8 TRANSFORMATION

EX =

YT
(+
8 Transformation
.

My =
(
y(3 + (y x)
-

When the right-hand side of the equation

dy
dx
= f (x, y)
cosy* =

can be expressed as a function of the combination ax + by, where a and

b are constants, that is
y 1x 2y)
-

dy =

= G(ax + by)
dx
then the substitution
z = ax + by

transforms the equation into a separable one.

ESMOMINNSMO

1. Inz combination
a tby
=

9. innumerou
finpu =

g(z)82
3 .

(f(xy =
(912762

31
 8 TRANSFORMATION

ตั วอย่าง 8.1. Solve

dy
= y − x − 1 + (x − y + 2)−1
dx

32
 No y "mormwie
+PY= Quyn
Y
1
6. Bernoullia YE 5. In v =

gin , y notrus mons

↓ 8 TRANSFORMATION
ตั วอย่าง 8.2. Solve
dy
= (x + y + 2)2
= -My
dx
H7G
7 Separable we

==
.

glydy =
finer Y /giyidy =

/file

↑ WG(u)
9. HOMO

] &,
G(V) VTXN
&
=

=
y g(y ,
=

-
- -
- -
- -
- ---
T

3
. Linear
exio
y QN)Y(m)MN)
=

+ PY
=

His E
. Mis Morrissing

My) MMQ
=

-V - - -

Integrating
=
factor
-

If .
g

M( ,y)87 + N(x ,
y> by 0
=

is a non-exact eg
.

&
4

. Exact 7. 1) Mix , y) On

M( ,y)87
y> by
= fab
+ N(x , =

check exact
=
=
-

N Mi-effic

/
:

drigst
!
# Mine 9. qu Mix) MnOrnameisia

E zitz
=
33 Minci + Nasi y
= 0

& wrisimt
rinc =
Fixy)
=
#
8.1 Differential Operator 8 TRANSFORMATION

Higher-order Differential Equation

For a linear differential equation an nth -order initial-value problem is
Solve:
dn y dn−1 y dy
(8.1) an (x)
dx n
+ a n−1 (x)
dx n−1
+ · · · + a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = g(x)
dx
*** A linear nth -order differential equation of the form
dn y dn−1 y dy
(8.2) an (x)
dx n
+ a n−1 (x)
dx n−1
+ · · · + a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = 0
dx
is said to be homogeneous, whereas an equation
dn y dn−1 y dy
(8.3) an (x)
dx n
+ a n−1 (x)
dx n−1
+ · · · + a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = g(x)
dx
with g(x) not identically zerro, is said to be nonhomogeneous.

8.1 Differential Operator

In calculus differentiation is often denoted by the capital letter D that is,
dy
= Dy .
dx
===> Higher-order derivatives
d dy d2 y
( ) = 2 = D(Dy) = D2 y
dx dx dx
n
d y
and, in general, dx n
= Dn y , where y represents a sufficiently differentiable
function.

34
 =
En(x) Day + En-1(X) DHTy Jo1N7Y
+ooo
+
=
(an(t)D" + on-1(x7 Dh +... + 601773Y
8.1 Differential Operator 8 TRANSFORMATION

We define an nth -order differential operator or polynomial operator to be

L = an (x)Dn + an−1 (x)Dn−1 + · · · + a1 (x)D + a0 (x). W
====> Properties of the operator:
1. D(cf (x)) = cDf (x), c is a constant,
2. D(f (x) + g(x)) = Df (x) + Dg(x).
197 + 34

es
(DP+ D + losy
ตั วอย่าง 8.3.
& Dy + Dy
III
71x +3
+
loy
=

y 3 + y ′′ + 10y = 11x + 3

ทฤษฎีบท 8.4. Let y1, y2, ..., yk be solution of the homogeneous nth -order differential
equation that is above on an interval I. Then the linear combination
y = c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x) + · · · + ck yk (x), D: late vo Narcos

where the ci , i = 1, 2, ..., k are arbitrary constants, is also a solution on the

interval.
EX
Y1
=*
and yo Put be the solutions of
=
.

By"- 97y + y (
*)

y
=

Gy1 + Cya
=

Gr + CFIny

is also a solution of (* )

35
8.2 Linear Dependence and Linear Independence 8 TRANSFORMATION

8.2 Linear Dependence and Linear Independence

บทนยิ าม 8.5. A set of function f1(x), f2(x), ..., fn (x) is said to be linearly
dependent on interval I if there exist constants c1, c2, ..., cn not all zero, such
that
c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) + · · · + cn fn (x) = 0
for every x in the interval. If the set of function is not linearly dependent
on the interval, it is said to be linearly independent.
บทนยิ าม 8.6. Suppose each of the functions f1(x), f2(x), ..., fn (x) possesses
at least n − 1 derivatives. The determinant
⎡ ⎤
f1 f2 ··· fn
⎢ ′ ′ ⎥
⎢ f1 f2 ··· fn′ ⎥
W (f1 , f2 , ..., fn ) = det ⎢
⎢ . . . ... ⎥⎥
⎣ . .. ⎦
(n−1) (n−1) (n−1)
f1 f2 ··· fn

where the primes denote derivatives. is called the Wronskian of the

functions.
ทฤษฎีบท 8.7. Let y1, y2, ..., yn be n solutions of the homogeneous linear nth -
order differential equation on an interval I.Then the set of solutions is linearly
independent on I if and only if W (f1, f2, ..., fn ) ̸= 0 for every x in the interval.
บทนยิ าม 8.8. Any set y1, y2, ..., yn of n linearly independent solutions of the
homogeneous linear nth -order differential equation that above on an interval
I is said to be a fundamental set of solutions on the interval.

36
8.2 Linear Dependence and Linear Independence 8 TRANSFORMATION

ทฤษฎีบท 8.9. Let y1, y2, ..., yn be fundamental set of solutions of the homogeneous
linear nth -order differential equation L(y) = 0 on an interval I.Then the general
solution of the equation on the interval is
y = c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x) + ... + cn yn (x),

where ci , i = 1, 2, ..., n are arbitrary constants.

ตั วอย่าง 8.10. The function y1 = e3x and y2 = e−3x are both solutions of the
homogeneius linear equation y′′ + 9y = 0 on the interval (−∞, ∞).

37
8.2 Linear Dependence and Linear Independence 8 TRANSFORMATION

ตั วอย่าง 8.11. The functions y1 = ex , y2 = e2x and y3 = e3x satisfy the third-
order equation y′′′ − 6y′′ + 11y′ − 6y = 0

38
 9 NON-HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS

9 Non-homogeneous Equations

y = c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x) + ... + ck yk (x) + yp

where y1, y2, ..., yk are solutions of L(y) = 0 is also solution of the non-
homogeneous equation.
ตั วอย่าง 9.1. By substitution the function yp = − 11 1
− x is readily shown to
12 2
be a particular solution of the nonhomogeneous equation
y ′′′ − 6y ′′ + 11y ′ − 6y = 3x

39
Superposition -

Nonhomogeneous

Y = is a particular solution of y"-gyty =

1
eat
Yp =
Il
Y" 3y' ++y
-

=
9227

Yeg yet
"y"-sythy
=
*
=
gre -ex

Pate + yet is particular solution of

Yp YpTYpTYpg a
=
= -

y" 3y' + 4y ( 165+247 8) + /927) + 1ye7 eT ,

-

= -
-
since the solution of (5) is the solution of ( *)
y YotYg
=
,

PCD)(YcTYg)
=
f(R)

O PCDY + PCDIYq
=

,
=
f(x)
new
f(x)
DYg
=

:
Yp Yq
=