Arabia was
located to the South of the Equator (Noufal et al., 2016).
Three Upper Jurassic intra-shelf basins and two basins of Rub al Khali (Early Tertiary), and Ras al Khaima
(Late Tertiary) were developed in the Arabian Peninsula. The first main tectonic event that broadly affected
the Arabian Plate was the Hercynian Orogeny (Fig. 1). The Arabian Plate was extensively uplifted in the
Carboniferous time by the Hercynian orogeny that caused a break and erosion of most Paleozoic sequences
in the area. The sequence stratigraphic, diagenetic, and tectonic histories of the Paleozoic and Jurassic
sequence of the eastern Arabian Peninsula produced an exceptional combination of geologic elements and
conditions favorable for petroleum formation, migration, and accumulation. About 550 commercially oil
and gas fields have been discovered in the Middle East. The geographic occurrence of hydrocarbon in the
region reflects the original facies variation across the depositional shelf and basin and the tectonic history
of basement faults and halokinetic activity. Up to the Oligocene time the Arabian plate was an integral part
of the African Plate.

Figure 1—Abu Dhabi tectonic chart.

SPE-183108-MS 3

The development of trap types has been strongly influenced by the structural trends and styles leading to
the evolution of five genetic types: (1) Basement highs, which are the locations of basement "drape-over"
anticlines (e.g. Sahil, Bab and Bu Hasa). (2) Grabens and terraces, which are sites for inversion anticlines
(e.g. Mushash, Shah Zarrara and Asab). (3) WNW fault zones, which are the locations of positive flower or
pop-up anticlines. Highs are also locations for mound traps. (4) Salt diapirs that control the development of
salt-cored anticlines and salt flank structures. (5) WNW wrench faults, which are potential sealing faults.
This paper presents the tectonic map of Abu Dhabi, which is incorporating geologic and geophysical
information, plate-tectonic and terrane-agglomeration concepts acquired, including those based on the
author's field work in Abu Dhabi and Oman. The maps depict tectonic relations that began to evolve in the
Archean, but continue to evolve because of ongoing deformational activity at the margins of, and within,
the confines of the region shown.
A profitable development of Abu Dhabi fields starts with a good understanding of the subsurface. This
map will help the geophysicists and geologists interpret subsurface data and provide geological models
that form the basis for development planning. This map is constructed based on potential, seismic and well
data, which forms an important part of the evaluation. A check for consistency with structural models, and
against a quick manual evaluation should always be done. In addition, the maps will develop knowledge
on faults dimensions and properties and learn how to perform fault analysis. On top of that, this map
represents a cornerstone, which is essential to develop reasonably correct three-dimensional interpretations
of complexly faulted areas. It allows the interpreter to establish a three-dimensional structural framework
prior to generating prospects.

Potential Data
Potential field methods involvement in the interpretation process assures a greater uniformity of
interpretation coverage, and also important in locating features that are seismically less easy to recognize
such as strike-slip faults, regional discontinuities, dykes, and true basement surface.
A framework of mapped features based on gravity data is generated (Fig. 2). Ideally the data coverage
would enable the interpretation to be set within its regional context. This qualitative understanding is then
used as a basis for detailed quantitative refinement, for example, of depth estimates to tops of anomalous
magnetic bodies generated by various means. A qualitative foreknowledge of the possible significance
of magnetic anomalies and their inter-relationships also benefits the modeling of seismically controlled
magnetic and gravity profiles, helping in the more accurate extrapolation of the results to un-modeled
regions of the study area.
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Figure 2—Total horizontal derivative of Bouguer anomaly map of the UAE.

The modeling configuration relies on seeking consistency between the gravity and the magnetic data
while adhering to sensible geological principles and experience.
The observed correlation of strike between the NNW-SSE Abu Dhabi basin grains witnessed within
the gravity data (Fig. 3) and the generally NW-SE to NNW-SSE wavelength grains of the magnetic data
might suggest that the principal basin rifting faults do intersect basement, and perhaps, link to the top of
the basement via a high angle faults.

Figure 3—(a) Regional and (b) residual magnetic maps of the UAE.

Analysis of the magnetic and Bouguer gravity anomaly bands and their various derivatives reveals a
considerably anatomized network of faults across the study area on basement level and within the overlain
sedimentary section (Figs. 2 and 3). Many elements of these follow magnetic and gravity inflexions and
are of dip-slip nature, and others following lines of discontinuity, are of probable strike—slip nature. The
trends of predominant faults are NNW-SSE/NW-SE, sub N-S, NNE-SSW and NE-SW/ENE-WSW. The
structural interplay between the sedimentary structures drawn from the gravity data and the deeper faults
drawn from the magnetic data is probably quite complex. The ENE-WSW cross-cutting trend is represented
in sedimentary fault network by five (5) long discontinuities within the central part of area, and another
SPE-183108-MS 5

one, lying in the northern part. These faults are interpreted as probable strike-slip faults, and extend across
the full width of the basin. These faults appear to mediate shallow saddle regions that separate a broader
basin in the central, from sub-basins development in the north and the south (Fig. 4). This feature may be of
comparable regional significance, especially as evidence for it is also present in the magnetic data (Fig.3).

Figure 4—(a) Regional and (b) residual Bouguer gravity maps of the UAE.

The association of negative gravity anomalies on the filtered maps indicates basinal areas or depocenters
intervening with the surrounding high blocks. Linear zones of horizontal gradients and tilt angle derivatives
separating these uplifted and intervening basinal areas are ideal expression of dip-slip faults. The steepness
of these zones of horizontal gradients is a direct measure to the dip angle of the faults.
Another significant trend is NNE-SSW, represented by the major discontinuities which extend across the
western part of the study area (Fig. 3). Locally, these lines of lineaments (faults) appear to mark a change
in intra-basin Bouguer gravity relief, thus probably structural reliefs. Relief appears to be greater to the east
of this area, without taking the higher portion related to the outcropping area to the east.
In the high-pass gravity component there are local secondary negative anomalies are located and
controlled by predominant structure directions in the eastern area. The alternating distribution of these
anomalies from south to north the onshore area mostly resulted from (and an indication of) the presence of
salt formation. Because the change of stratum thickness is very large, the variations in characters of local
negative anomalies are possibly resulted from the variation in salt formation thickening and thinning or
diapiric action.

Seismic Data
The basic principle of studying sedimentary faults is to perform a comprehensive fault interpretation based
on the seismic data separated from potential data by referring to log data and regional geology information
(Fig. 5).
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Figure 5—Abu Dhabi Tectonic map with the cross section trends.

The total horizontal gradient anomalies, second vertical and tilt derivatives could clearly indicate
the plane distribution of the faults. Integrating with the seismic and geology information the faults are
interpreted (Fig. 5). In the western area, the faults extend in approximately N-S direction, and in the central
area, the faults mainly extend in NW-SE/NNW-SSE direction. In the eastern part, NE-SW extending faults
were developed. In the northern and middle areas some comparative larger scale transforming faults were
developed with WNW-ESE trending direction, which cut or deformed the NE trending faults. The larger-
scale central faults trending in NNW and N-S directions play an important role in dominating the framework
of uplifts and depressions. The faults trending in NE-SW direction are mainly located in the secondary
tectonic units, which influence smaller-scale slopes and tectonic belts. Based on the scale of faults and its
influence on sedimentary formation and structures, the faults are divided into three classes. First order faults
mainly dominate the framework of depressions and the sedimentary section, including the main controlling
faults to the central and western areas and the transform faults. Second order faults that controlling the
formation of local structural belts and third order small-scale sags.
The faulted blocks in Abu Dhabi area are bounded by large strike-slip faults (Fig. 5). The sedimentary
section is very thick with remarkable unconformities in between. These transform faults, located in the
middle part of Abu Dhabi area and running from east to west extending in NW-SE direction have obvious
evidences on gravity and gradient anomaly maps. These faults cut and reformed the faults extending N-S,
and changed its trend to NE-SW gradually, which are all related to the old basement Najd trending system.
Thereby, the anomaly features in middle part obviously differ from those in the western and eastern areas
(Figs. 2, 3 and 4).
The development of the structural elements and styles in Abu Dhabi are linked to the tectonic evolution
of the entire Arabian Plate. These tectonic episodes are interpreted to have re-utilized pre-existing basement
structures. Reactivation of pre-existing or basement structures is common, which have undergone several
episodes of deformation. Some basement highs are inferred as pre-existing basement lows inverted during
the compressional phase. These include Shah, Zarrara and Mushash anticlines and possibly a minor horst
feature in the Mender High (Johnson et al., 2005), (Figs. 5 and 6). The compressional deformation is
illustrated on a seismic-based cross section profile across South Abu Dhabi (Figs. 5 and 6). Shah anticline
is the most prominent compressional feature. The effects of the compressional episode are also observed
SPE-183108-MS 7

along the WNW trending wrench fault zones in the form of positive flower structures (pop-ups) developed
as a result of transpression along these zones.

Figure 6—Seismic section showing the main faulting styles and systems.

Seismic reflection profiles (Fig. 6), and exploratory well data show that the rifted passive margin sequence
(Middle Permian to Cenomanian, Middle Cretaceous) is ca. 4 km thick, the Upper Cretaceous Aruma
foreland basin thickens northeastward to a maximum thickness of about 4 km along the western margin of
the mountains (Warburton et al., 1990; Boote et al., 1990; Loosveld et al., 1996; Johnson et al., 2005; Ali
et al., 2016), and that the Paleogene Pabdeh foreland in the northern Emirates and west of Musandam is ca.
3 km thick (Ricateau and Riche, 1980). Backstripping of well sections reveal that initial rifting occurred
during the Mid Permian at ca. 260 Ma, and continued through to the Jurassic, with a transition from extension
to compression during the Late Cretaceous, concomitant with formation and emplacement of the Semail
Ophiolite (Ali et al., 2016). Backstrip curves also reveal an increase in tectonic subsidence during the Late
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Cenozoic, concomitant with collision of Arabia with Central Iran and the beginning of the Zagros Orogeny
(Searle et al., 2003&2004).
Seismic data shows a thick Upper Cretaceous foreland basin west of the mountain front, the Aruma fore
deep, that initiated during the Cenomanian (ca. 95 Ma) and attained its maximum relief during the Turonian
ca. 93.5– 89.3 Ma (Patton and O'Connor, 1988). The onset of ophiolite obduction and loading of the thrust
sheets caused the abrupt collapse of the shelf margin during the Cenomanian and initiation of the foreland
flexural basin. The entire ophiolite obduction process occurred beneath sea level. Rare laterite horizons
exist above the ophiolite in Oman showing that the obduction process may have just breached sea level in
places. The foreland basin and the peripheral bulge (Lekhwair bulge) migrated westward during this time
and is recorded by the thickness and numerous intra-formational unconformities in the Aruma sedimentary
fill, comprising the Muti, Fiqa and Juweiza Formations (Robertson, 1987; Robertson and Searle, 1990;
Warburton et al., 1990; Boote et al., 1990; Ali and Watts, 2009). In the UAE and west of Musandam a
second, later foredeep, the Pabdeh Basin developed in front of the Oligocene–Early Miocene Musandam
culmination (Ricateau and Riche, 1980; Searle, 1988; Dunne et al., 1990).
Along the strike of the mountains, the Upper Cretaceous Aruma foredeep shallows towards the north,
whereas the mid- Cenozoic Pabdeh foredeep shallows to the south from in front of the Musandam
culmination. The Pabdeh foreland basin continues to the northwest along the Arabian Gulf where it thickens
as a result of loading of the Zagros hinterland. Both the Upper Cretaceous (Aruma) and Cenozoic (Pabdeh)
foreland basins are characterised by a negative Bouguer gravity anomaly parallel to positive gravity highs
over the ophiolite (Ravaut et al., 1997; Ali et al., 2016).
In Abu Dhabi a curvature map was generated as result of interpreting large datasets of regional 2-D
seismic lines, which shows three main trands are prevailing on the N-S trend located in the western part of
Abu Dhabi, the NE-SW trend in the central area and NW-SE located to the east (Fig. 7). The map showing
that the NW-SE trend is the oldest one, succeeded by the N-S and ending by the NE-SW. It is showing the
NE-SW and N-S trends transferring the stresses along the NW-SE (Fig. 7).

Figure 7—Abu Dhabi attribute map showing the main fault zones. The N-S trend (green ellipse) is stopping along the
ENE trend (move ellipse), which in turn dissipate stresses along the NW-SE (red ellipse). The NE (blue ellipse), trending
faults (lineaments) also transferring the stresses along the NW and also along the NNW (yellow ellipse) trending faults.
SPE-183108-MS 9

Structural Setting
The prevailing regime in Abu Dhabi is the strike-slip, as the older faults are those parallel to the Najd fault
system. Most of the faults in the seismic data of Abu Dhabi are showing no vertical displacement of strata or
rock units on either side. The movement is dominantly horizontal, resulting in the lateral displacement of the
units. They are made up of numerous individual faults. Fault bends, offsets, terminations and branching can
lead to local areas of uplift (transpression) and subsidence (transtension) (Fig. 7). There are five main strike
slip faults systems that controlled the tectonics of the studied area (Fig. 5). These faults are striking N75W,
N45W, N-S, N20E and N50E and subdividing the area into five domains. Tear faults are also encountered
in the study area and can be defined as relatively small-scale, local strike-slip faults that are associated with
other structures such as folds, thrust faults and normal faults.
Strike-slip systems introduce a degree of structural complexity in Abu Dhabi whereby it is usually to find
both transpressional and transtensional features along the length of the fault system. The regional context
is important for interpreting these features properly. They are often poorly imaged and difficult to interpret
on seismic profiles because vertical offset and stratigraphic contrasts across the fault may appear minimal.
Secondary contractional and extensional structures typically form at predictable angles to the orientation
of the strike-slip zone. In map view the maximum and minimum compressional stress are oriented at
approximately 45 degrees to the strike-slip zone and can therefore be used as kinematic indicators for
determining the sense of movement on the fault zone. Note that it is important to determine the relative age
of the structures relative to the strike-slip fault zone. In Abu Dhabi it is thought to be contemporaneous,
therefore can be used as kinematic indicators. Depending on the relationships of the fault trends, it is clear
that the N-57W is the oldest trend, where the N20E and N50E faulting trends are dissipating their stresses
along the N75W (Fig. 7). Also the trends of N20E are younger than the N45W as showing they are generating
from it in figure 4B. The N-S trending faults are older than the N20E as they are dissipating their stresses
along them (Fig. 7).
Our mapping has defined these fault systems that controlled the tectonic of Abu Dhabi. Uplift was
accommodated by a broad antiformal fold and motion on the NW–SE fault system. This deformation is
attributed to localized high compressive stress within the stepover region, driven by slip on the bounding
strike-slip faults. Detailed field results show that significantly higher compressive stresses occur within the
fault overstep region, and computed stress trajectories agree closely with the orientations of contractional
features observed in most of the anticlinal fields of Abu Dhabi (Abu Hijleh et al., 2016). Although the role
of strike-slip faulting in the deformation of the studied area has been proposed previously, this mechanism
provides a new model for the localized uplift and related deformation (Noufal et al., 2015).
Riedel shear structures are common fault patterns identified within shear zones and related to the
embryonic stages of fault formation (Noufal et al., 2015). Geometric analysis of different structures
shows that the spacing of synthetic R-deformation bands increases with the spacing of antithetic R′-
deformation bands (Fig. 8). Systematic correlation is found between the R-band spacing and the angles
formed between R- and R′-bands. Examination of young Riedel structures shows their tendency to localize
along narrow, elongated domains sub-parallel to the shear direction and create denser Riedel networks.
Many authors suggesting the mechanics of the evolution of the shear bands, Sylvester (1988) suggest that
the evolution of Riedel structures is dominated by two mechanisms: (1) discrete faulting in the form of
conjugate deformation bands, generally complying with the Mohr–Coulomb criteria, and (2) granular flow,
which rotates mainly the R′-deformation bands. Both mechanisms are intensified with progressive strain,
decreasing the deformation-band spacing and increasing the R- to R′-angles. The tendency of young Riedel
structures to organize in dense elongated networks is related to strain localization during the shear-zone
evolution. Also suggests a kinematic explanation for the evolution of Riedel-structure networks, which
relates the network geometry to the progressive accumulation and localization of shear strain.
10 SPE-183108-MS

Figure 8—Structures Associated With Strike-Slip Regimes.

On the other hand, strike-slip faulting is characteristic of studied area and are manifested the all other
structures, dip-slip faults are characteristic of localized zones between the strike-slip segments in the area
in a decreasing order. Strike-slip faults are planar and showing flower structures due depth. These faults are
showing sub horizontal slickensides in the outcrops of Gebel Hafit and Ras Al Khaima (Fig. 9).

Figure 9—Horizontal slickensides showing that the thrusts are having a strike-slip component. Wadi Dhaya, RAK.

Tectonic Evolution
A new tectonic map of Abu Dhabi (Fig. 5), was compiled along with a new tectonic chart (Fig. 1), letting
to understand the complex architecture of Abu Dhabi and for a better understanding of the kinematics and
dynamics of deformation (Fig. 10).
SPE-183108-MS 11

Figure 10—Carton model showing the evolution model of Abu Dhabi fields

Analysis of the geometry of the gravity, magnetic and seismic data together with field relations, core and
log data, reveals the following sequences of kinematic steps:

Pre-Cambrian-Cambrian (Najd Fault System-Late Precambrian)

The early Precambrian (800 to 650 Ma) is a compressional phase where a series of islands-arcs and micro-
continent terrain accreted to form the oldest portions of the Arabian Plate (Gondwana). The development of
Hormuz salt basin was a consequence of the last Precambrian orogenic event. The Arabian Plate basement
evolved and consolidated through combination of several island-arc terranes over a long time span in the
Protozoa that commenced about 950 Ma (Gas, 1981). Carbonization by arc accretion culminated about 640
Ma. Each closure and arc collision resulted in deformation and ophiolite obduction preserved as cryptic
sutures; these segment the shield in approximately N-S orientation implying east-west compression and
giving N-S structural grain to the basement. Much of this grain was subsequently offset by the NW-SE
trending strike-slip Najd fault system, segmenting the shield into several great shears. This was probably
linked to both rift-related and collision-related events and spanned the period 640-550 Ma. The basement
lineaments subsequently controlled the distribution of Infra-Cambrian salt and other complex Paleozoic and
Mesozoic structural and sedimentological patterns observed all over Abu Dhabi.
Frequent reactivation of the basement structures probably occurred throughout the Paleozoic. Accretion
of micro continents and arc terrains subjected to regional shearing with the onset of Najd rifting of the
Arabian Infra Cambrian transtensional faulting, this phase lead to the formation of the basement micro-
continents. Due to the basement arching, salt basins are initiated to form. Central Arabia was a stable
subsiding passive margin flanking Gondwanaland.
The oldest rocks in the Arabian Peninsula are coarse clastic sediments of Cambrian-Lower Ordovician
age. These rocks are overlain by the Tabuk Formation (Middle Ordovician - Lower Devonian) which
consists of a thick section of shales alternating with micaceous sandstones. Within this formation there are
two significant unconformities at the beginning and end of the Silurian. The Tabuk Formation is followed
upward by a sequence of sandstone and shale with subordinate carbonates known as Jauf Formation (Middle
- Upper Devonian). The Carboniferous rocks are called "Pre-Khuff clastics" and are overlain by the Khuff
12 SPE-183108-MS

Formation (Permian, Fig. 1). Shallow-marine, fluvial, sandstone, siltstone, and shale were deposited on low-
relief erosion surface formed on the Precambrian basement
During the Late Pre-Cambrian, the basement terranes of the Arabian and adjoining plates were fused
along the northeastern flank of the African plate in Gondwanaland forming a very long, and very wide
stable but gently subsiding "northern" passive margin. Broad shallow empiric seas and adjacent lowlands
covered the region and their areal extents altered in response to succeeding transgressions and regressions.
The events associated with the Najd faulting created several rift-related basins and crustal sags (Husseini,
1988, 1989, 1990). These basins represent the first intra-plate structuring of the newly established shelf.
In these basins, thick cyclic sequences of clastics and carbonates (including several levels of widespread
organic-rich source sediments and a terminal evaporite units), were laid down, represented by the Huff
Group of Oman with equivalents in the shield areas. The evaporites represented by Ara Formation in Oman
& the Hormuz Salt in NE Arabian Shelf.
A Late Paleozoic orogeny is believed to have caused uplift and erosion over most of the Arabian
Gulf (Al Sharan, 1989) and in some parts of the Middle East craton, erosion related to this event cuts
deeply into Cambrian and Pre-Cambrian strata (Murris, 1980). This orogeny is (tentatively) dated as Early
Carboniferous. The influence of this Late Paleozoic orogeny in Abu Dhabi is unclear.
The tectonic and depositional setting of the Arabian plate during the Camaro-Ordovician, Silurian and
Devonian has been recently revised by Husseini (1990). These studies show that after the Infra-Cambrian
and Early Cambrian intra-continental extension, the Arabian and adjoining plates formed a part of a stable
shelf in Gondwanaland from the Middle Cambrian to Ordovician.

Ordovician-Lower Permian
An expanding of polar glaciation in Gondwana occurred in the Late Ordovician, and later sea level rose in
the Early Silurian was a result of the deglaciation which led to extensive deposition of organic-rich shale
(Silurian hot Shale) that corresponds to a maximum flooding surface. This hot shale is considered the major
source of Paleozoic hydrocarbon in Saudi Arabia.
During the Late Ordovician-Early Silurian: The depositional cycle interrupted by polar glaciations,
Arabia at this time was within 30o of the South Pole and Sea level rise and fall caused regression and
transgression of the ocean floor around Gondwanaland. During the Late Ordovician and Early Silurian, the
central and western parts of the Arabian Peninsula were covered by polar glaciers (Sahara glaciers) that
advanced from the South Pole in African Gondwanaland. During this period, non-deposition, erosion, or
marginal marine conditions prevailed in eastern and northern Arabia. Deglaciation in the early Silurian, led
to sharp sea level rise and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean transgressed the Arabian and adjoining plates depositing
a thick, widespread organic rich shale directly over the glaciogenic and periglacial rocks of the Arabian
and north African regions. These were subsequently eroded in a presently undefined pattern over elevated
areas uplifted by "Caledonian" or "Hercynian" related events such that their current subsurface distribution
is not clearly understood.
There is a general absence of Devonian deposits over the Northeastern Arabian shelf region except in parts
of northeastern Iraq and locally in Oman (Misfar Formation) where carbonate deposition reflects a return to
warmer latitudes. Lower Carboniferous carbonates occur in northern Iraq but elsewhere the Carboniferous
is largely missing reflecting regional emergence, non-deposition or erosion. During Late Carboniferous -
early Permian time the southern part of the Arabian plate from Oman to Yemen, were at the edge of the
Gondwanan glaciation. It has been argued that southward directed subduction of the Paleo-Tethys under
the leading edge of Gondwana occurred at this time, transferring the plate edge from a passive to an active
margin (Sengor, 1990).
This event is only preserved in Oman and Iran. It starts as the Arabian plate is subducted underneath the
Iranian plate. It is linked to the gradual exhumation of high-p rocks to a depth where amphibolite grade
conditions prevail and during a first Cenozoic event of nappe emplacement. D2 structures are restricted to
SPE-183108-MS 13

units located above the roof thrust of the duplex. Then a compression phase is affecting the plate forming
arching of the Basement and then rotated due North. This event ends by updoming event, which leaving
its signature in Oman.

Lower Permian-Upper Triassic

Sediments laid down following the Late Paleozoic tectonism constitute a thick clastic sequence, the Wajid
Formation. These Permo - Carboniferous rocks are the oldest sediments penetrated by wells in Abu Dhabi.
Only a limited thickness of Wajid has been drilled, ranging from 532′ at NK-1 to 1510′ at Satah. Petrographic
studies have interpreted these sediments as fluvial braid plain deposits possibly sourced from glacial
outwash from South Oman, where Permo-Carboniferous glacial sequences have been well documented
(Hughes Clarke, 1988). The Upper Permian to Triassic interval (Khuff Formation) is represented by a major
change into a succession of shallow marine carbonates with minor evaporites and shelfal clastics. The
Khuff Formation consists of an alternation of shallow water limestones and dolomites with red and green
gypsiferous shale containing some evaporates. This Late Permian transgression marks a significant change
in sedimentation.
The Hercynian orogeny starts with this event as the continental rifting of the NE margin prevailed the
tectonics. Then minor extensional faulting and salt mobilization starts as prevailing all the present day
offshore structures. Finally uplifting of the Permo-Triassic sediments by the end of the extensional phase
of NE-SW and initiation of salt basins of the present offshore fields was occurred. Deposition of the Khuff
formation which represents the earliest major carbonate unit in Arabia followed, concurrent with rifting and
Gondwana breakup in the Zagros region.
The Triassic succession in the Arabian platform seems to have been deposited in an actively subsiding
basin (transgressive period) with its depositional center running along a NE-SW axis. In Abu Dhabi, thinning
of Triassic sediments to the NW has been attributed to uplift along the Qatar Arch and to the SE, towards a
paleohigh at Mender (Loutfi and Sattar, 1987). During the Late Triassic, a major period of uplift and erosion
occurred, affecting the southern part of the Arabian Gulf (Al Sharhan and kendall, 1986). These events
are tentatively linked to the beginning of the subduction of the Neo-Tethys below the Eurasia continent. A
relative fall in sea-level at this time (regression) combined with increased aridity, led to continental clastic
deposition (progradation) across Abu Dhabi. Reactivation of regional structures such as the Qatar Arch
is shown by erosion of the Triassic sequence (Szabo and Kheradpir, 1978). Erosion of Triassic sediments
beneath the Middle Jurassic in Abu Dhabi is shown by marked thinning and truncation of the Gulailah
and Minjur Formations. This discontinuity marks a major unconformity lasting from late Carnian to late
Bajocian.

Upper Triassic-Lower Jurassic

The Arabian Peninsula entered a tectonically stable time period during the Jurassic, and developed a
continental shelf near the Neo-Tethys Ocean, right next to a passive margin. In addition, at this time several
intrashelf basins, including the Gotnia, South Rub’ AlKhali, and Arabian Basins, formed, as a result of
tectonic differentiation and sea level rising. These basins accumulated a lot of organic-rick rocks during
the Late Callovian.
During the Jurassic the Arabian plate was located at the Equator enabling the development of a wide
shallow shelf on the western passive margin of the Neo-Tethys on which carbonates accumulated over the
shelf and inner platform. Most of the Arabian Gulf petroleum source-reservoir-seals accumulated during
the Jurassic and Upper Cretaceous. The Lower to Middle Jurassic interval was deposited following a major
depositional break. This is also dominated by shallow marine carbonates with some clastics. By Middle
Jurassic, Pangaea broke up into the continents as the present day. The plate is rotated and the stress trajectory
is due E-W forming the Qatar Arch and the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic rifting event leading to the breaking
of the NE Arabian plate. By the end of this event the Neo-Tethys starts to prevail all the territory.
14 SPE-183108-MS

Unayzah formation clastic rocks, which constitute major oil reservoirs in Saudi Arabia where they overlie
appropriate Hercynian structures, mark the resumption of sedimentation in the Late Carboniferous. -The
Mesozoic geologic history of the Arabian plate is marked by the formation of structural highs and lows.

Middle Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous

In Abu Dhabi, the Middle to Late Jurassic tectonic activity coincides with periods of regional uplift and
erosion. Over much of west of Abu Dhabi thick sequences of Tuwaiq Mountain Limestone and Upper Araej
have been stripped off. This uplift is most pronounced in the north where up to a maximum of 400 feet of
Tuwaiq Mountain Limestone and 100 feet of Upper Araej have been removed. Late Middle Jurassic and Late
Jurassic sedimentation is interrupted by two breaks which may be related to regional tectonic readjustments
connected to the attempted rifting further south in Yemen. The rifting is associated with Bathonian volcanics
and the development of the Jawf Graben system. Towards the end of the Middle Jurassic, lateral movement
along the proto-Red Sea line accompanied by attempted rifting and a possible failed triple junction in Yemen,
may have caused the uplift described as the Gulf of Aden Swell by Murris (1980). This appears to have
persisted into the Early Cretaceous, controlling clastic influx and patterns of non-deposition and erosion
in southern Arabia.
During Early Cretaceous time there was a gradual return to ramp –type carbonate deposition, caused
by lowering sea level and the development of a more humid climate, as clastic sediments were deposited
in the Saudi Arabia. The latest Lower Cretaceous is marked by further marine inundation, pushing clastic
sources back to the west. In the Late Jurassic, the carbonate platform became differentiated into broad
shelves with kerogen-rich intrashelf basins that formed in response to the combination of eustatic sea-
level rise and differential subsidence over the platform (Al Sharhan and Kendall, 1986). In Kimmeridgian
times, active subsidence of western Abu Dhabi resulted in the development of intrashelf basinal argillaceous
lime-mudstones and wackestones (the important Hanifa/Diyab source rock). In the latest Jurassic, the
climate became arid and a cyclic deposition of carbonates and evaporites began with the well-defined Qatar
Formation and ended (Tithonian regressive period) with extensive evaporite deposition in a sabkha over
the shallow platform "Hith Formation" (Murris, 1980). The Late Jurassic (Sila Group) succession consists
of shelf and intra-shelf basin carbonates with intercalations of anhydrites in the west. This includes the
deposition of the principal source rock (Hanifa) in a restricted intra-shelf basin.
Continuing the Neo-Tethys opening due to the NE-SW extensional phase happened. This phase is
characterizing by the post-rifting subsidence as the Neo-Tethys basin forms. This event is also responsible
for the intra-salt basins formation, the Yemen rifts and the Indian Ocean rifting phase, and the tilting of
the Arabian plate due NE forming the NW; NE and SE margins of the Arabian plate. The axial region of
central Arabian arch underwent inversion and became a basin. Concurrent with the opening of the Atlantic,
Neo-Tethys closed and the African-Arabian and Eurasian plates converged. The arch reformed again as a
result of uplift in southern Arabia and continued subsidence to north. The Neo-Tethys spreading ridge still
migrates north - eastwards and progressively subducts under the Eurasia.
The Early Cretaceous sedimentation is dominated by a carbonate sequence related to extensive flooding
of the Arabian Peninsula. The transgressive phase ended at the Upper Hauterivian (Lekhwair) and followed
by a regressive phase during the Barremian (Kharaib). The deposition of shallow-shelf carbonates continued
until the Early Aptian (Shuaiba) when there was differentiation of the stable platform into an intrashelf basin
(Bab) surrounded by shallow carbonate shelf facies. The intrashelf basinal facies occupies a depression in
the stable craton which is interpreted to have formed by differential rates of subsidence over an important
basement structural margin.
The Aptian marks a period of localized syn-sedimentary faulting which has caused significant thickness
changes in the Shuaiba Formation in some localities like the Gezira and Shuweihat areas. More importantly,
the change in orientation of the Shuaiba shelf margin from approximately N-S east of Bu Hasa to WNW-
SPE-183108-MS 15

ESE in west Abu Dhabi then to NW-SE in the northwest of Abu Dhabi, can be linked directly to subtle
control by basement faults.
Following the deposition of the Shuaiba carbonates, an important Albian break has been identified during
which erosion of the Bab limestone has taken place in the northwest offshore Abu Dhabi. This erosion is
related to regional uplift which is most pronounced in the southeast of Abu Dhabi (Loutfi and El-Bishlawy,
1986). This phase was followed by subsidence, accompanied by influx of clastic material and deposition
of the Nahr Umr Formation deposited on a shallow shelf in a sub-tidal setting (Al Sharhan and Narin,
1988). A similar pattern of basin subsidence is seen during the deposition of the Nahr Umr with a zone of
high subsidence corresponding to the orientation of the Shuaiba shelf margin which was a real topographic
feature at this time. Elsewhere, subsidence rates are relatively consistent.
The onset of Late Cretaceous thrusting in Oman Mountains marks a distinctive change in the pattern of
basin subsidence and represents the main phase of structural growth in Abu Dhabi. The Late Cretaceous
thrusting during the closure of the Neo-Tethys is directly related to the change in plate moving direction
(from SW to NE direction) in response to the opening of the South Atlantic Ocean. This important tectonic
phase can be explained by a simple structural model which accounts for the westward propagation of
compressional stresses from the Oman margin to Abu Dhabi. Robertson (1987) and Patton and O'Connor
(1988) interpret this upward as an expression of a peripheral swell (arch) associated with the emplacement
of the Semail Ophiolite onto the Oman margin. During the Late Cretaceous the peripheral swell migrated
westwards across the Arabian craton. The swell was expressed as early as the Cenomanian and reached its
maximum relief during the Turonian.
Regarding the Late Cretaceous basin development, during the Late Albian, a shallow-water carbonate
environment was re-established, resulting in the deposition of the widespread Mauddud Formation. Abrupt
differentiation of the carbonate platform occurred in the Cenomanian, resulting in the development of the
Shilaif in central Abu Dhabi area and the Mishrif shelf edge. The differentiation into shelf (Mishrif) and
basin (Shilaif) also appears to be directly controlled by reactivation of underlying basement structures.
The Mishrif shelf margin trends N-S in the west of Abu Dhabi, parallel with the N-S basement trend. The
Mishrif shelf trend in west of Abu Dhabi is orientated almost at right angles to the Shuaiba shelf margin
and reflects further readjustment of deep basement blocks and growth of N-S structural trends within an E-
W compressive regime. Patton and O'Connor (1988) suggest that this differentiation is the first evidence
of convergence along the Oman margin. In central and southwestern Abu Dhabi, deposition of the Shilaif
facies is followed by influx of terrigenous clastics, the Tuwayil Formation, which is overlain by shallow
water limestones of the Ruwaydha Formation. The distribution of the Tuwayil sandstone appears to be
influenced by basement structural configurations in the southeast of Abu Dhabi. Readjustment of basement
blocks would be expected at this time with the onset of thrusting along the east Arabian margin.
The initial compressional pulses are reflected most strongly in central Abu Dhabi where pronounced
structural growth is seen along N-S, NE-SW and NW-SE structural trends most proximal to the Cenomanian
peripheral swell. Rapid growth of offshore structures may reflect re-mobilization of deeply buried Hormuz
salt pillows in response to reactivation of underlying or adjacent basement faults.
Significant and widespread breaks in sedimentation occurred across Abu Dhabi in Late Cenomanian and
Turonian times. These stratigraphic breaks correspond to major tectonic events in Oman. In the foreland to
the Oman Mountains upwarping of the shelf is marked by erosion down to the Nahr Umr in Turonian times.
West Abu Dhabi lies on the western edge of this upwarp.
By Coniacian times the Tethyan thrust sheets directly loaded the continental lithosphere causing the
peripheral swell to migrate westwards at a fast rate, causing the Arabian margin to dip eastwards, thus
burying the Turonian upward. A new flexure was established further to the west, as indicated by the
transgressive shallow-water facies of the Laffan and Halul across Abu Dhabi and the high rates of structural
growth in west Abu Dhabi at this time.
16 SPE-183108-MS

By Early Campanian time, the transgression of the Fiqa Formation westward over the Halul and Laffan
can be viewed as evidence of more gradual continuous westward migration of the later flexure across Abu
Dhabi. Following another break in deposition during the Campanian a more stable shelf conditions took
place during the Maastrichtian led to the deposition of the shallow marine carbonates of Simsima Formation.
By the end of the Maastrichtian, the most pronounced structural growth is focused in Abu Dhabi, in response
to a more westward propagation of the peripheral swell and compressive stresses associated with ophiolite
emplacement in Oman and the Upper Cretaceous foredeep of Aruma Basin is partially filled.

Lower Cretaceous-Paleocene
The onset of the Alpine-Himalayan orogeny started in the late Cretaceous. The Neo-Tethys began to close
and as a result of compression and fore deep developed in eastern Arabia. Compression between Arabia and
Asia resulted in the initiation of the Zagros Orogeny. The Arabian plate converged and subducted beneath
Iran and caused the Arabian plate to tilt slightly to the northwest to form a series of anticlines and thrusts
in the Zagros Mountains.
The Lower Cretaceous (Thamama Group) is dominated by shelfal carbonates. This interval contains
the most prolific oil-bearing reservoirs in Abu Dhabi. The upper section includes the Shuaiba Formation
basinal source rock (Bab) that was deposited in a restricted intra-shelf basin. The Middle Cretaceous
(Wasia Group) is characterized by a major influx of fine clastics in the lower part onlapping the underlying
carbonates. An intra-shelf basin also developed during the initial phase of the compressional regime as
the Shilaif argillaceous carbonate source rock was deposited. The Upper Cretaceous (Aruma Group) was
deposited during a major episode of compression. It consists of carbonates with intercalations of fine
clastics. The Paleocene-Eocene (Hasa Group) consists of intercalations of shallow marine carbonates, shales
and evaporites deposited prior to a regional northward tilt. The Lower Tertiary (Paleogene) comprises
two sedimentary cycles: Paleocene- Eocene and Oligocene. The Upper Tertiary (Neogene) also has two
sedimentary cycles: Miocene and Pliocene. Paleocene and Lower Eocene are represented by shallow water
limestones known as Um er Radhuma and Rus Formations respectively.
SE-NW compression leading to the Tethyan thrust sheets and obduction of the Semail ophiolite. The salt
related structural growth faulting and fault bedding folds are formed due to the extensive reactivation of
the Basement structures and shaping the Abu Dhabi structures, finally obduction of the Masira ophiolite in
southeast Oman. These heavily affect the Abu Dhabi where they lead to a through-going brittle component
of normal faulting, also across parts of pre-existing Najd Wrench structures, while the dextral component
develops as a Riedel shear of the dextral NW-SE faults; brittle faulting within and outside the window is
strike-slip dominated (Noufal et al., 2015).

Eocene to Upper Miocene-Present

The Oligocene-Miocene consists of intercalations of shallow marine clastics, carbonates and evaporites
deposited following a regional northward tilt. The Middle Eocene is represented by limestone-dolomite
sequence known as the Dammam Formation. At the end of the Middle Eocene, the Arabian Platform rose and
reduced the Tethys to a remnant sea and initiated a long-lasting erosion interval. In the UAE sedimentation
was continuous where the Upper Eocene rocks are represented by shallow water limestones overlain by
shales and limestones of Oligocene age. In the Neogene continental conditions prevailed and evaporite
precipitation took place in certain localities. Some intermittent floodings led to the deposition of limestones
and shales especially in the areas of subsidence.
NE-SW compression leading to the formation of Oman Mountains and ceased the ophiolite obduction.
Rapid subsidence happened and the No-Tethys starts to close due to the Collision with the Iranian plate
forming the main folding structures and the thrust Napes. During the mature stages of collision massive
volumes of Iran-derived upper crust entered the subduction zone and, due to buoyancy forces, were
accreted to the upper plate before reaching the critical depth for high-p metamorphism. The activity of the
SPE-183108-MS 17

NW-SE wrench mega shears at around some 25 Ma ago leads to contemporaneous orogen-perpendicular
compression, orogen-parallel extension and strike-slip motions that shape the final geometry of the Abu
Dhabi and are driven by the indentation of the Iranian plate as well as by a component of orogen-parallel
extension due to roll-back in the Oman. Eclogite facies metamorphism in parts of the Omani nappes, within
the eclogite zone and parts of the Iranian plate documents subduction of an ocean-continent transition zone
below the Arabian Gulf during the onset of collision, as the Tethys closes at around 42 Ma.
In the early Eocene, a wide evaporitic platform is represented by the Rus Formation restricted-marine
evaporties and dolomites. By the middle Eocene open-marine shelf conditions returned and the nummulitic
shallow water carbonates of the Dammam Formation were deposited. Further growth of the main structural
trends established in the Late Cretaceous is clearly linked to compressional stresses from the east and north.
Continued thrusting during the Oligo-Miocene resulted in further loading and additional downward flexure
of the continental lithosphere in the North Oman Mountains.
The beginning of continent to continent collision between Arabia and Eurasia which commenced in the
Late Eocene, initiated the Zagros orogeny by suturing of the Arabian and Eurasian plates. The collision
created the Zagros foreland basin on the outer edge of the Northeastern Arabian margin shelf during the
final closure of the Neo-Tethys. The continued continental collision gave definition to the Zagros basin.
Differential basin subsidence across Abu Dhabi was, therefore, maintained by those continuous tectonic
pulses associated with compressional deformation in Zagros and the North Oman Mountains.
The Zagros basin was a fairly open and continuous shelf basin in mid Oligocene but from mid Miocene
times, progressive compressive folding broke it up into many synclinal sub-basins. Sediment type and fossils
reflected these restricted marine conditions resulted in intense evaporite production (Gachsaran / Lower
Fars Formations) with thick salt development.
Upper Eocene to Lower Miocene deposition (associated with the Zagros orogeny) was dominated by
carbonates. The shallower parts of the inner and outer shelf developed shallow marine limestones and
dolomites (Asmari Formation); the intervening deeper areas accumulated pelagic marls. Closed intrashelf
lows allowed Miocene evaporites to be deposited. A marine influx from the Indian Ocean halted the Middle
Miocene evaporite deposition and laid down transgressive clastics and carbonates that thin and pinch out
to the NW and changed into continental clastics to the SW (Mishan, Middle Fars Formations). Subsequent
deposition on the NE Arabian margin, now dominated by the Zagros foreland basin, was mostly clastic.
The opening of the Red Sea Rift had been started during the Oligocene time which had resulted in NE
Tilting since 23 Ma. The major uplift of the Middle Miocene leads to an intense erosion of the new chain
which supplies the sediments to the Plio-Quaternary series. From the end of the Miocene to present most
of Abu Dhabi appears to be rising, as indicated by the presence of raised beaches, but along the margins of
the Musandam Peninsula submerged coastlines indicate subsidence. This could be related to northeastward
tilting of the Oman Mountains (Searle, et al., 1983) and may explain the greatest amounts of post-Dammam
erosion in west Abu Dhabi.

Conclusions
Subsurface mapping is the most important aspect of petroleum exploration and development leading to
understanding the structural framework, which is a key aspect of regional exploration potential evaluation.
This enables to determine and predict the structural controls on deposition and understand the nature and
development of trap styles.
This paper presents the tectonic map for Abu Dhabi based on gravity, magnetic and seismic
interpretations, along with describing the various elements, their controlling faults, and their effect on
basin development and also rationalizes previously published structural and tectonic elements to clarify the
kinematic relations and naming of individual tectonic elements.
18 SPE-183108-MS

Analysis of the magnetic and Bouguer gravity anomaly bands and their various derivatives reveals a
considerably anatomized network of faults across the study area on basement level and within the overlain
sedimentary section. Many elements of these follow magnetic and gravity inflexions and are of dip-
slip nature, and others following lines of discontinuity, are of probable strike-slip nature. The trends of
predominant faults are NNW-SSE/NW-SE, sub N-S, NNE-SSW and NE-SW/ENE-WSW. The structural
interplay between the sedimentary structures drawn from the gravity data and the deeper faults drawn
from the magnetic data is probably quite complex. The ENE-WSW cross-cutting trend is represented in
sedimentary fault network by five (5) long discontinuities within the central part of studied area, and another
one, lying in the northern part.
The basic principle of studying sedimentary faults is to perform a comprehensive fault interpretation
based on the seismic data separated from potential data by referring to log data and regional geology.
The faulted blocks in Abu Dhabi area are bounded by large strike-slip faults. The sedimentary section is
very thick with remarkable unconformities in between. These transform faults, running from east to west
extending in NW-SE direction have obvious evidences on gravity and gradient anomaly maps. These faults
cut and reformed the faults extending N-S, and changed its trend to NE-SW gradually, which are all related
to the old basement Najd trending system.
Abu Dhabi is affected by at least seven major tectonic events, which are shaping the present structures.
However, these events can be complicated by the salt-movements (halokinesis) in offshore areas of Abu
Dhabi, which resulted in change of structural relief and faults/fracture characterization particularly for deep
reservoirs. The structural elements of Abu Dhabi are the result of different tectonic events, which have
affected the area during the geologic time such as:

• North-south basement lineaments (Arabian trends) during the Pre-Cambrian.

• The structural growth of Mender/Lekhwair high and Qatar Arch.

• Extensional phase and basin subsidence.

• Main structure building compressional period during Campanian-Maastrichtian time due to Oman
Orogeny Nappes emplacement.
• Up-lift of the Oman Mountains (Late Tertiary).

• Late Tertiary/Early Tertiary Quaternary Zagros Orogeny with the opening of the Red Sea.

• North/Northeast movement of the Arabian plate against Turkey and Iranian plate (Subduction
zone).
• The Halokinesis of the Hormuz infra-Cambrian salt basin in the offshore area since the Triassic
time.
• Subsidence of Rub al Khali basin since Triassic time and Ras Al Khaima basin during the Late
Tertiary (Fig-10).
The present structural configuration of Abu Dhabi occurred during the Late Cretaceous time (Fiqa/
Simsima deposition about 90-65 MY), which was manifested by folding, faulting, intra-formation truncation
and regional unconformity at top Fiqa and Simsima formations. The main compressive force was created
as a result of the Oman Nappes emplacement (the Semail Ophiolite) during the Late Cretaceous time.
Understanding of the kinematics and mechanics of the structures will highly impact the preservation of
most of the hydrocarbons, and in turn reveals the new ventures to add reserves for Abu Dhabi.
SPE-183108-MS 19

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank ADCO and ADNOC management for supporting and providing authorization to
publish data and methods contained in this paper. In addition, we thank Mr. Yousef Hamade for his drafting
efforts.

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