Lecture 1

Didactics:

● in the most general modern sense didactics deals with the processes of
learning and teaching that takes place in a school
● it concentrates specifically on how teachers, learners and knowledge interact
and support one another

Learning also takes place outside of school. Learning happens all the time,
sometimes it's completely unconscious, but it is not a part of didactics. Didactics as
a science takes place only in school.

○ Didactics deals with the activities of both the teacher and the student.
○ The teacher's actions are deliberate and consciously undertaken, and
their goal is to shape the pupil's personality in accordance with the
model accepted by the society in which the process takes place.
Whatever the teacher is doing is done on purpose. Teachers should
make students aware of different models available. Moreover, it
stimulates personality and behavior.

The significant role of didactics

It happened both when it was occasional and intuitive, mainly boiling down to the
accidental provision of information and demonstration, and in later years, when they
were changed into an intended, planned and systematic process, and when the first
schools were established.

For many centuries, teaching/learning was not made the subject of theoretical
analysis and study, and therefore it had no theory of its own.

It was only the 17th century that brought significant changes in this field, then a
separate name didactics appeared for the theory of teaching/learning and the
foundations of the first scientifically justified system of didactic activity were built.

Teaching is passing/sharing the knowledge. It's helping someone learn. Teaching

and learning is not a passive consuming. Learning is acquiring the knowledge and
specific skills. If you do not have your own desire to learn, you won't learn it. It's
gaining new perspectives of things.
The definitions of teaching and learning:
Teaching - a process of interaction between teachers and knowledge by which
teachers make successive adaptations to scientific or academic knowledge so that it
becomes an object of learning
Learning - a process of interaction between students and knowledge in which
students construct new meanings from experience by using their background or prior
knowledge to make sense of the new experiences.
The teacher’s job
● to make the new information learnable

The students' job

● to understand, make sense and create their own personal version of gained
knowledge

The scope of didactics

● when it happens?
● where?
● what?
● who?
● how?
● why?

Lecture 3 and 4

● Middle Ages were an era during which religion dominated and penetrated
every area of life including education,
● contrary to antiquity, the aim of education was not to develop a person’s
individuality/wisdom/thinking, but to deny it (in the name of religion),
● asceticism:
○ the assumption that a person can achieve a high spiritual and moral
state by practicing self-denial and self-mortification,
○ this requires avoiding of all forms of indulgence/self-pleasure,for
religious reasons;
● physical exercises were removed from school curricula,
● = the development of education was caused by the rapid spread and the
strengthening of Christianity,
● education was restricted to and reserved for the clergy and a select few
members of the ruling class/royalty, three types of schools can be
distinguished:
○ cathedral schools for the clergy - where the dominant academic activity
was translating and examining holy texts,
○ palace schools for the members of the ruling class - which focused on:
military tactics, court tactics, theology and language,
○ the parish schools were established for the poorest, on the basis of the
directives of the Lateran IV Council
● the church dealt with the business of education
● monks/priests performed the functions of scribes and teachers - their task was
to copy old holy texts/manuscripts by hand and teach from them - initially
there were no printing presses and books were not widely available
 ● = monks/the clergy held the key to information/knowledge
● !!! the majority of regular secular (non-religious) public had no access to
education

The development of the first schools in Poland

● the institution of the school appeared after the adoption of Christianity with the
baptism of Mieszko I
● the first bishoprics (PL biskupstwa) in Poznań, Gniezno, Kraków, Wrocław
and Kołobrzeg were the foundations of the educational system emerging in
Poland, modeled on Western European culture
● the earliest schools in Poland were established at episcopal cathedrals and
were led by foreigners
● schools implemented universal trivium (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics/logic)
and quadrivium programs (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music),
○ primary education - learning the beginnings of the Latin language,
catechism, prayers, and church singing - was carried out by parish
schools,
○ cathedral and collegiate schools were responsible for implementing the
full curriculum - trivium and quadrivium

The significance of Latin

● Latin was obligatory both in the church and in the state life, where it was the
official language; it was also the language of science - philosophy, theology,
● Latin was taught at various levels throughout schooling - learning Latin began
with the students memorizing prayers and psalms = the teacher loudly uttered
Latin words for the students - they repeated them until they completely
remembered,
● among the subjects of the trivium much attention was paid to rhetoric - the art
of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, as it allowed students to
practice the use of Latin.
● Latin - lingua latina - was the „lingua franca”/main language of European
education,
● !!! the Polish language played only an auxiliary role = it was used for oral
communication to explain the meaning of words and texts.

The first Polish library

● Wawel library was founded in 1110
● the full curriculum/programme included the seven liberal sciences - trivium
and quadrivium:
○ in lower grades - they were textbooks of grammar, rhetoric,
dialectics/logic (the trivium),
○ in higher grades - they were textbooks on arithmetic, geometry,
astronomy, music (the quadrivium)
Textbooks
● very expensive
● Polish textbooks were created by Marek from Opatów, Wacław from Oborniki
and others as early as in XIX century.

The teaching methods

● teacher monologue - the most dominant
● mechanical memorization (mnemonics) - knowledge was mastered by
memorization
○ the first stage - Latin prayers learnt by repetition
○ the second stage - learning to read
○ the third stage - learning to write
● strict discipline based on the pedagogy of fear
● corporal punishment was very common
● students lived together, in dark and poorly heated cells, they - prayed day and
night.

Apprenticeship
● medieval model of vocational education = education through apprenticeship,
● an apprentice=a young person, most often male, who learned a trade by
working for a guild master, living at their master's house and given room and
board, but earning no money,
● began at age 12 on average, and commonly lasted around 7 years (from 2 to
10) - the length of the apprenticeship depended on the trade and the master,
for eg. a cook's apprentice=2 years, blacksmith=10 years
● usually qualified by producing a 'masterpiece' = earn the title of master,
● a qualified apprentice either set up his own business or became a journeyman
traveling around and finding work with a master,
● from the 12th century master tradesmen became members of guilds

Scholasticism
● a trend in philosophy followed by thinkers who wanted to bring together
classical philosophy and the teachings of Christian theology, emphasized that:
○ knowledge (and faith) originate in human mind and experience,
○ teaching, lecturing and research should follow a scholastic method i.e.
discussion based on the rules of logic.

Major representatives of medieval didactic thought

● Saint Augustine - his writings established the intellectual foundations of
christianity in the West, he investigated teaching and education, was a monk
and a follower of Socrates, in his book “De Magistro” he claimed that we learn
through asking questions but they require an expected, dogmatic answer, and
they must be answered even if they interrupt the lecture, for him being the
 teacher was an act of love, empathy and introspection are critical features
in the process of teaching;
● Peter Abelard - a representative of medieval scholasticism, he established a
new way of learning, thinking and teaching, set up his own school which
functioned until 1140 where his principal activity was that of teaching a group
of enthusiastic pupils, his work as a teacher involved both repetition and
change;
● John of Salisbury - a student of Peter Abelard, the goal of teaching - to
develop human mind and senses, lectures should be clear and simple - match
the intellectual level of all students, learning happens when teacher’s efforts
‘unite’ with the learner’s effort.

Medieval universities
● corporations created for the purposes of higher education
● were established between the 11th and 15th centuries
● disciplines included: the study of the arts, theology, law, and medicine
● by 1300, about 23 universities were up and running in Europe
● universities had a highly positive impact on the the state of knowledge for two
reasons:
○ they were open to anybody, irrespective of intellectual level or social
background,
○ they were international in nature - Latin was the language of study and
the lingua franca - it was a universal language of science and
administration which made education accessible.
● University of Bologna, Paris, Cambridge, Oxford, Padova, Prague, Cracow
● medieval teachers lacked professional qualifications as there were no
regulations that would state who could be a teacher
● 2 degrees of teaching qualifications were later distinguished at universities:
only bachelors (‘bakałarze’) and masters (‘magistrowie’) were qualified to
become teachers

Lecture 6 and 7

Establishing Didactics as a Science:

1. Comenius separated didactics from pedagogy.
2. Didactics is based on the concept of "method."
3. Each discipline should develop its own didactic methods.
4. Methods should match the purposes and content of each specific discipline.
Comenius' Contribution to Education:
1. Shift from standardization to individualization.
2. Anyone can learn anything with access to schooling and appropriate methods.
3. Selection of suitable methods and resources is crucial.
4. Education should be universal and individualized.
Comenius' Influence:
1. His work led to efforts for individualization of education by Rousseau, Pestalozzi,
and Froebel.
2. Debate between education as knowledge transmission via a single method and
highly individualized process.

18th and 19th century:

1. There was a wave of new ideas, some of which in time caused a deep
transformation in school and classroom

Pestalozzi:
1. Founded an orphanage and a boarding school.
2. Education should be "organic" and develop head, heart, and body - intellectual,
moral, and physical activities should be „as one”.
3. Education activates the self-power inherent in human nature.
4. Education focuses on physical, moral, and intellectual development.
5. Practical lessons precede abstract thinking.
6. Curriculum should be child-centered and aligned with child development.
7. Children’s nature, rather than the structure of the arts and sciences, should be the
starting point of education.
8. Experience must precede symbolism meaning focusing on concrete actions
precedes the development of abstract thinking.
9. The curriculum should be child-centered, not subject-centered.

Froebel:
1. Founded the kindergarten movement where children's developmental needs,
including the need to play were at the center of its educational programme.
2. The role of school is not the transmission of knowledge but the development of
child character.
3. Education through play and self-activity.
5. Toys („gifts”) stimulate learning - familiarize children with inanimate things.
6. Gardening and taking care of animals - induce sympathy for plants and animals.
7. Playing games and singing - instilling a spirit of humanity and nature.
8. Focus on character development and motivation to learn.
9. Every teacher has two main responsibilities - “dictating and giving way” - remove
obstacles to the self-development and correct deviations and lead the child to what is
is right

Herbart:
1. Founder of pedagogy as a discipline:
2. Separation of pedagogy and didactics: Herbart distinguished between pedagogy
and didactics, viewing them as separate concepts.
3. Father of moral education: Herbart emphasized the importance of moral education
and its role in shaping character.
Introduction to Herbart's educational doctrine:
1. Education vs. teaching: Herbart made a clear distinction between education and
teaching, considering them as distinct concepts.
Education -> shaping the development of character
Teaching -> representing the world, conveying fresh knowledge, developing useful
skills.
2. Education's goal: The primary goal of education, according to Herbart, is the
building of character rather than the mere transmission of knowledge.
3. Virtuous Human Beings: Herbart aimed to create virtuous individuals who follow
five moral ideas and contribute to a virtuous society.

The five moral ideas:

1. Internal freedom: Individual actions should be based on personal convictions.
2. Perfection: Actions should respect the health of body and soul, and thoughts and
actions should be consistent.
3. Benevolence: Actions should be concerned with the well-being of others and
consider their will and welfare.
4. Justice/right: Individuals should strive for a balance between their desires and
group norms, and they should respect the rights of others.
5. Equity: Understanding the idea of reward and punishment for behavior and the
suitability of such rewards and punishments.

Herbartian Method of Teaching (5 formal steps to teaching):

1. Preparation: Relating new material to existing ideas to stimulate students' interest
and readiness for the new lesson.
2. Presentation: Presenting new material through concrete experiences and objects.
3. Comparison (Association): Comparing the new idea with existing ideas to find
similarities and differences and implant the new idea in students' minds.
4. Abstraction: Linking the new material and experience with abstract concepts.
5. Generalization (Application): Linking the newly acquired knowledge with students'
prior knowledge to make it personally meaningful and integral to their lives.

The transformative power of education:

1. Education's impact: Education has a transformative power that shapes individuals
and their potential for change.
2. Unique potential: Each child is born with a unique potential that can be realized
through formalized, rigorous education.
3. Moral and intellectual development: Education provides a framework for moral and
intellectual development.
4. Teaching instills fundamental moral values and forms conscience.

Moral education in practice:

1. Classroom punishment: Non-violent forms of school punishment include scolding,
time out, line writing, and confiscating personal belongings.
2. Violent forms of school punishment: Corporal punishment involves causing
deliberate pain or discomfort, such as hitting, slapping, pinching, or
kneeling/standing in uncomfortable positions.
Herbart's model of education was heavily criticized

Lecture 11

Issues with education:

a. Children's attitude towards being wrong: Children are not bothered by being wrong
or making mistakes. They are willing to take chances and have a go, often displaying
artistic and creative qualities.
b. Importance of being ready to be wrong: Being ready to be wrong is crucial for
fostering creativity. If individuals are not prepared to be wrong, they will struggle to
come up with original ideas.
c. Impact of education on children as they grow up: Education tends to stigmatize
and punish children for their mistakes, leading to a decline in their creativity. Over
time, they become frightened of being wrong, and their creative capacities are
suppressed.

Other issues with educational systems:

d. Educational systems generally prioritize certain subjects, with mathematics and
languages at the top, followed by humanities, and the arts (including painting, music,
literature, and dance) occupying a lower status. Within the arts, visual art and music
are often valued more than drama and dance, which is rarely taught.
e. Parts/aspects of the child education engages: Education predominantly focuses
on the intellectual aspects of the child. As children grow older, education increasingly
emphasizes the mind while disregarding the body.
f. Goal of education: The goal of public education is often to produce university
professors who prioritize academic ability. This narrow focus does not cater to the
diverse talents and aspirations of all children.
g. This model places importance on subjects deemed useful for future work and
heavily emphasizes academic ability. However, it has led to academic inflation,
where too many graduates are produced without sufficient job prospects.

Changes suggested by Robinson:

Robinson proposes a shift in the fundamental principles of education to include and

educate all children, not just those who excel in academic ability.

The current view equates intelligence with academic ability, neglecting other forms of
intelligence. This also should be changed.

Three defining features of intelligence: Intelligence is diverse, with individuals

thinking in visual, auditory, kinesthetic, abstract, and movement-oriented ways.
It is dynamic, as the brain's interactive nature fosters creativity.

Intelligence is distinct, as people have unique thinking styles and preferences.

Evangelische Schule Berlin Zentrum:

● Evangelische Schule Berlin Zentrum (ESBZ) is an inclusive community
founded in
● 2007 with the goal of enabling students to become responsible, sustainable
citizens of the world.
● The school follows the UNESCO 4-pillar learning model: acquiring knowledge,
acting responsibly, living together, and being.
● Inclusion is an educational mission at ESBZ, emphasizing dealing with
diversity and accepting differences in development.
● Learning at ESBZ happens in heterogeneous groups, emphasizing learning
from and with each other.
● The school promotes democratic education and participation, encouraging
students to try new things, question, and form their own opinions.
● ESBZ recognizes the importance of social recognition, appreciation, affection,
and trust in student motivation and identity formation.
● The school focuses on complex topics of contemporary times and allows
learners to choose and explore their interests and potential.
● There are four types of classes:
○ individual or team work (workshop) (green) decided individually
○ joint classes in the classroom (yellow)
○ project implementation - (red)
○ summary of the week with the tutor (purple)
● Students have autonomy and responsibility for their learning, supported by
tutors and self-organized schedules.
● Teachers at ESBZ are recruited for their innovative mindset and undergo an
adaptation process.
● Cooperation and collaboration are key principles at ESBZ, with teachers and
students exchanging roles and working closely together.
● Lessons at ESBZ have no traditional timetable, and students decide what they
want to learn each day in collaboration with teachers.
● Learners take full responsibility for their learning
● The curriculum covers core subjects as well as mandatory additional subjects
like projects and challenges.
● Projects and challenges play a significant role in the learning process,
allowing students to take on tasks of their choice with educational purposes.

Lecture 13

Features of effective teaching

 ● planning/organization
● guidance
● theory and practice
● constructing knowledge
● understanding/internalisation
● direct/intentional learning
○ planned, deliberate, conscious
○ happening as a part of a planned process of instruction/teaching, often
in classroom,
○ involving the use of learning strategies
● indirect/incidental/non-intentional learning
○ not premeditated or planned, not deliberate, often unconscious
○ happening as a result of some other, possibly unrelated, mental activity
● practical
● based on/leading to critical thinking
○ critical thinking skills: reasoning, analyzing, evaluating, decision
making, problem solving
● individual/personalized learning
○ a process involving a change in a person’s behavior or knowledge,
○ the practice of allowing students to learn at their own pace and
according to their own preferred learning style.
● social learning
○ a process involving learning from group members/each other
○ a process of dynamic interaction between people and the environment
in the construction of meaning and identity

➔ The process of teaching should be planned, systematic, organized.

➔ The teacher should guide you on the side.
➔ Knowledge should be constructed not received!

Lecture 14

Contemporary theory of learning:

● Human brains are the fastest, most effective, and energy-efficient information
processing devices.
● Humans have the unique ability to learn and teach themselves, thanks to the
brain's capacity to extract information, formulate hypotheses, and select fitting
ones.

The power of learning:

● Most knowledge is acquired through learning from the environment or others.
● Humans have the ability to change and dominate their environment through
constant self-reinvention powered by learning.
● Brain can learn from the environment but also it can teach itself.
 ● The brain's ability to extract information and formulate hypotheses enables
effective learning.

All learners are different, but human brains learn in the same way:
● Brain imaging shows that humans rely on similar brain circuits and learning
rules.
● Individual differences in learning mainly stem from prior knowledge,
motivation, and learning pace rather than how they learn.

The four pillars of learning: All are absolutely necessary.

1. Attention: Selecting relevant information and focusing the brain's resources on it.
2. Active engagement: Actively generating hypotheses, exploring, and testing mental
models.
3. Error feedback: Correcting mental models and learning from mistakes.
4. Consolidation: Compiling and transferring acquired knowledge into long-term
memory.

Attention:
● Attention refers to mechanisms that select, amplify, and process information in
the brain.
● It acts as a spotlight, focusing learning power on selected data.
● Attention is the gateway to learning, and information needs to be amplified by
attention and awareness for effective memorization.
● Attention solves a very common problem - information saturation

Active engagement:
● A passive organism learns little or nothing.
● Learning requires active generation of hypotheses and testing them in the
outside world.
● Motivation and curiosity are essential for effective learning.
● Active engagement takes place in the brain through attentive, focused, and
active generation of mental models.
● Active students constantly rephrase them into words or thoughts of their own.
● -How to engage learners?
○ practical activities,
○ discussions in which everyone takes part,
○ small group work,
○ teachers asking a difficult question and letting the students think about
it for a while.
● Memory and curiosity are linked - the more curious you are about something,
the more likely you are to remember it.

Error feedback:
 ● The quality and accuracy of the feedback we receive determines how quickly
we learn.
● Learning is based on a prediction/correction scheme - when learners generate
a possible answer/solution i.e. a prediction, they can only learn by detecting
their own error and correcting themselves.
● Making mistakes is a natural part of learning, allowing the brain to adjust its
predictive models.
● Grades alone are not effective error feedback; constructive and timely
feedback is crucial for learning.
● Presenting grades as punishments can hinder learning and discourage
students.

Consolidation:
● It needs to become automatic and unconscious.
● Consolidation is the process of transferring acquired knowledge into long-term
memory.
● Repetition and sleep play key roles in this process.
● Spacing out learning sessions and sleeping enhances consolidation and
retention.

Teachers' role:
● Teachers should capture and direct students' attention, encourage active
engagement, provide constructive feedback, and create opportunities for
spaced repetition.
● Engaging students' curiosity is crucial, but structured pedagogical guidance is
necessary.
● Teachers should emphasize the importance of sleep and explain the meaning
and purpose of grades.