SPE-175604-MS

Regional Stress Rotation in Arabia; Implications for Hydrocarbon E&P in

Abu Dhabi, UAE
Manhal Sirat, ADCO

Copyright 2015, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Reservoir Characterisation and Simulation Conference and Exhibition held in Abu Dhabi, UAE, 14 –16 September
2015.

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Abstract
The main objective is to unravel the development of the fracture system within the hydrocarbon fields in
the Onshore of Abu Dhabi, where an alternative understanding of the fracture system development in
association with the counterclockwise rotation of the regional causative stress throughout the geologic
time is introduced in this paper.
Manifestation of the tectonic history of Arabia in the UAE is demonstrated by both folding represented
by gentle and open folds comprising most of Abu Dhabi’s hydrocarbon structural traps and a brittle
deformation represented by a fracture system comprising long en echelon seismic faults and several joint
and vein sets. The most dominant, tens of kilometers long seismic faults in the Cretaceous rocks of Abu
Dhabi are the N75W and N45W oriented faults, which have been considered so far as conjugate strike-slip
faults. It is argued here whether these two seismic fault sets, which appear in many instances as conjugate
sets, have been really developed coevally by a single tectonic event when the SHmax was approximately
at 120°? The current understanding that these faults are strike-slip faults despite the absence of extensive
horizontal displacements along them as shown on different time-slices is also discussed. Seismic attribute
analysis and interpretation, outcrop analogs and fracture description from logs and FMIs reveal that this
fracture system might have been developed in a more complicated manner than reported in different
publications.
It is proposed here that the N75W seismic faults have been developed first as tensile fractures shortly
prior to folding when SHmax oriented approximately at 120°. The N45W seismic faults have been
developed at a later stage possibly as splay faults by reactivation/ branching from the preexisting N75W
when the SHmax was approximately oriented E-W. This has occurred by a continuous counterclockwise
rotation of the causative SHmax stress from Cretaceous to present. A periodic strike-slip movement along
deep-seated basement faults could also have developed many structural features in the sedimentary cover
including several hydrocarbon fields in the Onshore of Abu Dhabi.
The implications of the drift of the causative stress with geologic time from ~120° to E-W, NE-SW and
finally to NNE-SSW include its effect in reactivating the preexisting fracture system, tilting folds, and
control fluid charge and movement within Abu Dhabi petroleum system. The significance of the results
is the impact on exploration, production and field development plans. In the exploration of the new plays,
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both leads with their fractures can be predicted once the direction of the paleo-causative stress can be
defined. In production and filed development planning, predicting the fracture system would help better
production with appropriate well placement.
Key Words: Regional stress rotation, Tectonic evolution, Conjugate faults, Seismic attribute analysis and interpre-
tation, Onshore Abu Dhabi

Introduction
The UAE crust, which is part of the old Arabian Plate has undergone various phases of deformations
resulted in the development of different structures within the sedimentary cover characterized mainly by
gentle to open folds and several fracture sets including seismic faults, joints and veins. These folds and
fractures may represent reactivation/rejuvenation of the pre-existing structural grain of Arabia.
The subsurface structural configuration of onshore Abu Dhabi including folding and seismic faults has
been revealed by abundant seismic data. However, except for few regional integrated interpretations for
the fault systems (e.g. Marzouk and Sattar, 1993 and Johnson et al., 2002 and 2005) other interpretations
vary from one field to another and are mostly field-specific. The sedimentary cover of Abu Dhabi varies
in thickness depending on the paleogeography, and structural setting at the time of deposition and the
many tectonic events that shaped the current subsurface over geologic time. The seismic data I used in this
study reveal the sedimentary cover from the deepest exposed Khuff Fm (Late Permian) to the Dammam
Fm (Upper Eocene).
The Foreland basin in the UAE and Oman has undergone deformation since Late Cretaceous–Late
Eocene–Miocene by a compressional stress regime “Oman stress” from the east and the NE towards the
west and the SW respectively (e.g. Searle, 1988; Boote et al. 1990; Warrak 1996, Noweir and Alsharhan
2000; Sirat et al., 2007a&b; Ali et al., 2008 and 2009). The other compressional event was from E–W to
a more N–S direction and was associated with the “Zagros stress” from Late Eocene to present and due
to the opening of the Red Sea Rift (e.g. Searle et al., 1990; Talbot and Alavi, 1996; Ziegler, 2001;
Sattarzadeh et al. 2002; Sirat et al., 2007a&b).
In this paper, the controversial regional structural interpretations is tackled and new alternative
understanding of the fracture system development in association with the counterclockwise rotation of the
regional causative stress throughout the geologic time is introduced based on the abundant available
seismic data and outcrops analog that reveals different fracture systems using basic concepts of structural
geology and geomechanics.

Tectonic background
Several successive tectonic events have shaped the current crust of the Foreland basin including Abu
Dhabi and its hydrocarbon habitats, which have been discussed in numerous publications (e.g. Wissmann
et al., 1942; Glennie et al., 1973; Robertson, 1987a; Patton, and O’Connor, 1988; Searle, 1988; Dunne et
al., 1990; Husseini, 1991 and 1992; Beydoun, et al., 1992; Khattab, 1995; Guiraud and Bosworth, 1997;
Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997; Searle and Cox, 1999; Ziegler, 2001; Al-Lazki et al., 2002; Sattarzadeh, 2002;
Johnson et al., 2002 and 2005; Edwards et al., 2005a & b; Filbrandt et al., 2006; Sirat, et al., 2007; Ruban,
2007; Faqira et al., 2009; Ali et al., 2008 and 2009; Allen, 2010; Fournier, et al., 2011; Sirat, et al., 2012a
& b; Sirat et al., 2013). Manifestation of this tectonic history in both the basement and the sedimentary
cover of Abu Dhabi are demonstrated by gentle and open folds comprising most of Abu Dhabi’s
hydrocarbon structural traps with fracture systems comprising long en echelon seismic faults and several
joint and vein sets.
The oldest tectonic event that has affected the structural grain in Africa and Arabia is the Pan-African
Orogeny, spanning between ~870 to ~550 Ma (Kroner and Stern, 2004). The N-S striking structures seen
in Arabia as a series of grabens and horsts were reactivated from old Pan-African structures during the
later geological history. As shown in the gravity map of the UAE (Fig. 1), most of Abu Dhabi onshore
SPE-175604-MS 3

hydrocarbon fields are situated on gravity highs, bounded in the west by reactivated normal faults made
up of N-S and NNE-SSW striking segments, and in the north and south mainly by dextral strike-slip faults.
The NW-SE to WNW-ESE faults may be part of a reactivated Najd fault system in Arabia (Edwards et
al. 2005a, b).

Figure 1—Gravity map of the UAE shows the old Pan-African structures, which are displaced by WNW–ESE to NW–SE striking faults

The second tectonic event that has contributed in the structuration of Abu Dhabi crust is the Hercynian
Orogeny spanning from Carboniferous to Permian, which resulted in developing several arches and basins
that were partly obliterated during subsequent Mesozoic and Cenozoic tectonic events (Faqira et al.,
2009).
A regional extension during the Triassic has developed a series of N–S trending horsts and grabens
reactivating approximately N–S oriented Pan–African structures, and cross-cutting the NE–trending
Hercynican mega structures and locally inverting them (Husseini, 1992). However, Johnson et al., 2002b
argued that such evidence of Hercynian uplift and erosion in Abu Dhabi is uncertain.
During the Cretaceous (145– 65 Ma) most of the carbonate platform have been developed at the
Arabian Northeastern and eastern Plate margins in a complicated tectonic setting. This broad carbonate
ramp has been developed in the southern Tethyan margin with local intra-shelf basins (Melville et al.,
2004), under successive compressional events that have shaped the Arabian Northeastern and eastern Plate
margins. At Early Cretaceous (135–95 Ma) the closing of the Neo-Tethys along the NE Arabian Plate
margin marked a shortening in the NE direction. Early Middle Cretaceous times witnessed the advent of
active structural uplift in the southeast area (Mender Field), whereas the Late Middle Cretaceous times
mark the onset of structural activity in the region. The top of the Middle Cretaceous sequence is an
unconformity surface throughout the area created by extensive emergence. Therefore, the Middle
Cretaceous Formations are partly to almost entirely missing in the southeast area of Abu Dhabi.
Starting at Late Cretaceous the UAE continental margin was subjected to shortening event resulted in
the SW-directed obduction of Hawasina and Semail ophiolites at the Coniacian-Campanian ca. 80 Ma.,
and This was followed by a NW-directed shortening event which has resulted in the obduction of Batain
and Masirah ophiolite at the Maastrichtian-Palaeocene ca. 65 Ma., (Schreurs & Immenhauser, 1999). This
was mainly associated with the north-northeast advancement of India toward its final current destination
(Guiraud & Bosworth 1997, Johnson et al., 2005 and Filbrandt et al., 2006), where the northerly path of
4 SPE-175604-MS

the Indian Plate has led to an oblique convergence with the Arabian Plate (Fig. 2a). This represents the
third major tectonic event that has led to the structuration of the region, which involved regional
compression and the closing of the Neo-Tethys Ocean and the consequence obduction of the ophiolites
along the Arabian Plate margin (Fig. 2b; Schreurs and Immenhauser 1999). Further, at the end of
Masstrichtian time (65Ma), the carbonate platform that has developed during the Cretaceous has been
regionally uplifted, where Simsima Fm marked by a regional unconformity.

Figure 2—a) Sketch maps showing the evolution of the Indian-Arabian Plates convergence over time and subsequent ophiolites
obduction in NE and E Arabia (from Filbrandt et al. 2006). b) Sketch map showing the direction of the ophiolites obduction in E & NE
Arabia (from Schreurs and Immenhauser 1999).

The last Orogenic event in the region was the intra-plate extension related to the opening of Red
Sea/Gulf of Aden during the Late Eocene, and which led to convergence between Arabia and Eurasia part
of the Zagros Orogeny (Searle et al., 1990; Ziegler, 2001; Sattarzadeh et al. 2002).
During Miocene times, the area of NE Abu Dhabi underwent a pronounced tilt in a northeast direction.
Progressive deepening trend of the basin accommodated 1.1 km of sediments in NE Abu Dhabi in contrast
to about 180 m in the north western areas. Top Dammam is a regional unconformity surface, where the
overlying Oligocene limestone is missing except in the eastern and northeastern areas. Similar to the
Dammam Fm, the overlying Miocene clastics and Miocene evaporites show thickening in a NE direction.
During Upper Miocene/ Pliocene times, further uplift and erosion occurred over most of Abu Dhabi and
adjacent areas, caused by the Zagros orogeny.
Fracture systems interpreted from seismic data
From own seismic interpretation (Fig. 3a), the fracture systems revealed in the Cretaceous rocks of Abu
Dhabi crust comprise long en echelon seismic faults. The most dominant, tens of kilometers long seismic
faults are the N75W and N45W oriented faults (Fig. 3a), which have been considered by several Authors
as conjugate strike-slip sets. I argue here and introduce a new interpretation based on seismic attribute
SPE-175604-MS 5

analyses and kinematics (Sirat et al., 2012a, b&c, and 2013a&b), outcrop analogs (Sirat, et al., 2007a;
Morad & Sirat, 2008; Sirat and Kühn, 2010, Sirat et al., 2014), and fracture description from cores, logs
and FMIs (Morad et al., 2010). My suggestion involves that the fracture systems including these
conjugate-like sets might have been developed in a more complicated manner than reported in different
publications.

Figure 3—Seismic fault quantitative interpretation in South East Abu Dhabi: A) Fault enhancement using repeated scale bar with image
blending indicates regular wider spacing of the dominant master faults of N75W compared to the less dominant N45W splay faults (from
Ben Maroof, et al, 2011). B) A zoom in reveal the N75W fault segments with the relay-ramp spacing. C) Histograms for the two major
seismic faults’ length and their frequency (from Sirat et al, 2012a).

The 3D seismic data in SE of Abu Dhabi show that there are numerous N75W & N45W faults arranged
regularly in a conjugate-like pattern (Fig. 3aa). Further, the 3D seismic data reveal that these faults
generally occur as multiple en echelon fault segments, which can be seen in both structural maps and time
slice maps, and seismic cross sections. Consequently, numerous relay-ramps can be found laterally and
vertically ranging in width from few meters up to 350m (Fig. 3b). Average fault segment length measured
is about 2– 4 km, with average spacing of 10 km for the N75W vs. 5 km for the N45W (Fig. 3c). These
vertical to sub-vertical faults trend at a high angle to the axial surface of the fold and have a remarkably
consistent trend among the fields. However, the N45W faults almost disappear in the central part of Abu
Dhabi, where the reservoir units are found deeper (Fig. 4A). They appear again locally at the saddle
between the giant Fields named A & B and diminish gradually away from the saddle (Fig. 4A). The faults
as shown in Field A & B exhibit different pattern. Only few N75W faults can be recognized in Field A
on the Nahr Umr time-slice at 1370ms, whereas the dominant N45W faults exhibit gradual curvature
towards the N-S especially at their tips (Fig. 4b). These faults in Field B indicate different intensity and
pattern, where most of the N45W faults link several N75W master faults in a duplex-like pattern, implying
a possible explanation that these faults are not necessarily conjugate in origin.
6 SPE-175604-MS

Figure 4 —A) A map revealing the pattern of N75W and N45W seismic faults at three en echelon fields with their saddles in between.
Note the dominant N75W faults in the central part of SE Abu Dhabi (deeper) compared to those across the en echelon Fields A & B at
shallower level. B) A time slice for Nahr Umr horizon in Field A revealing that there is only one N75W fault and that the N45W seismic
faults are the dominant set which exhibit curvature orienting closer to the N-S direction. C) A zoom in field B indicating different
intensity and pattern of the N45W seismic faults linking several N75W master faults.

The arrangement of the segments and the sense of overstep between segments suggest that the two sets
have opposite senses of offset. The N45W trending set shows evidence of sinistral shear, whereas the
N75W trending set shows dextral sense of offset (Johnson et al., 2002). However, it is evident from
numerous time-slices and seismic profiles across most of these faults implying that they are oblique faults,
with limited heaves and throws (Fig. 5).
SPE-175604-MS 7

Figure 5—A) A composite seismic profile across Fields A and B intersecting both N75W and N45W faults. B) A zoom-in Field B revealing
mainly the throws of the normal slip components for the N45W faults. C) A zoom-in in Field B showing a N75W fault with a pseudo heave
(from Grausem et al., 2010, ADCO internal report).

Further, it is evident that while the N75W faults prevail in the subsurface almost all over Abu Dhabi
hydrocarbon fields, the N45W faults are less dominant and appear in specific relatively younger horizons
as shown in Figure 6, which shows coherency maps at different horizons at Field B. The N75W faults
prevail from Thamama B&C Fm (Early Cretaceous, ca 140 –120Ma) down to the Upper Kuff Fm (Late
Permian, ca 255Ma), whereas the N45W faults become visible at the Early Cretaceous and clearly visible
above Nahr Umr Fm (M. Cretaceous, ca 113Ma).
8 SPE-175604-MS

Figure 6 —Coherence maps over Field B revealing the main N75W and N45W seismic faults. Note that in the relatively older map (Late
Permian) only the N75W faults exist, while the N45W faults become visible in the Early Cretaceous and prevailing in the younger Rus
Fm (Lower Eocene, ca 55 Ma).

The time difference of ca 125Ma is significant by means of crustal tectonic evolution implying that,
these so called conjugate faults, which are usually developed coeval in time and under similar stress
regime, cannot be developed here over such large span of time. Instead, looking at the Thamama Fm.
coherence map, the N45W faults appear to have just initiated in association with the N75W faults, most
probably, as Riedel shears. This can happen when the N75W faults have undergone dextral E-W
strike-slip shearing.
In other instances, it is demonstrated that the N45W faults branch-out from the N75W fault planes at
depth and upward (Fig. 7a&b), and the explanation was also documented in Johnson et al., 2002 and 2005
(Fig. 7c&d). The mechanical behavior of this branching can be well explained when the N75W parallel
faults have undergone progressive shearing such that the Riedel shears must have then been propagated
along their tips to link in a duplex structure (e.g. Twiss and Moores, 2007).
SPE-175604-MS 9

Figure 7—Fault behavior under dextral shearing. a&b) Time-slices in Field D in Abu Dhabi show that the N75W faults, which appears
at the southern localized part of the field branched upward as N45W faults in a relatively younger time slice. c&d) Cartoon illustrates
the branching behavior of the Riedel fractures undergoing dextral shearing (from Johnson et al., 2002). The Riedel shears here are the
N45W faults associated with the N75W master faults.

Fracture systems from outcrop analog

Based on field observations, fractures kinematic analysis for 1039 fractures, and paleostress analysis for
413 fault planes (Fig. 8, Sirat et al. 2007a), the fracture system found in the Eocene-Miocene carbonates
at Jabal Hafit in Abu Dhabi, appears to have been developed in a rather complicated manner. Six major
vertical to sub-vertical fracture sets have been identified as high-density contours (methodology after
Sirat, 1999) together with few other moderately dipping fracture sets (Fig. 8a).
10 SPE-175604-MS

Figure 8 —Fractures and paleostress analyses for fractures and faults collected from the exposed Tertiary rocks in Jabal Hafit, UAE.
A) Lower hemisphere stereografic projection for poles to all fractures including faults: two major systems can be seen each of which
comprises 3 sets; one extensional and two shear sets. (B) Sterograms for 413 faults showing 13 sets of both vertical to subvertical sets
(in red) and moderately dipping sets (in blue). Vertical to subvertical sets imply a gradual shift in the causative stress from E-W to N-S.
(C-E) Paleostress analysis for the faults in B supports the rotation of the ␴Hmax (green arrows) over geologic time, where three
dominant directions can be identified: E-W, NE and N-S (modified from Sirat et al. 2007a).

As shown in Figure 8b, thirteen fault sets including both vertical, moderately, and gently dipping faults
can be recognized. A paleostress analysis was conducted for these faults using slickensides (striations and
steps), and sense of slip to infer the vertical, maximum and minimum horizontal paleostresses that have
formed these faults. It has been found that several generations of slickensides super-imposed over each
other indicating multiple senses of movement/ reactivations throughout the structural evolution of the
Jabal Hafit area (Fig. 9). The paleostress analysis indicates that three main paelostress directions can be
identified; ENE-WSW, NE-SW and N-S. This means that the Eocene-to present rocks of Abu Dhabi have
suffered several events of shortening in those above-mentioned directions. The senses of movement vary
between pure strike-slip to normal, and reverse faulting.

Figure 9 —An outcrop within the Rus Fm (Lower Eocene) exposed at Jabal Hafit shows two sets of slickensides super imposed on each
other indicating different senses of movement. Arrows indicate the sense of movement for the hanging wall (removed by erosion); in
the left photograph, a dextral strike-slip appears to have occurred, whereas in the right photograph an oblique fault appears to have
been taken place.
SPE-175604-MS 11

Seismic fault development; a new approach

Integrating the evidence, data and interpretation for the selected examples from the subsurface, outcrop
analogy and structural and geomechanics principles, and numerous published articles and literatures, gives
rise to a new hypothesis regarding the development mechanism of these major seismic faults. This new
hypothesis represents the link between the two well documented major compressional tectonic events
(Oman and Zagros) denoted in the previous sections above, suggesting a gradual counterclockwise shift
of the compressional stress regime in time from E–W (Oman stress) to a more N–S (Zagros stress)
direction. It also explains the effects of this gradual and continuous counter-clockwise rotation of the
␴Hmax from ESE-WNW (120° Azimuth), to E-W, to NE-SW to finally NNE-SSW on Abu Dhabi crustral
evolution and its hydrocarbon Fields structuration. This includes both the folding process as well as the
formation of different fracture sets (including faults and joints), which have evolved and reactivated in
different modes as the causative stress has evolved with time. Further, it can explain accurately in a
chronological order the formation of the seismic faults and can infer their associated fractures, which are
visually sub-seismic.
The dominant direction of the relatively older fracture sets was ESE-WNW ⫾ 20°—30° in strike
ranges for the shear sets, mainly in the Cretaceous bedrocks. The relatively newer fracture sets are mainly
oriented E-W, to NE-SW to N-S directions, mainly in the Tertiary bedrock. However, the NE-SW
fractures have also been found in the Cretaceous rocks but mainly associated with folding, which could
have been developed as syn- to post-folding in the crestal parts of the NE oriented folds.
It is suggested here that the N75W fault set has been developed earlier as tensile fractures during Early
Cretaceous when the causative stress was at 120° Azimuth. These segmented tensile gashes linked at their
tips with several bends and step-overs in some parts and left wide relay ramps in other areas depending
on rocks mechanical properties, structural setting and depth of burial. Mechanical layers which are found
among successive formations, for instance, between Shuaiba (Aptian) and Nahr Umr (Albian), and
between younger units of Mishrif (Coniacian), Halul (Santonian) and Fiqa (Campanian), played important
role in de-coupling the development of younger N45W deeper into the older units. The reactivation of the
pre-existing N75W faults could have happened while the Indian Plate that was drifted northward has
reached the closest distance to the Arabian Plate almost at the end of the Cretaceous (ca 65– 60Ma).
Consequently, the Masirah Ophiolites has been obducted at the Eastern margin of the Arabian Plate. With
the further advancement of the Indian Plate northward, the stress configuration has changed especially
with the opening of the Red Sea during the Eocene. The preexisting N75W tensile fractures have then
undergone shearing, which subsequently developed Riedel shears R, R’ and P fractures (Fig. 10).
12 SPE-175604-MS

Figure 10 —A) A Sismage blending (coherence & structure) map for Field B showing the N75W faults with their R-Riedel fractures. B)
A zoom-in cartoon indicating the dextral strike slip fault (N75W) with its associated Riedel shears (R, R’ and P). C) Sismage horizon slice
at top Thamama C revealing the master faults (N75W) with the splay faults (N45W) linking them. D) A block-diagram illustrating a
negative flower structure made of the master fault (N75W) and its associated N45W splay faults (modified from Sirat, 1999). Note the
small slip-indicators that accommodate the dextral shearing.

The Indian Plate continued its path toward the NE, and the opening of the Red Sea continued and the
E-W stresses has no longer effective, rather it is now gradually and progressively oriented NE-SW during
the Late Eocene–Miocene times. The already sheared N75W faults reactivated as dextral or sinistral
strike-slip faults, and the associated N45W Riedel shears propagated further as splay faults, linking with
their opponents of the other adjacent N75W faults forming duplexes on the map view and numerous
flower structures, in profiles view (Fig. 10). Depending on the arrangement of the N75W segments with
their bends or step-overs, the new formed structures can be either positive or negative flower structures.
Finally, when the progressive collision between the Arabian and Iranian Plates has taken place the main
vector of the ␴Hmax stress oriented NE and NNE. Under such stress configuration, the two major fault sets
were subjected to compressive thrust/reverse stress regime, hence reactivation has been accommodated by
small normal, reverse and strike-slips movements mainly along the N45W splay faults.
Implications for hydrocarbon Exploration, Production and Development
In this paper the emphasis is on the impact of the fracture system on Exploration, Production and
Development in Abu Dhabi hydrocarbon Fields in the light of the new introduced hypothesis. The
proposed counterclockwise rotation has also affected the open and gentle folds that have been developed
normal at the ␴Hmax orientation mainly when it was at 120° azimuth during the Middle–Late Cretaceous
(Sirat, et al., 2012a). These folds have suffered shearing after that at different stages and have been
modified most likely at deeper levels (e.g. Ali et al., 2009 and Sirat et al., 2012a). The most obvious
change that has occurred was manifested by the secondary migration of the crestal parts of most of the
folds due to the Tertiary tilt that has been taken place in the Arabian Plate by the collision with the Iranian
Plate possibly during the Eocene-Miocene. Other possible accommodation of different shearing is the
en-echelon arrangement of most of Abu Dhabi hydrocarbon Fields along deep seated faults linked to the
basement. The impact of the crestal migration is obvious at several hydrocarbon Fields in Abu Dhabi,
SPE-175604-MS 13

where the deterioration of the reservoir rock units that were within the water-ledge before the tilting has
undergone diagenetic alteration. These rims hence become an exploration target mostly for the uncon-
ventional due to their low porosity low permeability properties.
Several hydrocarbon-Fields in Abu Dhabi are compartmentalized to some extent mainly by the N75W
and N45W fault seals. These seals can be shown by numerous different images logs (Fig. 11a&b).
Evidence of compartmentalization, hence sealing of those seismic faults can be verified by the presence
of different OWC (Oil Water Contact) and or FWL (Free Water Level), different pressures (Fig. 11 c&d),
and different chemical imprints of their oil pools among these compartments.

Figure 11—A) STAR/CBIL image example of a fault identified in well (xx). B) Rose histograms illustrate the strike orientation of the
observed fractures in Field YYY. Note that the conductive fractures are the cemented (sealed) ones. C) A structural cross-section
across Field DDD NE Abu Dhabi shows different OWC and FWL by the N75W and N45W seismic faults. D) A map show different
compartments in Field YYY of different pressure data.

Based on the introduced hypothesis, the N75W faults are the oldest, most of which were possibly held
opened when the ␴Hmax orientation was approximately parallel to them (Sirat et al., 2012c). When these
faults were subjected to shearing at a later stage due to the counterclockwise rotation of the ␴Hmax, Riedel
14 SPE-175604-MS

shears developed and the fault zone become more susceptible to diagenetic alteration, which eventually
partially sealed them. The condition for these faults to be held closed is that the capillary pressure for the
hydrocarbon column height plus the shear component of the maximum horizontal stress, which is now
acting oblique at these faults, must not exceed the mechanical strength of these faults (Sirat et al. 2014).
Other factors include the depth of burial and the regional stress, which substantially affect the state of
in-situ stress (magnitude and direction). Mechanical layering is another significant factor that defines
those parts of the reservoir bedrocks that are more susceptible to fracturing versus the less susceptible
ones. Therefore, the assessment of the fault seal should involve those mentioned factors and constraints.
Of which Figure 12 (Sirat, 2012a & 2013a) has tackled one of these factors that is the effect of the regional
stress direction on the closing potential of different fracture sets in one of Abu Dhabi’s Fields.

Figure 12—Openness potential of the major fault sets in Field X. All faults have undergone openness and closeness with respect to the
direction of the SHmax over geologic time (from Sirat 2013a).

The counterclockwise rotation of the regional stress thus provides an insight about the potential sealing
capacity of different fractures over time. This has an impact on the charging pathways of the hydrocarbon
through these faults, where changing the stress orientation impact the opening and closing potential of
these faults, which infers that most of these faults behave differently over geologic time. So that, and as
an example, the N75W faults were most likely held opened when the SHmax was parallel or sub-parallel
in Late Cretaceous and Paleocene, but as it rotated counterclockwise with time, the SHmax became
gradually normal at the faults trend keeping them closed from the Oligocene on. Therefore, the
hydrocarbon charging pathways were not affected by these faults from Late Cretaceous time until Eocene.
The Tertiary tilt has resulted in a secondary migration of the already trapped hydrocarbon in the crestal
parts of Abu Dhabi’s Fields at that time. As the tilt advance to the NE direction a secondary migration
towards the SW took place along pathways which now have been affected by the diagenetically sealed
faults. The N75W faults then have been partially sealed during the Oligocene and Miocene, which could
have trapped hydrocarbon in the 3-ways closure. These are significant targets for the Exploration, however
the assessment of the mechanical properties of these fault seals is vital to estimate the amount of
hydrocarbon column height of these fault seals can withheld before breaching. Therefore, Sirat et al.
(2014) has taken into accounts the assessment of the fault seal and cap rock integrity with its constraints,
SPE-175604-MS 15

and provided 96 possible scenarios of breaching potential under sveral geomechanics conditions. It was
also found that the height of the hydrocarbon coloumn has reached the structural closure of the studied
area, and that the studied fault has exhibited partial breach along the fault bend when the tau ratio exceedes
the fault seal strength (Fig. 13).

Figure 13—Calculated Tau Ratio along the fault seal under strike-slip regime. Note that the tau ratio varies significantly along the fault
seal, where the maximum values are along the fault bends (modified from Sirat et al., 2014).

The impact of understanding the flow behavior of these major faults with their associated fractures is
vital for development plans. Therefore, this hypothesis can help decreasing the uncertainties associated
with the sub-seismic fractures localizations where the seismic data cannot help much. It can predict the
existence of these sub-seismic fractures once the type of seismic faults and their reactivation mode
throughout the geologic time can be assessed. An example to demonstrate the 3D visualization of the
flower structure made of the N75W and N45W with possible relay ramp and or sealing compartment is
shown in Figure 14. Here, from the 3D seismic cube in one of Abu Dhabi’s Field, an interpretation has
been carried out for the faults revealing different flower structures made essentially of the N75W and
N45W faults. Wells, which were localized at the vicinity of those faults, were used for verification. Finally
a block diagram was constructed to visualize the possible configuration of one of these many flower
structures revealing relay ramp, which could represent the spill points of a possible compartment by two
fault seals.
16 SPE-175604-MS

Figure 14 —Left: Structural interpretation for two successive seismic sections across Field A revealing complicated flower structures.
Right: A schematic diagram shows a 3D structural conceptual model revealing one of the flower structures with the interrelation
between the N75W master faults and the N45W splay faults with possible relay ramp.

Summary and conclusions

● The ␴Hmax has been drifted counterclockwise over geological time from ~120° azimuth in the Late
Cretaceous to the E-W in the E-W in the Paleocene to NE-SW in the Eocene-Miocene and finally
to N15–30 at present.
● Interpretation of the seismic data within the subsurface of Onshore Abu Dhabi reveals that the two
major seismic faults N75W and N45W appear to be formed differently from the common
understanding of having them as conjugate faults.
● A new hypothesis has been presented here tackling the kinematics of these fault sets based on the
new seismic interpretation, outcrop analogy, and structural geology/Geomechanics principles
indicate that the N75W faults have formed earlier as tensile fractures when the ␴Hmax was oriented
at ~120° azimuth. As the tectonic setting has changed with the advancement of the Indian Plate to
the northeast, the ␴Hmax has gradually rotated counterclockwise subjecting the preexisting N75W
faults to shearing, which led to the development of the N45W fractures as Riedel shears (R).
During the Eocene, with the opening of the Red Sea, then has rotated further to the NE and the
N45W Riedel fractures have propagated and link the preexisting N75W set as splay faults.
● This hypothesis has changed the perspective of the interpretation of the fracture systems (including
faults, joints and veins) within the hydrocarbon Fields of Abu Dhabi.
● The main impact of this counterclockwise rotation of the maximum compressive stress direction
over geologic time on fault development is that it can consistently explain the development
mechanism of the seismic faults with their associated visually sub-seismic fractures over geolog-
ical time.
● The impact of this new understanding is that it can provide a consistent interpretation for the flow
behavior of the fracture systems that have developed in association of these faults. This includes
but not restricted to have the impact on the Exploration, as of better understanding the charging
mechanism and history, where several 3-ways closure with a fault seal leads can be maturated. It
also impacts the production where it can predict numerous fractures that are associated with the
fault system, to be used to enhance the recovery or be treated with caution to avoid water cuts. In
the development, the hypothesis is essential as it provides new possibilities of the interlinking the
preexisting faults and their associated fractures, which can help new well placement for better
recovery.
SPE-175604-MS 17

Acknowledgement
The Author would like to thank the management from ADCO and ADNOC for their support and to allow
using and publishing the data. Special thank is to Ms. Sara A. Satti for preparing and providing me with
few seismic time slices.

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