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Analog modeling of normal faulting above Middle East domes during

regional extension

Article in AAPG Bulletin · February 2012

DOI: 10.1306/02101209136

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 GEOHORIZON AUTHORS
Darrell W. Sims  Boerne, Texas. Former
employee of Southwest Research Institute®
Analog modeling of normal Darrell Sims received his B.S. and M.S. degrees
faulting above Middle East in geology from the University of Texas at San
Antonio. While employed at Southwest Research
Institute, he conducted research in structural
domes during regional extension geology primarily through the use of physical
analog modeling methods and three-dimensional
Darrell W. Sims, Alan P. Morris, Danielle Y. Wyrick, geologic modeling.
David A. Ferrill, Deborah J. Waiting,
Alan P. Morris  Department of Earth,
Nathan M. Franklin, Shannon L. Colton, Material, and Planetary Sciences, Southwest
Yoshihiko Tamura Umezawa, Mamoru Takanashi, Research Institute®, 6220 Culebra Road,
and Emily J. Beverly San Antonio, Texas; amorris@swri.org
Alan Morris received his B.Sc. degree in geology
from Imperial College of Science and Technol-
ABSTRACT ogy in 1973 and his Ph.D. in geology from the
University of Cambridge in 1980. He is a licensed
We study the effects of planform dome shape on fault patterns professional geoscientist (geology) in the state
developing with and without concurrent regional extension of Texas. Before joining Southwest Research
oriented oblique to the long axis of the dome. The motivation Institute in 2005, he was a full professor at the
was the need to understand fault and fracture patterns in two University of Texas at San Antonio, having been
on the faculty for 22 yr. Morris is now a staff
adjacent mature hydrocarbon fields in the Middle East: one, scientist at Southwest Research Institute and
an elliptical dome, and one, an irregularly shaped dome. The focuses on quantitative analysis of deformation
largest faults have throws of approximately 30 m (∼98 ft), processes and stress in diverse tectonic regimes
which is close to the resolution limit of older two-dimensional and conducts research and technical assistance
seismic reflection data. The known fault trends are not parallel projects for the oil industry.
to the highest transmissivity direction but could form com- Danielle Y. Wyrick  Department of Earth,
partment boundaries. Fault and fracture patterns developed Material, and Planetary Sciences, Southwest
over the modeled domes provide insight into the populations Research Institute®, 6220 Culebra Road, San
of faults and fractures that are likely to exist in the reservoirs Antonio, Texas; dwyrick@swri.org
but have been undetected because they are at or below the Danielle Wyrick received her B.S. degree in
resolution limit of reflection seismic data. Major domal struc- multidisciplinary science from the University of
tural elements, crestal fault systems, end splay systems, and Texas at San Antonio, her M.S. degree in
geology from the University of Texas at San
radial faults are observed in modeled domes rising both with Antonio, and is currently pursuing her Ph.D.
and without concurrent regional extension. Experimental re- Wyrick is now a senior research scientist at
sults indicate that fault and fracture patterns are influenced by Southwest Research Institute, where she in-
the effects of dome shape, regional extension, and relative tim- vestigates structural geology and tectonics on
ing of uplift with respect to regional extension. The expression non-Earth terrestrial solar system bodies.
of particular sets of faults and fractures associated with con- David A. Ferrill  Department of Earth,
current doming and regional extension depends on the inter- Material, and Planetary Sciences, Southwest
action among regional extension, outer arc extension over the Research Institute®, 6220 Culebra Road, San
Antonio, Texas; dferrill@swri.org
David Ferrill received his B.S. degree in geology
from Georgia State University in 1984, his M.S.
Copyright ©2013. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
degree in geology from West Virginia University
Manuscript received August 5, 2009; provisional acceptance October 27, 2009; revised manuscript
received January 30, 2012; final acceptance February 10, 2012.
DOI:10.1306/02101209136

AAPG Bulletin, v. 97, no. 6 (June 2013), pp. 877–898 877

 in 1987, and his Ph.D. in geology from the Uni-
versity of Alabama in 1991. He is a licensed pro-
fessional geoscientist (geology) in the state of
Texas. Before joining Southwest Research Institute
in 1993, he was an exploration geologist at Shell
Offshore Incorporated. Ferrill is now a director at
Southwest Research Institute and performs
analyses, structural geologic consulting, and
training for the oil and gas industry.
Deborah J. Waiting  Center for Nuclear
Waste Regulatory Analyses, Geosciences and
Engineering Division, Southwest Research Insti-
tute®, 6220 Culebra Road, San Antonio, Texas;
djw@swri.org
Deborah J. Waiting received her B.S. degree in
geology from the University of Texas at San
Antonio in 1999. She is a licensed professional
geologist who specializes in using geographic
information systems in the geosciences. Waiting
joined Southwest Research Institute in 1998 and
has worked on a wide variety of projects for the
U.S. government, groundwater management
agencies, and petroleum exploration
companies.
Nathan M. Franklin  Former employee
of Southwest Research Institute®;
nathan.franklin@gmail.com
Nathan Franklin obtained his B.A. degree in
geosciences and B.S. degree in computer science
from Trinity University (Texas) and obtained his
M.Sc. degree in computer science from the
University of Freiburg, Germany. He currently
works at ZES ZIMMER Electronic Systems.
Shannon L. Colton  Former employee of
Southwest Research Institute®
Shannon Colton received her B.S. degree in
geology from the University of Texas at San
Antonio and her M.S. degree in planetary
geology from Washington University in St.
Louis. While at Southwest Research Institute,
she worked on projects for the U.S. government
and developed data-handling algorithms to
assist in planetary geology research.
Yoshihiko Tamura Umezawa  Senior
Coordinator, Asia Unit, INPEX Corporation,
Akasaka Biz Tower, 5-3-1 Akasaka, Minato-ku,
Tokyo, Japan; yoshihiko.umezawa@inpex.co.jp
Yoshihiko Tamura Umezawa worked as a
geosciences researcher at Japan National Oil
Corporation (JNOC: currently succeeded by
878 Geohorizon
dome, and tangential extension around the dome margins. Our
results also indicate that the two adjacent natural domes pos-
sibly experienced different kinematic histories from those pre-
viously interpreted.
INTRODUCTION
The Middle East region contains an array of giant oil fields
trapped in carbonate strata in large domal structures. Based on
many hundreds of wells and two-dimensional (2-D) and three-
dimensional seismic reflection data, dome shape and fault pat-
terns have been found to have appreciable variability. In some
cases, fault patterns show consistency within a dome, and in
other cases, fault patterns show variability within a domal
structure. In this article, we analyze fault patterns developed
within two domes with different shapes. To explore fault pat-
tern development, we consider dome shape, regional tectonic
strain field, and the magnitude and relative timing of dome
formation and regional deformation.
Mobilization of deeply buried Hormuz salt is interpreted
to have formed giant domal hydrocarbon traps in the Middle
East (Figure 1) and influenced fault and fracture patterns in
overlying Mesozoic carbonate strata (e.g., Edgell, 1991, 1996).
Variable fault geometry from dome to dome has led to the in-
terpretation that domes reflect the reactivation of sub-Hormuz
basement faults (Hassan and Wada, 1981; Edgell, 1992). The
largest faults within the two domes in this study have throws
of approximately 30 m (∼98 ft), which is close to the resolu-
tion limit of older 2-D seismic reflection data. Hydrocarbon
production patterns indicate that reservoirs are more aniso-
tropic or compartmentalized than was initially thought.
Analog modeling has been used successfully to simulate
fault patterns developed over circular and elliptical planform
domes in a variety of tectonic settings (Withjack and Scheiner,
1982; Cailleau et al., 2003; Yamada et al., 2005). In this study,
we use physical analog models to characterize fault and frac-
ture patterns interpreted from seismic data over two adjacent
domes in offshore Abu Dhabi—one, elliptical, and one, irreg-
ular in plan shape. Our models represent domes that formed
during regional extension over deeply buried salt. Variations
in the kinematic history and geometry of models explored the
effects of dome shape on fault patterns developing concur-
rently with regional extension. The models were designed to
address specific structural characteristics of the domes, includ-
ing (1) fault patterns and their relation to dome shape, (2) the
effect of regional strains on fault patterns, and (3) the devel-
opmental sequence of doming relative to the timing of regional
deformation. Fault and fracture patterns developed over the
modeled domes provide insight into the populations of faults
and fractures that are likely to exist in the reservoir structure
but have been undetected because they are at or below the
resolution limit of seismic data (Alsharhan, 1990).
DOMES OF THE MIDDLE EAST
Geologic Setting
The nascent Arabian plate was formed by the accretion of
multiple terranes onto what would become the Arabian mar-
gin of Gondwana during the Late Proterozoic (Husseini, 1988;
Husseini and Husseini, 1990; Beydoun, 1991; Edgell 1992, 1996;
Johnson and Stewart, 1995; Sharland et al., 2001; Pollastro,
2003; Sharland et al., 2004). Suture zones between the accreted
terranes trend generally either northeast or north-northwest
(Figure 1) (Sharland et al., 2001). The easternmost mapped
and possibly the most structurally significant suture is the north-
northwest–trending Amar suture that delineates the coales-
cence of the Ar Rayn terrane in the east with the Afif terrane
in the west. Exposed in the western part of the plate center
(central Saudi Arabia), the Amar suture is interpreted to ex-
tend north-northwest to south-southeast across the plate under
the present-day sedimentary cover (Figure 1) (Sharland et al.,
2001). Except for ophiolite slivers along the southeastern plate
margin in Oman (Sharland et al., 2001), no Precambrian su-
tures were documented east of the Amar suture. Sharland et al.
(2001) speculate that the Ar Rayn terrane is a microplate that
extends over most of central and eastern Saudi Arabia. This
mosaic of melded terranes, being relatively stable since the Pro-
terozoic, comprises the Arabian shield. The north-northwest–
and northeast-oriented suture trends within the shield are
thought to have influenced the structural grain across the Ara-
bian plate because of the presence of similarly oriented plate-
scale lineaments such as Dibba, Wadi Al-Batin (Sharland et al.,
2001), and arguably the Red Sea rift. This structural grain is
known informally as the present-day north-south Arabian trend,
where north-south is applied sensu lato.
Plate-scale deformation continued immediately subsequent
to accretion, with the Late Proterozoic formation of the 300-km
(186-mi)-wide, at least 1200-km (745-mi)-long, northwest-
southeast–trending strike-slip Najd fault zone. The fault zone
crosses the northeastern part of the shield and is best exposed
Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation
[JOGMEC]) conducting a joint study with Abu
Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC), Japan
Oil Development (JODCO), and Japan Oil, Gas
and Metals National Corporation (JNOC). He is
currently with International Petroleum Explora-
tion (INPEX) Corporation in Japan.
Mamoru Takanashi  Co-chief Research
geophysicist at Japan Oil, Gas, and Metals National
Corporation; takanashi-mamoru@jogmec.go.jp
Mamoru Takanashi received his Ph.D. in geo-
physics from Colorado School of Mines in 2011.
He has specialized in seismic velocity analysis,
seismic imaging, and reservoir characterization
for more than 10 years in the international oil
exploration and development industry.
Emily J. Beverly  Former temporary
agency employee at Southwest Research Insti-
tute®, Present address: Department of Geology,
Baylor University, Waco, Texas;
Emily_Beverly@Baylor.edu
Emily Beverly received her B.A. degree in
geoscience from Trinity University and her M.S.
degree in geological sciences from Rutgers
University. She is currently working toward a
Ph.D. at Baylor University.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Japan National Oil Corporation funded this
work and Abu Dhabi National Oil Company
supported it with data. Gil Gomez assisted with
laboratory preparation, and Ernest Franke,
Mike Rigney, and Ian Meinzen acquired and
processed the dynamic structured light data.
Kevin Smart, Gary Walter, Steve Jolley, Bob
Krantz, Martin Rademakers, and John G. Solum
provided extremely detailed and helpful re-
views that greatly improved the manuscript.
The AAPG Editor thanks the following reviewers
for their work on this paper: Bob Krantz, Martin
Rademakers, and John G. Solum.
Sims et al. 879
Figure 1. Map showing a part of the Middle East, the geographic boundaries of surrounding countries, and principal tectonic elements.
The locations of fields A and B are shown.
on the shield and, to a lesser degree, the bounding
stable shelf deposits. Surface fault trace lengths
exceed 500 km (310 mi) and maximum strike-
parallel offsets on individual faults range from 2 to
25 km (1.2 to 15.5 mi). Cumulative sinistral offsets
of ophiolite belts exceed 240 km (149 mi) (Agar,
1987), including interpretations of maximum offset
across the fault zone of 300 km (186 mi) (Sharland
et al., 2001). Although predominantly sinistral,
the sense of displacement across the long-lived
(>100 m.y.) system was initially dextral. Associated
structures include the formation of isolated deposi-
tional centers in the form of northwest-southeast–
oriented pull-apart basins and the emplacement of
880 Geohorizon
dike swarms and granitic plutons (Agar, 1986;
1987). Agar (1987) used pull-apart plan-view ge-
ometries as sense-of-shear indicators (Sims et al.,
1999).
During the time the Najd fault system was ac-
tive, the northeast margin of the Arabian plate
was part of a passive margin facing the Tethys
Ocean (Husseini and Husseini, 1990; Beydoun,
1991; Edgell, 1996; Sharland et al., 2001). Struc-
tural features on the Arabian plate and shield have
been attributed to or associated with extension re-
lated to the passive margin. Pull-apart basins de-
scribed by Agar (1987) as forming in response to
sinistral displacement across the Najd fault zone
Figure 2. Structure contour map of the top of the principal reservoir horizon of fields A and B based on two-dimensional seismic
reflection data primarily. Structure contours are depth in feet below sea level. Heavy black lines are faults interpreted from reflection seismic
data. Arrows show eastern (main) and western culminations of dome B. Red rectangle shows the approximate area of the new three-
dimensional seismic data acquisition.

have been attributed to extension related to the
passive margin (Husseini and Husseini, 1990; Edgell,
1996).
Husseini (1988), Husseini and Husseini (1990),
and Edgell (1992; 1996) interpret a distributed sys-
tem of north-south–trending (Khattab, 1995) horsts
and grabens across the eastern part of the Arabian
plate, with the North Gulf and South Gulf basins
being easternmost and largest. Husseini (1988) and
Husseini and Husseini (1990) interpret the eastern
boundary of the Gulf basins as a dextral strike-slip
fault that became active at the close of the period of
extensional block faulting. This boundary is approxi-
mately coincident with the Zagros suture zone and
was a precursor to the present-day Zagros thrust
system. The system of basins was overlain by the

Sims et al. 881

Hormuz complex in the Late Proterozoic (Sadooni
et al., 2004), with the North Gulf and South Gulf
basins, separated by the Qatar arch, being the locus
of thick accumulations of salt (Khattab, 1995).
Throughout most of the Paleozoic, the region
was relatively quiet. Beginning in the late Paleo-
zoic, however, a series of events began that shaped
the current faulting patterns. The rifting of the neo-
Tethys ocean began approximately at the end of
the Permian–Early Triassic (Şengör, 1990; Glennie,
1995) and lasted well into the Cretaceous until sub-
duction under the Asian plate created the compres-
sional and strike-slip system of present day. Salt dia-
pirism coincided with the extensional regime of
the neo-Tethys, with the earliest episodes of diapirs
possibly occurring 170 to 150 Ma and the most
activity occurring approximately 145 to 100 Ma
(Jackson and Vendeville, 1994). The overall fault
patterns in the Cretaceous limestones (Thamama
and Arab) in the study region reflect this concur-
rent deformation of regional extension with salt
diapirs. Previous work has attributed salt diapirs
to reactivation of basement faults (Edgell, 1996).
However, the orientation of basement faults—the
interpreted north-south Arabian trend—does not
align with the northwest-southeast orientation of
normal faults in the region.
Two fields in offshore Abu Dhabi are the sub-
jects of this study, and these fields are referred to as
fields A and B (Figures 1, 2) (Alsharhan and Salah,
1997). The fields are dome structures and are
interpreted to have formed over nonpiercement
deep-seated salt diapirs (Sadooni et al., 2004) during
two sequential stress regimes, informally named
Oman (east-west compressive) and Zagros (northeast-
southwest compressive) regimes (Figure 3) (Edgell,
1992; Jørgensen et al., 1994; Perinçik et al., 2006).
The east-west–oriented compressive Oman stress
is interpreted as the product of rifting of the neo-
Tethys. Oman stress is interpreted to have peaked
during the late middle Cretaceous (Turonian) with
the onset of ophiolite obduction onto the northwest
and eastern margins of the Arabian plate (Sharland
et al., 2001, 2004; Haq and Al-Qahtani, 2005). The
northeast-southwest compressive Zagros stress in-
itiated on collision of the Arabian plate and Eurasia
along the Zagros suture zone, with peak activity at
882 Geohorizon
the time of closure of neo-Tethys (Alsharhan and
Salah, 1997; Sharland et al., 2001, 2004; Haq and
Al-Qahtani, 2005). Movement in the deep salt is
commonly interpreted to have been triggered by
displacement of subsalt preexisting Arabian trend
basement faults in response to the Oman and Zag-
ros stress regimes (Beydoun, 1991; Edgell, 1991,
1992, 1996; Sharland et al., 2001; Tamura et al.,
2004; Yamada et al., 2005).
Dome Shape
Both A and B domes show subtle expressions in
sea-floor bathymetry. The morphology of the do-
mes is best expressed in the subsurface at the
structural level of the principal reservoir horizons
(Figure 2). The domes are low-relief structures
even in the subsurface. Width/height ratios are 75:1
for dome A and 95:1 for dome B measured along the
long axes and at the highest elevation of the principal
reservoir (Figure 2). The culmination (where layer
dip is essentially zero) of dome A is at the approx-
imate plan-view center of the dome (Figure 2).
Dome B has two culminations, a large clearly defined
culmination at the peak of the wide eastern part of
the dome tapering westward to a subtle, broad,
gently sloping plateau over the narrow western end
of the structure (Hassan and Wada, 1981).
Stratigraphic evidence suggests that doming be-
gan during the Oman orogeny (Yamada et al., 2005)
(Figure 3). After the initial period of rapid uplift,
dome A continued to rise more slowly until the
present. Dome B shows a more complex uplift his-
tory after the initial relatively rapid uplift, including
a period of subsidence between approximately 85
and 65 Ma, followed by uplift ending at approxi-
mately 40 Ma (Figure 3A). The shape of dome B
was apparently formed and fixed during and shortly
after the Oman orogeny times, as shown by the
uplift histories of the two culminations (Figure 3A)
(Yamada et al., 2005).
Fault patterns interpreted from seismic reflection
data and from nearby boreholes indicate a perva-
sive pattern of northwest-southeast–trending exten-
sional faults. The faults are mapped across dome A
(Figure 2) and are present in nearby smaller domes
and in boreholes away from the domes. These faults

are interpreted to have formed in response to a
regional extension oriented northeast-southwest
(Yamada et al., 2005). The timing of active ex-
tension and faulting is not well constrained with
respect to the timing of uplift of either dome. In-
itially, subseismic faults and fractures were as-
sumed to have a minor function in production
because, in part, of the small structural relief of
both domes. Indeed, during early exploration and
production, the domes were thought to be essen-
tially unfaulted. However, production patterns in
both domes suggest that undetected structural con-
trols are present in the reservoirs. Faults illustrated
in Figure 2 are the result of postexploration re-
interpretation of seismic and well data, and the
data acquisition is confined to the dome structures.
The apparent lack of faulting in much of the in-
terdome areas is a reflection of lack of data and
interest instead of lack of faulting.
Figure 3. (A) Diagram showing
time-stratigraphic setting and uplift
of domes A and B based on in-
terpretation of stratigraphic thick-
ness variations. Time of deposition
of the principal reservoir horizon
is bracketed. Times of the Oman
and Zagros orogeny are high-
lighted for reference. The vertical
scale is age in millions of years.
The horizontal scale is uplift in feet
and meters. (B) Schematic Upper
Jurassic through Middle Creta-
ceous stratigraphy for domes A
and B. Relative competence is
based on gamma-log profiles and
lithologic descriptions (Alsharhan
and Nairn, 1994; Sharland et al.,
2001).
Lithology
The principal reservoir horizons are within the
lower Cretaceous upper Thamama Group and, in
the case of dome A, include lower parts of the
Upper Jurassic Arab Formation (Figure 3B). The
Thamama Group is a shallow-marine carbonate se-
quence 600 to 670 m (1970–2200 ft) thick in the
region of the domes. Porosities are relatively high,
commonly more than 20% (Hassan and Wada,
1981), and permeability as measured from core is
generally poor, averaging 15 md (Tamura et al.,
2004). Lithologies are described generally as grain-
stones, packstones, and some wackestones, alter-
nating porous and dense and becoming dolomitic
toward the base of the Group (for detailed descrip-
tions, including type logs, see Hassan and Wada,
1981; Aldabal and Alsharhan, 1989; Alsharhan,
1990; Lapointe, 1991; and Granier et al., 2003). For
Sims et al. 883
the case of dome B, Alsharhan (1990) describes four
diagenetic stages with associated events or features.
In order from most recent to older and increasing
depth of burial, the stages and associated events or
features are (1) marine phreatic-micritization and
formation of fibrous rim calcite, (2) mixed phreatic-
formation of fine to medium equant calcite crusts as
pore-fill cement on allochem surfaces and dolomi-
tization (average, 15–20%), (3) meteoric phreatic-
neomorphism of aragonite to sparry calcite, disso-
lution (generally increases porosity), and syntaxial
overgrowth, and (4) burial phase-dolomitization,
formation of coarse sparry calcite cement (poros-
ity reducing), and stylolitization and fracturing
(fractures 2–15 cm [1–6 in.] length measured from
core).
The 135- to 300-m (440- to 985-ft) thick Up-
per Jurassic Arab Formation is interpreted as high-
stand grainstone carbonate rocks alternating with
lowstand wedge and transgressive alternating do-
lomite, dolomitic limestone, and anhydrite deposits
(Azer and Borai, 1987; Lapointe, 1991; Pollastro,
2003). The grainstone units are important reser-
voirs in the region. Porosities range between 10
and 30%, and permeabilities range between 1 and
600 md (Alsharhan and Salah, 1997).
Production Problems
Nonuniform water displacements and anoma-
lous fluid movement have been observed in both
fields, potentially caused by thin lenses of high-
permeability layers interacting with fault and
fracture systems. The main target reservoir in
dome B field is the Lower Cretaceous Thamama I/
II, carbonate approximately 14 m (∼45 ft) thick,
forming part of the Thamama Group. Most pro-
duction is from an area approximately 25 × 25 km
(15 × 15 mi) situated in the eastern part of the field,
including the dome crest area. Production started
in 1983, and water injection was applied starting in
1984. Water breakthrough occurred earlier than
expected in 1991, with the water cut increasing
from 5 to 24% during a 10-year period. Primary
production in dome A field is from the Upper
Jurassic Arab-D carbonate reservoir, with produc-
tion beginning in the early 1960s. Development
884 Geohorizon
was expanded during the 1990s to include the
overlying Arab-C reservoir, which is a hetero-
geneous succession of limestone layers sandwiched
between sealing anhydrites.
A search for development scenarios that will
improve oil recovery continues—gas injection is
one of the candidates. Therefore, detailed knowl-
edge and understanding of fault geometry, includ-
ing subseismic fault and fracture distribution, are
crucial for field development.
ANALOG MODELS
Analog modeling was selected as a means of test-
ing the roles of local uplift and regional extension
in fault and fracture development and to provide
insight into undetected or poorly recognized fault
and fracture systems. Key factors such as dome
shape and kinematic history can be separately con-
trolled and systematically varied from model to
model. Results are quickly generated, readily in-
terpretable, and cost effective. The models were
designed so that the model upper free surface rep-
resents the top of the principal reservoir. Strati-
graphic analyses suggest that uplift began soon
after deposition of the principal reservoir horizon
(Yamada et al., 2005) (Figure 3). Although sedi-
mentation continued through the period of uplift,
no synkinematic layers representing sedimenta-
tion were added to the models. This allowed de-
veloping fault systems to be tracked throughout
the duration of the experiments.
We selected claycake as a suitable analog ma-
terial for the principal reservoir horizon. Previous
workers have used claycake as an analog represent-
ing brittle rock, including under conditions of si-
multaneous uplift and extension (Withjack and
Scheiner, 1982). Claycake exhibits properties that
are advantageous in the simulation of brittle de-
formation of the upper crust. A key component in
fault system models is the degree of geometric
similitude between the model and natural exam-
ple. In terms of Mohr-Coulomb behavior, cohesive
strength and angular relationships between faults
in claycake models are similar to those observed in
Figure 4. Schematic diagram illustrating the configuration of analog models presented here.
nature (Sims, 1993), including the angular relation-
ship between gravitational acceleration and fail-
ure surfaces (Jaeger et al., 2007). This is important
because geometric scaling requires that angular
relationships between modeled and natural faults
are unity. Furthermore, the kinematics of modeled
fault systems are similar to those observed and in-
terpreted to occur in the brittle crust (Eisenstadt
and Sims, 2005). The claycake exhibits brittle
strain-rate–independent behavior (Eisenstadt and
Sims, 2005) at the velocities applied in our models
and is a suitable material for modeling doming of
carbonate rock.
Our models were of single-layer construction
(Figure 4), and although this is not fully represen-
tative of the mechanical stratigraphy of the reservoir
horizons, the approximation is not egregious—the
Arab through Thamama formations are dominated
by competent carbonate lithologies with relatively
few and thin incompetent horizons (Figure 3B).
The stratigraphic interval of interest, at the scale of
the models, is well approximated by a single uni-
form layer. Although uplift of the domes is inter-
preted as resulting from movement of the deeply
buried Hormuz salt, no evidence exists for diapir-
ism in the vicinity of the domes, and salt had not
been interpreted in seismic reflection data avail-
able at the time of the study. For this reason, we
used mechanical means to produce uplift and con-
trol dome shape instead of gravity-driven density
inversion. The length scale of the models is 10−5, so
that 1 cm (0.4 in.) in the models represents 1 km
(0.6 mi) in the natural examples.
In the models, a mechanically brittle layer was
simulated by a 2.5-cm (1-in.) thick clay layer (clay-
cake) resting on a rubber sheet. Model length scale
(10−5) indicates that the clay thickness scales to
2.5 times that of the carbonate reservoir, with the
result that only the upper 1 cm (0.4 in.) of the
model represents the reservoir horizon. The remain-
ing model thickness (1.5 cm [0.6 in.]) represents
strata below the reservoir horizon (economic base-
ment) and served to separate the model’s mechan-
ical lower boundary from the observable upper
surface (Figure 4). Although this model configu-
ration treats the entire section for a depth of 1.5 km
(0.9 mi) beneath the interval of interest as part of
a homogeneous layer, this has the advantage of
simplicity and is likely to affect the magnitudes of
strains developed over the domes, but not their
orientations. A rubber sheet was attached to mo-
bile walls and controlled regional extension of the
claycake. Doming was simulated by inflation of a
bladder through a thin aluminum plate in which a
hole mimicking the dome shape had been cut. Al-
though this implies that regional extension had no
effect on dome shape, various dome shapes and
orientations could be tested in this way. Relative
uplift velocity between the large and small ends
of dome B was controlled by the placement of a
Sims et al. 885
prestressed thin rubber strip across the long axis of
the dome between the large and small culmina-
tions. The strip partitions the dome B model into
large-end and small-end culminations (equivalent
to the eastern and western culminations respec-
tively; Figure 2). As a result, the small culmination
has the form of a gently sloping plateau and rises
during uplift at approximately one-half the rate of the
large culmination. The small culmination is approxi-
mately one-half the height of the large culmination.
In all experiments, the dome was situated so that
the regional extension direction (azimuth 037°)
was similar to the direction interpreted from
mapped faults (Figure 2) and from borehole data.
Uplift and extension were controlled indepen-
dently to test the effects of the magnitude and
timing of regional extension relative to dome up-
lift. Model extension velocity was measured as dis-
placement of the mobile walls per unit time. Model
uplift velocity was measured as vertical displace-
ment per unit time of the highest point on the in-
flating bladder. Regional extension and uplift ve-
locities were constant although not necessarily
persistent for the duration of individual experiments.
Considering the large width/height ratios of domes
A (75:1) and B (95:1), scaled model uplift would
be approximately 0.9 cm (∼0.3 in.) and 0.5 cm
(0.2 in.), respectively. Some images presented here
include model uplift magnitudes of 2.0 cm (0.8 in.),
exceeding the relative uplift of the natural domes.
Furthermore, the largest faults observed in the nat-
ural reservoirs have throws of approximately 30 m
(∼98 ft), which scales to submillimeter (<0.04 in.
[<0.10 cm]) throw in the claycake. Data were
accordingly collected at stages of model develop-
ment representative of small throws (submillime-
ter model, 30-m [98-ft] natural dome) (<0.04-in.
[<0.10-cm] model, 98-ft [30-m] natural dome).
However, because our models are designed to ex-
amine patterns of faulting, we applied a greater
uplift magnitude for clarity of observation. Fault
patterns in the modeled domes are more clearly
expressed at uplift magnitudes greater than 1 cm
(>0.4 in.).
Qualitative and quantitative data were col-
lected at intervals throughout the experiments.
Each model was photographed from above at reg-
886 Geohorizon
ular time intervals with different illumination angles
during model deformation to document the map-
view structural evolution. Fault traces trending per-
pendicular to the illumination direction are more
easily recognized than traces trending parallel with
the illumination direction or traces occurring in
low-light parts of the photographs. For this reason,
no single image of an experiment shows complete
detail of the fault systems.
To quantify the effect of the more complex
shape of dome B on fault patterns, digital terrain
models (DTMs) of the surface of model 27JAN04
were obtained at regular intervals. The DTMs were
constructed using dynamic structured light (DSL)
imaging, a technique that acquires elevation data by
examining the effects of model structures on parallel
shadows moving over the surface (Franke, 2002).
The parallel shadows are created by passing in-
cident light through a rotating optical grating. The
disrupted shadow patterns are imaged, and ele-
vations are computed by measuring the position of
the edge of the displaced shadow relative to a ca-
librated datum.
Our investigation included one model of re-
gional extension with no local uplift, five models of
circular domes, six models of dome A under condi-
tions of regional deformation, one dome B model
under conditions of no regional deformation, and
13 dome B models under conditions of regional
deformation (Figure 5A, B; Appendix). Multiple
experiments were performed to determine the
influence of various parameters on fault patterns.
The orientation of regional extension relative to
dome shape was interpreted from the pervasive
pattern of northwest-southeast–trending exten-
sional faults observed at and around the location
of the domes. In the case of dome A, extension
direction is 22° clockwise from the dome long axis
(Figure 2).
Patterns of fault and fracture orientation and
distribution in the models were compared with
(proprietary) interpretations of seismic data from
the natural structures. Agreement between the
modeled patterns and those of the natural domes
was judged qualitatively. Because the model con-
figuration was such that fault displacements were
likely greater than would scale appropriately to the
Figure 5. (A) Schematic diagram showing kinematic histories and model configurations of models 6DEC01 (dome A), 19DEC01 (dome B,
no regional extension), and 27JAN04 (dome B with regional extension). Labeled points represent the model stage at which the images in
Figures 7 through 9 were generated. (B) Kinematic histories and model configurations of 19 other model runs. The principal faulting
characteristics are listed in the Appendix.

natural domes and because models were run to
exaggerated elevations, absolute values of strains
and displacements are not used for comparison with
the natural domes, instead, the patterns of fault de-
velopment and the inferred stress orientations that
controlled them are described.
Three individual experiments are described
here (Figure 5A). No models of uplift of plan-view
elliptical domes without regional extension are pre-
sented. Such models typically generate radial fault
systems around the margins of the dome, with some
formation of crestal fault systems with traces par-
allel to the long axis of the elliptical planform. For
a more detailed exposition of the effects of uplift
of an elliptical dome in the absence of regional
extension, see Withjack and Scheiner (1982).
Withjack and Scheiner (1982) also examined the
effects of regional extension during doming, with

Sims et al. 887

the direction of regional extension oriented per-
pendicular to the long axis of an elliptical dome.
Our models differ from theirs in that the regional
extension direction is oblique to the long axes of
domes A and B. We describe one dome B model
developed in the absence of regional extension
because the resultant model geometry is an im-
portant benchmark for interpreting the interac-
tion between extension and doming.
RESULTS
For clarity, we define the following terms:
Margin: the outer limit of the dome where sur-
face dip approaches but is not zero.
Flanks: sides of the dome where surface dip is
greatest.
Crest: the highest part of the dome where sur-
face dip is near or equal to zero, including the
culmination or highest point(s) of the structure.
Favorably oriented: faults and fractures that have
orientations that are most likely to be active in
the ambient or local strain field. For example,
normal faults with traces that are perpendicular
to the maximum extension direction are most
favorably oriented.
Unfavorably oriented: faults and fractures with
orientations that are most likely to be inactive
in the ambient or local strain field. For example,
normal faults with traces that are parallel to the
maximum extension direction are unfavorably
oriented.
Regional fault systems: favorably oriented with
regional extension and are likely to be developed
over regional scales instead of just locally on the
dome.
Crestal fault systems: occur along and to either
side of the long axis of a dome. Crestal fault sys-
tems laterally extend onto the flank of a dome
where fault traces begin to diverge or splay (end
splays). Radial faults have traces oriented gener-
ally perpendicular to the dome margin.
Our results show that doming in physical mod-
els produces reproducible and predictable fault
888 Geohorizon
Figure 6. Dome B model. Fault traces are color coded to il-
lustrate the fault populations produced by the uplift of dome B in
the absence of regional extension (model 19DEC01). Red traces
are the crestal fault system, blue traces are small end splays of the
crestal fault system, green traces are large end splays of the crestal
fault system, and violet traces are other radial faults. Illumination
direction is from the page bottom. In general, fault traces are not
visible in the brightest and darkest parts of the model photographs.
patterns. Structural elements produced in the mod-
els are described here as fault-system populations
defined by the relative location on the domes and
by fault system geometry: regional fault systems,
crestal fault systems, end splays, and other radial
faults (Figure 6). Regional fault systems are pop-
ulations of faults with parallel traces favorably ori-
ented relative to the regional deformation field.
Crestal, end splays, and other radial faults are
uniquely associated with doming. Crestal fault
systems occur along and to either side of the long
axis of dome A (cf. figures 9, 16 of Withjack and
Scheiner, 1982) and dome B models. End splay
fault systems are continuations of crestal fault sys-
tems onto the flank of the dome where fault traces
begin to diverge and merge with other radial faults. In
general, we find that key parameters are (1) planform
dome geometry, (2) the timing and magnitude of
regional extension relative to uplift, (3) velocity of
regional extension relative to uplift, and (4) fault
interaction.
Figure 7. Dome A model. (A, B) Vertical views of model 6DEC01 after approximately 5.2 cm (2 in.) of horizontal displacement and 1.7
cm (0.7 in.) of vertical uplift. Yellow arrows show regional extension direction. Illumination is from the upper right. In general, fault traces
in the brightest and darkest parts of the model are not visible. (A) Uninterpreted image in which faulting that accommodates regional
extension is well established outside the confines of the dome. Inset bottom right is a schematic plan view of model 6DEC01 setup. (B)
Interpretation of the image in (A). (C) Plan view after continued horizontal displacement to 10.4 cm (4.1 in.), with no further increase in
dome uplift shown in (A). Also shown are local- and reservoir-scale sigmoidal fault traces formed by linking of radial and crestal faults
that formed in response to dome uplift and regional extension. Apparent sense of shear changes with location on the dome. (D) Same as
(C) with interpreted fault traces. For (B) and (D), white traces are right-dipping faults, green traces are left-dipping faults, yellow traces
are crestal fault systems, blue and red traces illustrate how regional, radial, and crestal faults can link to produce variable sigmoidal trace
geometries.

We describe the results from three experiments,
the kinematic histories of which are given in Figure 5A.
Model 6DEC01 (Figure 7) is of dome A rising under
conditions of regional extension oblique to the dome
long axis. Model 19DEC01 (Figure 8) is dome B
rising in the absence of a regional deformation
field, and model 27JAN04 (Figure 9) is dome B
rising under conditions of regional extension.
Crestal, end splay, and other radial fault sys-
tems are observed in each experiment of dome

Sims et al. 889

Figure 8. Dome B model; illumination is from the lower left. (A) View after approximately 1.1 cm (0.4 in.) of uplift. Faults are oriented
parallel with the crest of the curved dome shape. Although present, radial faults are poorly developed and not clearly visible in the image.
Inset top right is a schematic plan view of model 19DEC01 setup. (B) Same as (A) with interpreted fault traces. (C) View after ap-
proximately 2 cm (0.8 in.) of uplift. Faults with the greatest vertical displacement occur along the crest at the small end of the dome B
model, are oriented parallel with the crest line of the structure, and diverge near the small end of the dome. (D) Same as (C) with
interpreted fault traces.

uplift. The overall fault pattern and geometry, in- kinematic history of the dome. Where doming occurs
cluding prominence of a particular fault system or in a regional extension field, the timing of uplift and
systems, are controlled by the planform geometry and relative velocities of uplift and extension are

890 Geohorizon
 Figure 9. Dome B model. (A–D) Sequential development of dome B. (A) Horizontal displacement = 5.5 cm (2.1 in.), uplift = 0.3 cm (0.1 in.). Inset top right is a schematic plan view of
model 27JAN04 setup. Note that regional extension is oriented left to right in these images. (B) Horizontal displacement = 6.7 cm (2.6 in.), uplift = 1.0 cm (0.4 in.). (C) Horizontal
Sims et al.

displacement = 7.7 cm (3 in.), uplift = 1.7 cm (0.7 in.). (D) Slope map of dome B model derived from the digital terrain model at horizontal displacement = 7.7 cm (3 in.), uplift = 1.7 cm
(0.7 in.). Note that the different fault populations are distinctly visible, as are the variations in slope around the dome flanks. (E–G) Green faults dip to the left, yellow faults dip to the right,
blue faults dip to the top of the figure, and magenta faults dip to the bottom of the figure. (E) Same model stage as (A) with interpreted fault traces. (F) Same model stage as (B) with
interpreted fault traces. (G) Same model stage as (C) with interpreted fault traces.
891
important parameters. Models 6DEC01 (Figure 7)
and 27JAN04 (Figure 9) are the end results of test-
ing the relative timing and velocity of uplift. The
results from these models best represent the struc-
tures observed and interpreted in the offshore do-
mes. Both models experienced concurrent uplift
and regional extension (Figure 5), however, the
relative timing of uplift is different for the two
models. Models not discussed here but with dif-
ferent kinematic histories (Figure 5B) exhibit the
same range of fault orientations as those discussed
below but with a greater preponderance of re-
gional faults in the case of dome A–type models
and a greater preponderance of dome-related
faults in the case of dome B-type models.
One result of modeling complex dome forma-
tion concurrently with regional extension is the
formation of both local- and reservoir-scale fault
patterns that coincidentally resemble the sigmoidal
fault and fracture patterns that develop in strike-
slip settings. In the case of the dome A model
6DEC01, faults oriented favorably to accommo-
date regional extension developed across the dome
crest, oblique to the long axis of the dome. These
faults linked with obliquely oriented radial faults to
form local-scale sigmoidal traces along the flanks
of the dome (Figure 7C, D) and reservoir-scale
traces that cross the crest of the dome (Figure 7C).
Reservoir-scale faults with sigmoidal traces are
more common in the dome B models (e.g., model
27JAN04). Here, crestal fault systems developed
parallel to the axis of the dome and radial fault
systems developed around the dome. Radial faults
approximately perpendicular to the regional ex-
tension direction tend to become dominant faults
near the dome terminations, where they interact
and link with the crestal fault system, forming
large reservoir-scale faults with sigmoidal traces
(Figure 9B–D, F, G). This juxtaposition and link-
ing of fault systems across the dome resemble—
but are not—a sigmoidal fault and fracture system
generated by sinistral shear along the margins of
the dome and oriented approximately northeast-
southwest.
In both dome A and dome B, sigmoidal fault
traces could be misinterpreted as evidence of strike
slip. Furthermore, the sense of shear implied by
892 Geohorizon
such interpretations varies from place to place on
the domes (e.g., Figure 7C).
INTERPRETATION
The natural domes are adjacent to and within 50 km
(31 mi) of each other. However, dome A has more
relief and is interpreted to have experienced a
monotonic uplift history (Figures 2, 3). Our results
indicate that relative timing of doming and ex-
tension affect the resultant fault and fracture
patterns.
Dome Shape and Regional Extension
Previous work (Withjack and Scheiner, 1982;
Cailleau et al., 2003) has shown that radial frac-
tures are common along the flanks of uplifted
domes. In the case of deformation related only to
the uplift of round or elliptical domes, crestal frac-
ture or fault systems are generally of smaller ver-
tical displacement than radial faults. However, re-
sults from our physical analog models indicate that
the influence of both dome geometry and regional
stress fields can be observed in the resulting fault
and fracture patterns. In addition, strongly devel-
oped crestal fault systems with preferred orien-
tation can result solely from dome uplift if the
dome is relatively narrow (Figures 5; 8A–D). The
crestal fault systems in narrow domes are even
more strongly expressed where doming occurs in
the influence of a regional extension oriented at a
high angle to the dome long axis (Figure 9). Fur-
thermore, these crestal systems can have many of
the characteristics of fault systems that develop in
response to regional deformation (Figures 8C, D;
9B, C, F, G). Fault traces are typically corrugated
at the locations of displacement transfer and fault
linking between en echelon fault segments (Ferrill
et al., 1999) (e.g., Figure 9E–G).
Where uplift of domes occurs during regional
extension, the regional extension is generally ac-
commodated by some or all of the major struc-
tural elements of radial, crestal, and crestal splay
fault systems (Figure 6). Faults and fractures com-
prising the radial, crestal, or end splay may be

Figure 10. (A) Dome A model: model 6DEC01. (B) Dome B
model: model 27JAN04. Components of strain developing on the
model domes during active uplift and extension: regional exten-
sion is depicted by the yellow arrows; outer arc extension imposed
by the rise of the dome is depicted by the white arrows; tangential
extension resulting from the plan shape of the domes is depicted
by the red arrows. See text for discussion.
modified locally by interaction with regional ex-
tension to create arcuate traces (Figures 7, 9), lo-
cally increased vertical offset of favorably oriented
faults (Figures 7D, 9D), or locally subdued vertical
offset where faults related to doming are unfa-
vorably oriented with respect to the regional ex-
tension. This latter effect is best illustrated at the
narrow ends (left and right extremities) of the el-
liptical analog dome A (Figures 7, 10A) where
doming-related radial faults are virtually absent
and replaced by curved faults that are approxi-
mately perpendicular to the regional extension direc-
tion. Elsewhere around the dome, tangential exten-
sion resulting from the plan shape of the dome is well
expressed on the flanks of the dome where it is close in
orientation to the regional extension (Figure 10A).
Outer arc extension imposed by the rise of the dome
is directed perpendicular to the dome long axis
(Withjack and Scheiner, 1982) (Figure 10A).
The more complex shape of dome B generates
outer arc extensions that are variable in orienta-
tion, although essentially perpendicular to the
dome axis. Over the large culmination (to the left
in Figure 10B), outer arc extension is perpendicular to
the regional extension, hence rectilinear faulting. Over
the narrow or smaller culmination (curving toward
the point of view in Figure 10B), the outer arc ex-
tension is directed subparallel to the regional extension
direction and generates a dominant fault trend that is
oblique to the regional fault trend. Tangential exten-
sion resulting from the plan shape of the dome is
greatest where the planform is most convexly (away
from dome) curved at the large and small culminations
but is only expressed as radial faulting at the large end
(Figure 10B) where it contrasts with the regional trend.
Transfer structures in all stages of evolution from
intact to breached relay ramps were developed in each
model. Fault systems and transfer structures were
observed at all scales in the models. As an analog for
seismic exploration of natural systems, the model
results indicate that the same structures visible at
the scale of seismic resolution are likely to exist at
smaller scales below the resolution of seismic data.
Faults that are clearly observable at the scale of
the models represent fault displacements on the order
of hundreds of meters in natural settings. Model de-
formations are deliberately large so that fault patterns
and geometries can be easily observed. In natural
settings of broad domes with relatively small amounts
of uplift, vertical fault offsets are likely to be smaller in
magnitude than is indicated by images of models ta-
ken after relatively large amounts of uplift.
COMPARISON OF FAULT SYSTEMS IN
MODELS AND OIL FIELDS
Fault Geometry in Dome A Field
In the case of dome A, seismic sections with fault
interpretation on time slices in attribute cubes
provided detailed fault profiles. All faults are re-
cognized as showing normal slip. The maximum
dip-slip displacement along the target horizon is
Sims et al. 893
approximately 42 m (∼140 ft) and the average is
less than 9 m (<30 ft).
Two fault systems are observed in dome A. One
is a distinct system of long trace-length northwest–
trending normal faults, designated the main fault sys-
tem. The other, a less discernible system of northeast–
trending faults having a relatively short trace length, is
designated the secondary fault system. No genetic or
temporal inference to the designation of secondary
exists. Instead, it is a system of smaller faults less
easily observed than the main fault system.
In plan view, the main faults show long sub-
parallel traces over the crest of the dome grading
to mildly arcuate traces along the flanks of the dome
(Figure 2). The northwest–trending fault system is
oriented favorably with respect to the northeast-
southwest–directed regional extension (Figure 11).
The northwest–trending fault traces show slight
outward concavity relative to the center of the
dome (Figures 2, 11); traces across the northern
end of dome A are concave to the northeast, whereas
main fault traces across the southern end show slight
southeastern concavity. This same pattern is observed
in dome A model 6DEC01 (Figure 7B, D). Main
fault system traces show a mild sigmoidal shape from
the crest to the dome flanks (Figures 2, 11). A more
pronounced sigmoidal pattern is observed across the
flanks of the dome A model (6DEC01; Figure 10A),
likely caused by the greater uplift of the model
dome relative to the natural dome. The natural
faults show features closely similar to those ob-
served in the dome A model (6DEC01) and com-
mon to extensional fault systems. Displacement
transfer structures in various stages of evolution are
observed in the northwest-trending main fault system
(Figure 12A, B). The trace pattern of the main fault
system indicates a strong influence by the regional
extension relative to that of outer arc extension across
a rising dome.
The secondary fault system is oriented parallel
to the long axis of the dome and is characterized
by relatively short trace lengths (Figure 11). The in-
tersection of the secondary faults with the main fault
traces is near orthogonal at the dome crest (Figure 11).
A similar pattern is observed in the dome A model
(6DEC01) and is produced where the crestal fault
system intersects the regional fault system. In the
894 Geohorizon
Figure 11. Dip image of the crestal area of dome A showing the
main and secondary faults. Long trace-length main faults are oriented
favorably to accommodate the northeast-southwest–directed re-
gional extension. Red traces are south- or west-dipping faults, and
green traces are north- or east-dipping faults. The northwest-
trending main fault traces show a slight northeast-facing con-
cavity. North-northeast–trending secondary faults and fractures
have short trace lengths and may cross the main faults.
model, the intersection of the two systems becomes
systematically less orthogonal with increased distance
from the dome crest, and main and secondary faults
link to form sigmoidal trace patterns. This can be seen
in the relationship between the yellow fault traces
(equivalent to secondary faults) and the red, white,
green, or blue fault traces (equivalent to the main
faults) in Figure 7D.
Fault Geometry in Dome B Field
Seismic data for the dome B field are available
only over a part of the crest of the large culmi-
nation. Furthermore, displacements of known faults
within the data footprint are quite small; average fault
throw is less than 4.6 m (<15 ft). Because, in part, of
the small throws, fault signatures fall near or within
the level of noise and are difficult to discern from
artifacts or interference from shallow geologic fea-
tures. The best results from seismic attributes were
achieved by combining dip and coherency, which
provided sufficient information to map some faults
and to identify two fault strike trends, approximately
northwest-southeast and approximately north-south.
Analog model results were used to give insight into

Figure 12. (A, B) Comparison between the plan view modeled
(A) and seismically imaged dome A time-slice dip-map fault
traces (B). Red traces are south- or west-dipping faults, and green
traces are north- or east-dipping faults. Oppositely dipping faults
occur along strike from each other (compare [A] with Figure 11).
Displacement transfer structures, such as breached relay ramps,
curved lateral fault propagation, nested ramps (compare with
Figure 11), and relay ramps are observed in both modeled and
dome A faults. Secondary faults or fracture swarms oriented near
orthogonal to the main faults are visible (compare with Figure 11).
Secondary faults represent a poorly developed crestal fault sys-
tem and appear as linking faults between the main faults.
fault system development, distribution, geometry,
patterns, and relative density. This was accomplished
by varying model parameters (most importantly the
relative amounts and timing of regional extension
vs. dome uplift) to best match results with the
mapped faults. Model results provided insight
into interpretation of faults at dome B field.
The northwest-southeast–trending main faults
on the dome B crest are favorably oriented for the
northeast-southwest–directed regional extension
(Figure 2). As observed in the models, variations
in strike of the main faults are related to the po-
sition of the trace relative to the dome (Figure 9).
Faults developed over the eastern culmination are
near orthogonal in orientation, and those faults
subparallel to the regional fault trend (perpendic-
ular to the regional extension direction) tend to
have longer trace lengths than faults oriented at
high angles to the regional fault system. Faults
developed over the elongate western culmination
tend to have overall traces that are oblique to the
regional trend and on close inspection can be seen
to be the result of linkage between faults parallel to
the regional trend and faults developed parallel to
the axis of the dome (Figures 2, 9). Orthogonal
faults are less common over the western culmi-
nation in the model results.
The observation of secondary (i.e., small dis-
placement and/or short trace length) faults in the
analog models provided a working model to explain
the less well-developed secondary faults in dome A
and to help identify orthogonal faults over the eastern
culmination at dome B. An important aspect of these
faults is that, although small (small displacement and
short trace length), they are likely to be common and
well connected with the primary fault set. These
subseismic-scale faults may exert a greater influence
on fluid movement in these fractured and faulted
carbonate reservoirs than would be inferred from their
relatively small areal extent and displacements. This
influence is likely to be even greater in the present-
day stress field where the maximum horizontal
compressive stress is oriented approximately north-
northeast–south-southwest subparallel to the traces
of these faults (Vernant et al., 2004; Islam and
Shinjo, 2010).
CONCLUSIONS
Four factors affect fault development over the
domes: (1) planform dome geometry, (2) the timing
and magnitude of regional extension relative to up-
lift, (3) velocity of regional extension relative to
uplift, and (4) fault interaction. Regional extension is
accommodated by a population of faults that is
subperpendicular in trend to the extension direction
(Figures 7, 9, 10). These faults continue to develop
throughout the model runs, although they become
modified by dome uplift. Dome development
Sims et al. 895
creates two bending-related strain systems. The
first is related to outer arc extension of the rising
dome and generates an extension direction that is
approximately perpendicular to the dome axis
(Figure 10); the second is less pronounced and is
directed tangential to the dome outline. These ef-
fects are apparent in both dome A and dome B
models but are more marked in the case of dome B.
Both of the stress systems interact with the regional
stress regime to generate three well-defined fault po-
pulations. Interaction between regional and outer arc
extension generates a rectilinear pattern of faults over
the larger dome B culmination. This pattern is clearly
expressed in images of dome B model 27JAN04
(Figure 9) and is present as small, nearly undetectable
fault traces in images of dome A model 6DEC01
(Figure 7D). Horizontal tangential stresses, generat-
ing radial faults, are greatest where the dome out-
line is most curved—at the western and eastern ends
of dome A (Figure 10A) and the large and small
ends of dome B (Figure 10B). In the case of dome A,
regional extension has overwhelmed these tan-
gential stresses and radial faults are better devel-
oped along the northern and southern flanks of the
dome (Figure 7). Over dome B, radial faults are
detectable at most locations around the margins of
the structure, but they are best developed around
the northeastern flank of the large eastern culmi-
nation (Figure 9B, F). Nearer to the small culmi-
nation of the dome B model, uplift-related outer arc
extensions become subparallel with the regional
extension and the horizontal tangential extension;
in this area, large faults result from the linking of en
echelon faults related to each of these extensions
to create a dominant fault trend that is slightly
oblique to the main regional trend (Figure 9B, C,
F, G). In all models, fault interactions are clearly
visible in the fault style. All visible faults are the
result of the linking of smaller faults. Overlap
between large faults generates relay ramps and re-
orients local stresses to form linking faults.
APPENDIX: FAULTING CHARACTERISTICS
Principal faulting characteristics of models illustrated in
Figure 5B.
896 Geohorizon
28SEP00
• Radial fault or fracture pattern.
02OCT00
• Predominantly radial fault or fracture pattern.
• Incipient extensional faults or fractures perpendicular to
the extension direction.
03OCT00
• Dome is dominated by extensional faults or fractures per-
pendicular to the extension direction.
19OCT00
• Hour-glass fault or fracture pattern.
02FEB01
• Radial pattern of arcuate faults or fractures around the
dome margin.
• Small-displacement conjugate normal dip-slip faults across
the dome crest.
19MAR01
• Subparallel dip-slip normal faults oriented perpendicular
to regional extension and oblique to the long axis of the
dome.
• Small-displacement cross faults oriented subparallel with
the dome long axis, confined to dome extent, and termi-
nating against regional faults.
20DEC01
• Radial fault system forms on the ends of the dome.
• Radial faults are suppressed along saddle between the two
domes.
• Crestal faults splay across the small dome but fade into the
crest of the large dome.
• Crestal faults show a large-magnitude vertical offset es-
pecially in the saddle.
• Lower flanks of the saddle have no detectable fractures.
09JAN02
• Crestal faults with a large vertical offset form along the
saddle between two dome crests.
• Radial fault system forms on the ends of the dome.
• Regional fault system forms perpendicular to regional
extension outside the dome margins.
• Crestal fault system develops overall sigmoidal geometry
resulting from interactions with regional extension over
each dome crest.
21FEB02
• Regional fault system forms perpendicular to regional ex-
tension across the whole model.
• Crestal faults are oblique to the regional system and par-
allel to the dome crest form.
• Radial fault development is more visible around the larger
end of the dome but clearly present around both dome
margins away from the saddle.
22FEB02
• Regional fault system forms perpendicular to regional ex-
tension across the whole model.
• Doming increases displacement on regional faults within
the dome margins.
• Crestal faults are oblique to the regional system and par-
allel to the dome crest form.
• Radial fault development is rare.
10JAN02, 22JUL02, 11SEP02
• Crestal faults with a large vertical offset form along the
entire dome crest.
• Radial fault system forms on the ends of the dome.
• Regional fault system forms perpendicular to the regional
extension outside the dome margins.
• Crestal fault system develops overall sigmoidal geometry
resulting from interactions with regional extension over
each dome.
20FEB02, 25JUL02, 30OCT02, 15NOV02
• Regional fault system forms perpendicular to the regional
extension across the whole model.
• Crestal faults are oblique to the regional system and par-
allel to the dome crest form.
• Radial fault development is more visible around the larger
end of the dome.
19FEB02, 24JUL02
• Regional fault system forms perpendicular to regional
extension across the whole model.
• Doming increases displacement on regional faults within
the dome margins.
• Crestal faults are oblique to the regional system and par-
allel to the dome crest form.
• Radial fault development is rare.
• Not shown are three contractional models (two with cir-
cular plan domes and one with an elliptical planform with
the long axis oblique to maximum shortening direction)
and two strike-slip models both with elliptical planforms.
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