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Evaluation of processing, preservation and chemical

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DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-4549.2009.00429.x

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jfpp_429 373..383

EVALUATION OF PROCESSING, PRESERVATION AND

CHEMICAL AND FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF NILE TILAPIA
WASTE

FLÁVIA B. STEVANATO, SOLANGE M. COTTICA, MARIA E. PETENUCI,

MAKOTO MATSUSHITA, NILSO E. DESOUZA and JESUÍ V. VISENTAINER1

Departament of Chemistry
Universidade Estadual de Maringá
Av. Colombo, 5790, 87020-900, Maringá, PR, Brazil

Accepted for Publication April 6, 2009

ABSTRACT

In this experiment, the heads of Nile tilapia were used as a raw mate-
rial to produce flour through cooking, grinding, drying and sieving pro-
cesses. The flour obtained was stored for 90 days in a refrigerator and shelf
time was monitored by chemical methods (acid number [AN] and thiobar-
bituric acid [TBA] test), fatty acid composition and microbiological
methods. The proximate composition was: moisture (6.01%), ash (19.38%),
proteins (38.41%) and total lipids (35.46%). Thirty-six fatty acids were
found in the lipidic fraction. The predominant ones were 16:0, 18:1n-9 and
18:2n-6. The fatty acids of the series n-3, 18:3n-3 (alpha-linolenic acid),
18:2n-6 (linolenic acid), 20:5n-3 (eicosapentaenoic acid) and 22:6n-3
(docosahexaenoic acid) were found in smaller proportion. No changes were
detected in the flour stored for 90 days as to polyunsaturated fatty acids and
microbiological analysis. The AN remained constant up to 60 days of
storage and TBA values increased throughout the 90-day storage.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Waste Nile tilapia heads are not commonly used in human feeding and,
therefore, are discarded. In this experiment, Nile tilapia heads were used as a
raw material to produce tilapia flour; it was stored in a refrigerator and the
shelf time was monitored for 3 months by chemical and microbiological
methods. The flour is a caloric food, has high lipid content with omega-3 fatty
acids, minerals, proteins and can be used as human feeding.

1
Corresponding author. TEL: +55-44-3261-3663; FAX: +55-44-3261-4125; EMAIL: jvvisentainer@
uem.br

Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 34 (2010) 373–383.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-4549.2009.00429.x 373
© 2009 The Author(s)
Journal compilation © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
374 F.B. STEVANATO ET AL.

INTRODUCTION

Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is the most widely bred fish species
in the world. This can be explained by some relevant features of this species,
such as fast growth rate, high-quality meat and good flavor, which lead to its
good acceptance by consumers (Jory et al. 2000).
Of the total world fish catch, 28% either becomes waste and is thrown
away and causes pollution or is used as animal feed (FAO 2000). The term
waste here refers to residues generated in fish processing, which usually
have a low commercial value. It comprises small fish with dark meat of low
acceptability and waste from the filleting process, such as heads, scales,
bones, carcasses, liver, skin and viscera (Oetterer 2002).
Fish waste can be used as a source of nutrients such as proteins, vita-
mins, minerals, and in particular omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3
PUFAs). Among these substances, biologically active fatty acids such as
eicosapentaenoic (EPA, 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic (DHA, 22:6n-3.)
acids are of extreme importance due to their several benefits to health, such
as prevention of heart diseases (Dyerberg and Bang 1979; Firbank et al.
2002; Penny et al. 2002) and cancer (Lee and Lip 2003), anti-inflammatory
and antithrombotic effects (Simopoulos 2002), and reduction of blood cho-
lesterol levels.
Two critical points must be taken into account during fish flour produc-
tion and storage: rancidification and contamination by microorganisms. These
factors may reduce the product shelf life and may be harmful to the consum-
ers’ health.
Rancidification happens mainly due to the high levels of unsaturated fat
in fish, which easily oxidizes. It produces rancidity during processing and
storage and leads to product off flavor (Gatta et al. 2000).
Contamination by Pseudomonas, Bacillus and Micrococcus may accel-
erate rotting and the contamination by fecal coliforms, Salmonella and Sta-
phylococus. The contamination by microorganisms is affected by the raw
material used and hygiene, handling, storage, processing and commercializa-
tion conditions.
Considering the benefits of using fish waste, such as better use of raw
material and reduction of pollution, a study on tilapia head flour (THF) was
carried out aiming to generate technological alternatives and aggregate value
to the product. The aim of this study was to evaluate processing and monitor
storage and chemical and fatty acid composition of flour during the 3-month
storage.
 PROCESSING AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF NILE TILAPIA WASTE 375

MATERIALS AND METHODS

THF Preparation
Tilapia heads were washed and steam cooked for 25 min, as shown in
Fig. 1. After cooking, the heads were ground in an endless-screw grinder,
placed on a tray and dried in an oven for 4 h at 180C. Next, the flour was sieved
with a 14-mesh stainless steel sieve. The product obtained, referred to as THF,
was packed in polyethylene bags and wrapped in aluminum foil after removal
of air. The flour was stored in a refrigerator (4C) for 90 days and analyses were
carried out every 30 days. The flour obtained immediately after processing was
considered as zero-time flour. The flowchart (Fig. 2) presents the processing,
storage and monitoring stages.

Chemical Analyses
The proximate moisture, ash and protein compositions were calculated in
accordance with the Association of Official Analytical Chemists techniques
(Cunniff 1998).
The total lipids (TL) were extracted using the method reported by Bligh
and Dyer (1959).
The transesterification of the TL was carried out in accordance with
Joseph and Ackman (1992).

FIG. 1. STEAM COOKING OF TILAPIA HEADS

376 F.B. STEVANATO ET AL.

FIG. 2. FLOWCHART OF TILAPIA HEAD FLOUR PRODUCTION

Chromatographic Analysis of Methyl Esters

Fatty acid methyl esters were prepared by methylation TL as described by
Joseph and Ackman (1992). Fatty acid esters were separated in a gas chro-
matograph 14-A (Shimadzu, Tokyo Japan) equipped with a fused silica cap-
illary column CP-cyanopropyl (Varian, Palo Alto, CA) (Select fame Varian –
CP 7420) (100 m ¥ 0.25 mm i.d. ¥ 0.25-mm film) and flame ionization detec-
tor. The operation parameters were as follows: detector temperature, 240C;
injection port temperature, 220C; column temperature, 165C for 18 min at
4C/min up to 235C, with final holding time of 24 min. The gas flow rates used
were 1.0 mL/min, carrier gas (H2), 30 mL/min make-up gas (N2), and 30 and
300 mL/min flame gases (H2 and synthetic air, respectively). The sample
 PROCESSING AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF NILE TILAPIA WASTE 377

splitting ratio was 1:50 and samples (1 mL) were injected in triplicate. Peak
areas were determined by Varian Workstation Star version 5.0. For identifica-
tion, fatty acids retention times were compared to those of standard methyl
esters (Sigma, St. Louis, MO). Equivalent chain-length values were used
(Thompson 1996; Strànsky et al. 1997).

Stored THF Quality Control

Lipidic instability was monitored at zero time and every 30 days up to 90
days by the thiobarbituric acid (TBA) test, according to Vyncke (1970), and
acid number (AN), according to Moretto et al. (2002).
Microbiological analyses were performed in accordance to the methods
suggested by the FDA (1995). The analyses performed (zero time and 90 days)
were: mesophilic bacteria total count, most probable number of total
coliforms, most probable number of fecal coliforms, investigation of Salmo-
nella spp. and Bacillus count.

Statistical Analysis
The results were submitted to variance analysis at a probability level of
5% using Tukey’s test and Statistica version 5.0 (Statsoft 1995).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Proximate Composition
Table 1 presents the chemical composition values for moisture, ash, pro-
teins and TL of zero-time THF.
The moisture level calculated for THF is in accordance with RIISPOA
(1997), which states that the moisture contents of dry fish must not exceed
12%.

TABLE 1.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ZERO-TIME THF

Chemical composition (%) Zero-time flour

Moisture 6.01 ⫾ 0.09

Ash (minerals) 19.38 ⫾ 0.14
Protein 38.41 ⫾ 0.12
Total lipids 35.46 ⫾ 0.16

Mean values with respective standard deviations. Analyses were

carried out in triplicate.
THF, tilapia head flour.
378 F.B. STEVANATO ET AL.

The ash and protein values obtained for the flour were 19.38 and 38.41%,
respectively. The TL content of the flour (35.46%) is high due to the drying
process. This level indicates that the flour has a high energetic content.

Fatty Acid Composition

Table 2 shows the relative percentage of fatty acids contained in TL of
zero-time THF and for 30-, 60- and 90-day storage, as well as the total of
the following fatty acids: PUFA, monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), satu-
rated fatty acids (SFA), omega-6 (n-6), n-3, and PUFA/SFA and n-6/n-3
rates.
Thirty-one out of the 36 TL constituents found in THF for zero time
and during storage have been identified. Palmitic (16:0), oleic (18:1n-9) and
linoleic (18:2n-6) acids were predominant. These fatty acids were predomi-
nant in the lipidic fraction of young tilapia heads obtained by Visentainer et al.
(2003).
There was no significant difference between total PUFA and n-6 in
zero-time THF and after 90-day storage. The amount of total n-3 acids
decreased during storage from 2.25 to 2.18% between 60 and 90 days, respec-
tively, and the total amount of MUFA decreased in the last 60 days.
According to the British Department of Health and Social Security
(DHSS 1984), PUFA/SFA ratios lower than 0.45 are associated with unhealthy
products, specially for people who suffer from heart diseases. Table 2 indicates
that the PUFA/SFA ratio did not change significantly during storage. The fact
that this ratio did not change in the flour stored under refrigeration for 3
months demonstrates the stability of its PUFAs.
Comparing the n-6/n-3 ratio for zero-time and that of the last month of
storage, it changed significantly. The values obtained for the n-6/n-3 ratio were
higher than 4, which is the value recommended by the Report on Health and
Social Subjects (HMSO 1994). However, it is not within the range described
by Simopoulos et al. (1999), which is from 5 to 10.

Control of Lipidic Instability and Microbiological Control

Table 3 shows the values obtained by the TBA test and AN for zero-time
THF and after 30-, 60- and 90-day storage.
The values determined by the TBA tests increased significantly
throughout storage time, as shown in Table 3. The values ranged from 0.74
to 3.87 mg of malonaldehyde/kg of flour between zero time and 90 days,
respectively.
According to Al-Kahtani et al. (1996), the state of conservation of a
product should be considered good for TBA values lower than 3 mg of
malonaldehyde/kg of sample. Based on that, the THF exhibited acceptable
 PROCESSING AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF NILE TILAPIA WASTE 379

TABLE 2.
FATTY ACID PROFILE OF THF FOR DIFFERENT STORAGE TIMES*

Fatty acid Storage time

Zero time 30 days 60 days 90 days

14:0 2.54a ⫾ 0.13 2.65a ⫾ 0.23 3.00b ⫾ 0.06 3.01b ⫾ 1.35

14:1n-9 0.15 ⫾ 0.017 0.13 ⫾ 0.28 0.16 ⫾ 0.03 0.15 ⫾ 0.60
15:0 0.21a ⫾ 0.02 0.20a ⫾ 0.09 0.24b ⫾ 0.08 0.24b ⫾ 0.61
16:0 23.60a ⫾ 0.11 23.76b ⫾ 0.20 24.75b ⫾ 0.65 25.27b ⫾ 0.23
16:1n-9 0.73 ⫾ 0.02 0.66 ⫾ 0.01 0.72 ⫾ 0.03 0.65 ⫾ 0.01
16:1n-7 5.77 ⫾ 0.31 5.41 ⫾ 0.23 5.42 ⫾ 0.39 5.40 ⫾ 0.17
16:1n-5 0.15 ⫾ 0.24 0.15 ⫾ 0.09 0.14 ⫾ 0.11 0.15 ⫾ 0.39
17:0 0.34 ⫾ 0.08 0.33 ⫾ 0.07 0.33 ⫾ 0.01 0.32 ⫾ 0.01
17:1n-9 0.27 ⫾ 0.09 0.29 ⫾ 0.01 0.28 ⫾ 0.01 0.29 ⫾ 0.02
18:0 6.77 ⫾ 0.08 6.72 ⫾ 0.07 6.84 ⫾ 0.09 6.64 ⫾ 0.12
18:1n-9 35.09a ⫾ 1.23 35.10a ⫾ 0.33 33.70b ⫾ 0.23 33.60b ⫾ 0.08
18:1n-7 2.32b ⫾ 0.16 2.89a ⫾ 0.13 2.89a ⫾ 0.34 3.02a ⫾ 0.09
18:1n-5 0.13a ⫾ 0.01 0.13a ⫾ 0.02 0.09b ⫾ 0.01 0.12a ⫾ 0.02
18:2n-6 11.60 ⫾ 0.35 11.61 ⫾ 0.73 11.67 ⫾ 0.20 11.69 ⫾ 0.20
18:3n-6 0.83 ⫾ 0.03 0.79 ⫾ 0.01 0.89 ⫾ 0.09 0.82 ⫾ 0.03
18:3n-3 0.97 ⫾ 0.03 0.99 ⫾ 0.13 0.96 ⫾ 0.05 0.93 ⫾ 0.10
20:0 0.22 ⫾ 0.02 0.20 ⫾ 0.01 0.22 ⫾ 0.02 0.17 ⫾ 0.04
20:1n-9 1.75 ⫾ 0.1 1.74 ⫾ 0.18 1.65 ⫾ 0.52 1.70 ⫾ 0.05
21:0 0.35 ⫾ 0.03 0.31 ⫾ 0.02 0.32 ⫾ 0.04 0.33 ⫾ 0.01
20:2n-6 0.57 ⫾ 0.05 0.58 ⫾ 0.03 0.53 ⫾ 0.03 0.55 ⫾ 0.78
20:3n-6 0.66 ⫾ 0.07 0.65 ⫾ 0.02 0.61 ⫾ 056 0.55 ⫾ 0.42
20:3n-3 0.07 ⫾ 0.02 0.06 ⫾ 0.17 0.07 ⫾ 0.10 0.05 ⫾ 0.02
22:1n-9 1.22 ⫾ 0.04 1.19 ⫾ 0.02 0.99 ⫾ 0.12 0.99 ⫾ 0.09
22:2n-6 0.07 ⫾ 0.05 0.06 ⫾ 0.05 0.07 ⫾ 0.04 0.07 ⫾ 0.05
20:4n-6 0.05 ⫾ 0.05 0.05 ⫾ 0.02 0.05 ⫾ 0.01 0.04 ⫾ 0.04
20:5n-3 0.03 ⫾ 0.14 0.03 ⫾ 0.68 0.03 ⫾ 0.03 0.03 ⫾ 0.82
22:0 0.23 ⫾ 0.03 0.21 ⫾ 0.03 0.20 ⫾ 0.02 0.20 ⫾ 0.02
24:0 0.04a ⫾ 0.03 0.04a ⫾ 0.04 0.03b ⫾ 0.01 0.03b ⫾ 0.05
24:1n-9 0.68 ⫾ 0.07 0.59 ⫾ 0.03 0.63 ⫾ 0.05 0.57 ⫾ 0.85
22:4n-3 0.59 ⫾ 0.07 0.55 ⫾ 0.07 0.62 ⫾ 0.08 0.63 ⫾ 0.75
22:6n-3 0.65 ⫾ 0.06 0.60 ⫾ 0.02 0.57 ⫾ 0.04 0.54 ⫾ 0.79
Not identified 1.35 ⫾ 0.12 1.27 ⫾ 0.08 1.28 ⫾ 0.34 1.27 ⫾ 0.06
PUFA 16.02 ⫾ 0.10 15.97 ⫾ 0.36 16.07 ⫾ 0.34 15.90 ⫾ 0.18
MUFA 48.26a ⫾ 0.69 48.28a ⫾ 0.01 46.67b ⫾ 0.81 46.64b ⫾ 0.34
SFA 34.30a ⫾ 0.27 34.42a ⫾ 0.24 35.93b ⫾ 0.58 36.18b ⫾ 0.40
n-6 13.78 ⫾ 0.12 13.74 ⫾ 0.14 13.82 ⫾ 0.17 13.78 ⫾ 0.11
n-3 2.24a ⫾ 0.02 2.23a ⫾ 0.11 2.25a ⫾ 0.06 2.18b ⫾ 0.02
PUFA/SFA 0.47 ⫾ 0.01 0.46 ⫾ 0.01 0.45 ⫾ 0.01 0.44 ⫾ 0.01
n-6/n-3 6.15a ⫾ 0.16 6.16a ⫾ 0.51 6.14a ⫾ 0.23 6.29b ⫾ 0.07

* Results expressed as percentage of total fatty acid methyl esters. The analyses were carried out in six
replicates. Different letters in the same line indicate significant differences (P < 0.05).
MUFA, total monounsaturated fatty acids; n-3, total n-3 fatty acids; n-6, total n-6 fatty acids; n-6/n-3,
ratio between total n-6 and n-3 fatty acids; PUFA, total polyunsaturated fatty acids; PUFA/SFA,
between total polyunsaturated fatty acids and saturated fatty acids ratio; SFA, total saturated fatty acids.
380 F.B. STEVANATO ET AL.

TABLE 3.
TBA AND AV FOR ZERO-TIME THF AND AFTER STORAGE

Analyses Storage time

0 30 60 90

TBA 0.74a ⫾ 0.01 1.52b ⫾ 0.16 2.39c ⫾ 0.06 3.87d ⫾ 0.10

AN 0.91a ⫾ 0.01 0.92a ⫾ 0.02 0.93a ⫾ 0.03 1.11b ⫾ 0.09

Values given with respective standard deviations. The analyses were carried out in triplicate. Different
letters in the same line indicate significant differences (P < 0.05).
AN (acid number) expressed in mg of KOH/g of fat; TBA (thiobarbituric acid test) expressed in mg of
malonaldehyde/kg of flour.

TABLE 4.
MICROBIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS FOR ZERO-TIME THF AND
90-DAY STORAGE

Zero time 90 days

Mesophilic bacteria (cfu/g) 3 ¥ 104 2 ¥ 104

Total coliforms (MPN/g) <3 <3
Fecal coliforms (MPN/g) <3 <3
Salmonella spp./25 g absent Absent
Bacillus cereus (cfu/g) <1 ¥ 102 <1 ¥ 102

Values expressed in cfu/g (colony-forming units per gram) and

MPN/g (most probable number per gram).
THF, tilapia head flour.

values up to 60 days, since the value obtained after 90 days was 3.87 mg of
malonaldehyde/kg of flour. The high level of lipids in THF may have contrib-
uted to the increase in the TBA values.
The AN values did not change significantly between 0 (zero time) and
60-day storage. However, a significant change was observed between 60 and
90 days. According to ANFAL (1998), meat and bone flours must contain 4 mg
of NaOH/g of sample maximum.
Table 4 presents the microbiological analysis data obtained for THF at
zero time and after 90-day storage.
No difference was observed in the microbiological analysis of the flour
between zero time and throughout storage time. The analysis of mesophilic
bacteria decreased from 3 ¥ 104 to 2 ¥ 104 cfu/g between zero time and 90
days, respectively.
Mesophilic bacteria are associated to hygienic–sanitary quality and
values lower than 106 cfu are acceptable according to Lira et al. (2001).
 PROCESSING AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF NILE TILAPIA WASTE 381

Agnese et al. (2001) reports that values higher than 106 cfu/g affect product
freshness and that consuming products with levels higher than 106 may lead to
food poisoning.
No Salmonella was found in the flour and the fecal coliforms values
obtained are acceptable for precooked fish products (maximum of
1 ¥ 102 MPN/g) (Anvisa 2001). As to fecal coliforms, no limits are indicated
by regulations concerning fish. However, they are important, since they are
related to hygienic–sanitary quality. According to Agnese et al. (2001), only
products with 50 to 100 MPN/g of fish meat need to undergo a strict hygiene
and commercialization control.

CONCLUSIONS

THF contains high levels of proteins, ash and lipids, comprised by alpha-
linolenic acid and linolenic acid essential fatty acids, and high values of fatty
acids such as EPA and DHA. The fatty acid n-6/n-3 and PUFA/SFA ratios are
within the recommended range.
The PUFA stability and microbiological results for the flour after 90-day
storage were high. In comparison to other food products, the AN and thiobar-
bituric values obtained for the flour up to 60-day storage are acceptable.

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