Transes Geography1 M1

Geography 1 (Human Geography)
1st Semester | 1SEDS-B | Prelims | PPT, Workbook, and Lecture Based
LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY
What is Geography? Spatial- The nature or character of physical space, as in an

area; occupying or operating within space.
• Geography is the study of everything on Earth, from
rocks and rainfall to people and places. Branches of geography
• Geographers study how the natural environment
influences people, how people’s activities affect Earth, Physical Geography (Natural Science)
and how the world is changing.
• Geographers look at many different things including • It focuses on physical aspects of the environment
cities, cultures, plants, climate, and resources. like its shape, surroundings, climate, weather, and
• The study of spatial variation natural events like earthquakes.
• How – and why – things differ from place to place on • It aims to understand the physical problems and the
the surface of the earth issues of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere
• The study of how observable spatial patterns evolved and the global pattern of flora and fauna
through time (biosphere).
✓ Geography is a spatial science
✓ Spatial behavior of people
Human Geography (Social Science)
✓ Spatial relationships between places
✓ Spatial processes that create or maintain those
• It focuses on how people do things and how they
behaviors and relationships
interact with their surroundings. It looks how the
people and societies change the environment
Geography IS ALSO; they live in and how they make decisions in using
the space.
The science that studies the relationships among: • It encompasses the human, political, cultural,
• natural systems, social, and economic aspects.
• geographic areas,
• society,
• cultural activities, HUMAN GEOGRAPHY SUB-DISCIPLINES
• and the interdependence of all of these over
space. 1. Cultural Geography: Cultural geography explores
the relationship between culture and geography. It
What is Geography? examines how cultural beliefs, practices, and
identities are shaped by and, in turn, shape the
Geography – comes from the Greek word “geographos” physical and social landscapes. This subdiscipline
which mean means writing (graphos) about the earth also looks at cultural diffusion, language, religion,
(geo) and the impact of globalization on cultures.
o A method, not a body of knowledge 2. Urban Geography: Urban geography focuses on

o Holistic (relating to or concerned with wholes or the study of cities and urban areas. It delves into
with complete systems rather than with the topics like urbanization, city planning, land use,
analysis of, treatment of, or dissection into urban development, and the challenges and
parts). opportunities presented by rapid urban growth.
o Eclectic (composed of elements drawn from
various sources). 3. Economic Geography: Economic geography
investigates the spatial distribution of economic
Geographers use spatial analysis (the examination of activities, trade, and industries. It examines factors
spatial interactions, patterns, and variations over area/or influencing economic development, globalization's
space. Geography is a spatial science; spatial analysis its impact on economies, and regional disparities in
essential approach). income and wealth.
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4. Political Geography: Political geography explores
the relationship between politics and geography. It
analyzes borders, boundaries, geopolitical
conflicts, territorial disputes, and how political
decisions affect the distribution of power and GeographIC THEMES
resources.
The Association of American Geographers (AAG) and the
5. Social Geography: Social geography examines the National Council for Geographic Education (NCGE), set
spatial distribution of social groups, identities, and forth five key themes for modern geographic education:
inequalities. It investigates topics such as ethnicity, location, place, human-Earth relationships, movement, and
gender, class, and how social factors influence region.
access to resources and opportunities.
PLACE
6. Population Geography: Population geography
focuses on the distribution, composition, and The distinctive and distinguishing physical and human
dynamics of human populations. It studies factors characteristics of locales.
affecting population growth, migration patterns,
demographic transitions, and the implications for • a particular space with physical and human
societies and environments. meaning.
• Every place has its own unique characteristics,
7. Rural Geography: Rural geography is concerned determined by the surrounding environment and
with the study of rural areas, agriculture, and the the people who live there.
processes shaping rural landscapes. It explores Sample terms: Physical and cultural landscapes, sense
issues like farming practices, land use, rural-urban of place
interactions, and rural development.
✓ Physical characteristics: Includes a
8. Transportation Geography: Transportation description of such things as the mountains,
geography analyzes the spatial aspects of rivers, beaches, topography, climate, and
transportation systems, infrastructure, and mobility. animal and plant life of a place. If a place is
It considers the impacts of transportation on described as hot, sandy, fertile, or forested,
accessibility, connectivity, and urban form. these terms all paint a picture of the physical
characteristics of the location.
9. Health Geography: Health geography examines A topographical map is one tool used to
the spatial distribution of health outcomes, illustrate the physical characteristics of a
healthcare access, and the environmental and location.
social determinants of health. It plays a role in ✓ Human characteristics: Includes the human-
understanding healthcare disparities and designed cultural features of a place. These
epidemiological patterns. features include land use, architectural
styles, forms of livelihood, religious practices,
10. Tourism Geography: Tourism geography studies the political systems, common foods, local
spatial aspects of tourism, including tourist folklore, means of transportation, and
destinations, impacts on local communities, and methods of communication. For example, a
the economic and environmental consequences location could be described as a
of tourism development technologically advanced French-speaking
democracy with a Catholic majority.
What is THE SCIENCE OF Geography?
Geography is the science that studies the interdependence

of geographic areas, places, and locations; natural systems;
processes; and societal and cultural activities over Earth's
surface
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Types of Regions
HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION
Formal regions
This theme considers how humans adapt to and modify the
environment. Humans shape the landscape through their Are those that are designated by official boundaries, such
interaction with the land; this has both positive and negative as cities, states, counties, and countries. For the most part,
effects on the environment. As an example of the human- they are clearly indicated and publicly known can be
environment interaction, think about how people living in based on almost any feature or combination of features.
cold climates have often mined coal or drilled for natural
• can be based on almost any feature or
gas in order to heat their homes.
combination of features.
Sample terms: Ecosystems, natural resources, environmental • Those features may include population, income
pollution levels, crops, temperature, or rainfall.
• Physical features might define a formal region, such
MOVEMENT as the CORDILLERA
Humans move — a lot! In addition, ideas, fads, goods, Functional regions (Nodal region)
resources, and communication all travel distances. This
theme studies movement and migration across the planet. Are made up of a central place and surrounding areas
The emigration of Syrians during war, the flow of water in the affected by it. Often, this is a metropolitan area that consists
Gulf Stream, and the expansion of cell phone reception of a major city and lots of smaller towns or cities that
around the planet are all examples of movement. surround it.
Sample terms: Migration, diffusion, globalization Example: Cities can be considered functional
regions because highways, railroads, subways, and
REGIONS buses move people from the suburbs to the central
areas of the city. Other examples of functional
regions are television signal areas, Wi-Fi hotspots, or
A group of places united by similar characteristics. May be
pizza delivery areas.
physical such as soil type, vegetation and climate
Or by human factors such as language, religion, forms of Perceptual Regions

government, etc
Are defined by their connections. For example, the
• Regions can be any size. Countries, deserts, and
circulation area for a major city area is the functional region
mountain ranges are examples of large regions.
of that paper.
• Smaller regions include suburbs and neighborhoods.
• Regions can also be divided into smaller areas • defined by popular feelings and images rather than
called sub-regions. by objective data
• “Heartland”
For example, the ILOCANDIA is a sub-region within
• Its what YOU think an area is “The Big Apple”
North LUZON.
• Human perception is the awareness and
understanding of the environment around us.
• Our views are influenced not only by what is in a
region but also by what is in us.
• Our ways of life and experiences influence how we
perceive the world.
• Perceptual regions reflect human feelings and
attitudes.
• An example is “back home.”
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LOCATION Aboslute Location
Is defined as a particular place or position

Latitude
It answers the question – WHERE?
• Lines of latitude are drawn in an east-west direction.
ABSOLUTE LOCATION • Lines of latitude measure the degree of distance north
or south of the equator.
Is calculated using latitude and longitude.
Longitude
• The exact spot at which the place is found on the globe.
• Lines of longitude are drawn in a north-south direction.
For example: MANILA’s absolute location would be • As you see these lines of longitude extend from the
14.6 degrees North and 120.9 degrees East. north pole to the south pole.
• Lines of longitude measure the degree of distance
RELATIVE LOCATION east or west of the prime meridian.
Is the location of a place in relation to other places. This is Latitude and Longitude
usually how we determine location
• Lines of latitude measure distance north and south of
For example: Manila is surrounded by Quezon City, San
the equator.
Juan City, Mandaluyong City, Caloocan City, Makati
• The equator is an imaginary line that circles the globe
City, Pasay City and Manila Bay.
halfway between the Earth’s North Pole and South
Pole.
Directional Indicators
• A directional indicator shows which direction on a map

are north, south, east, and west.
• Some mapmakers use a north arrow which points
toward the North Pole.
• Most maps show direction with a compass rose.
CARDINAL DIRECTIONS INTERMEDIATE DIRECTIONS

North Southwest
South Southeast
East Northwest
Parallels
West Southwest
• Lines of latitude are also called
parallels.
Compass Rose
• This is because they are always
parallel to the equator and
• A compass rose
each other.
has arrows that
point to all four
principal
directions.
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Meridians Hemispheres
• Lines of longitude are also • The globe’s grid does more than help us locate
called meridians. places.
• They measure distance • Geographers also use grid lines to organize the way
east and west of the we look at the world.
Prime Meridian. • For example the equator divides the globe into two
• This is an imaginary line halves or hemispheres.
drawn from the North Pole • The half lying north of the equator is the Northern
to Greenwich, England to Hemisphere and the southern half is the Southern
the South Pole. Hemisphere.
• Parallels and meridians • The United States is located in the northern
measure distance in hemisphere. Australia is located in the southern
degrees. Degrees are further divided into minutes. hemisphere.
There are 60 minutes in a degree.
Time zones and International Date Line
SPECIAL PARALLELS AND MERIDIANS
Any region of the globe throughout which the same
1. EQUATOR- 0 degrees, divides the globe into two equal standard time is used, is called time zone.
parts, northern and southern hemisphere.
2. TROPIC OF CANCER- 23 ½ degrees north.
3. TROPIC OF CAPRICORN- 23 ½ degrees south.
4. ARCTIC CIRCLE- 66 ½ degrees north.
5. ANTARCTIC CIRCLE- 66 ½ degrees south.
6. PRIME MERIDIAN- 0 degrees, divides the globe into two

equal parts, eastern and western hemisphere.
7. INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE (IDL)- 180 degrees East, it is • Before 1972, all time zones were specified as an
where the day officially starts and begins. offset from Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), which was
the mean solar time at the meridian passing through
Measures of Longitude the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, London.
• In January 1972, however, the length of the second
• Lines of longitude range from 0 degrees on the Prime in both Greenwich Mean Time and atomic time was
Meridian to 180 degrees on the meridian in the mid- equalized.
Pacific Ocean. • Today, many countries operate on variations of the
• Meridians west of the prime meridian to 180 degrees time zones proposed by Sir Fleming.
are labeled with a W. Those east of the prime • All of China (which should span five time zones) uses
meridian are labeled with an E. a single time zone.
• Unlike lines of latitude, lines of longitude are not • Australia uses three time zones - its central time zone
parallel to one another. is a half-hour ahead of its designated time zone.
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Location
• Over the years, the position of the International Date

Line has changed several times. Until 1845, the
Philippines were on the eastern side of it. When the
United States bought Alaska in 1867 the line was
moved to the west of it.
• The most recent change in the line was in 1995 when
Kiribati moved a large segment of it to the east, so that
the entire nation would be on the same side of the
International Date Line.
Before the invention of clocks people marked the time of day WITH
APPARENT SOLAR TIME
• For Example, the time on a sundial – which was typically

different for every settlement.
• The concept of standard time was adopted in the late
19th century .
• Sir Sandford Fleming outlined a plan for worldwide How IDL Works?
standard time in the late 1870s.
• He recommended that the world be divided into
Let's say you fly from the United States to Japan. Let's
twenty-four time zones, each spaced 15 degrees of
suppose you leave the United States on Tuesday morning.
longitude apart.
Since you're traveling west the time advances slowly thanks
• The present system employs 24 standard meridians of
to time zones and the speed at which your airplane flies,
longitude (lines running from the North Pole to the
but once you cross the International Date Line, it's suddenly
South, at right angles to the Equator) 15º apart, starting
Wednesday.
with the prime meridian through Greenwich, England.
On the reverse trip home you fly from Japan to the United
GMT (Greenwich Mean Time) States. You leave Japan on Monday morning but as you
cross the Pacific Ocean, the day gets later quickly as you
• GMT is an absolute time reference and does cross time zones moving eastward in an airplace. However,
not change with the seasons. once you cross the International Date Line, the day
• London time is the same as Greenwich Mean changes to Sunday.
Time less than half of the year.
• GMT was established in 1884 at the
International Meridian Conference, when it
was decided to the place the Prime Meridian
at Greenwich, England.
International Data Line (IDL)
The International Date Line is an

imaginary line which runs from
the North Pole to the South Pole
and is 180° away from the
Greenwich Meridian.
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Prime Meridian and Standard Time
Prime Meridian: the meridian of 0 degrees longitude which

runs through the original site of the Royal Observatory at
Greenwich, England, and from which other longitudes are
measured east or west. Greenwich, England was selected
by international agreement in an 1884 treaty. – Greenwich
Mean Time (GMT) became the world standard time.
International Date Line: An important corollary of the prime

meridian is the 180 degrees meridian on the opposite side of
the planet. The meridian is called the International Date
Line (IDL) and marks the place where each day officially
begins (at 12:01 A.M.). From this “line” the new day sweeps
westward. The westward movement is created by the Earth
turning eastward on its axis. The IDL deviates from the 180
degrees meridian, this deviation is due to local
administrative and political preferences.
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1st Semester | 1SEDS-B | Prelims | PPT and Lecture Based
LESSON 2: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

What is geography? • He was the first to use the grade grid to
determine geographic latitude from star
The study of the earth and its features and of the distribution observations.
of life on the earth, including human life and the effects of • Hipparchus listed latitudes for several tens of localities.
human activity.
Thales of mileturs (625-546bc)
Ancient Greek contributions
• Thales of Miletus was proposed that
• Greek philosopher believe world was based on water. He also laid
in a division of world into down many mathematical rules that
five region. would allow geography to be studied
• At each of the poles was scientifically. He applied principles of
an uncharitably cold geometry to measuring land area.
region.
• While extrapolating from
the heat of Sahara it was Anaximander
deduced that the area
around the equator was • This argued that the world was shaped like a cylinder.
unbearably hot. He learnt about the world by gathering previous work
• Between these extreme and speaking to the sailor and made a world map
regions both the northern based on information from sailors.
and southern hemisphere
had a temperature belt suitable for human
Herodotus Histories
habitation.
• A work of history the book contains a wealth of

Eratosthenes (276-194BC) geography description covering much of the known
world He is the first to have noted the process by which
• First time use the word of large rivers, such as the Nile, build up deltas, and also
Geography by Eratosthenes. the first recorded as observing that winds tend to below
• Its described the known world and from colder region to warmer ones.
correctly divided Earth into 5
climatic regions (a torrid zone
Pythagoras
across the middle, two frigid zones
at the extreme north and south,
• He was perhaps the first to propose a spherical world
and two temperate bands in
arguing that the sphere was the most perfect form.
between) Eratosthenes also
prepared one of the earliest maps
of the known world. Aristotle (384-322bc)
• He also used basic math to estimate the Earth’s
circumference to within around 400 miles. • He embraced the idea of
Pythagoras. Aristotle presented
hipparchus empirical evidence to verify this.
He noted that earth shadow
during an eclipse is curved and
• Hipparchus insists that a
also that stars increase in height
geographic map must be based
as one moves north.
only on astronomical
• He showed that earth is round.
measurements of latitudes and
longitudes and triangulation for
finding unknown distances.
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• He used his early theory evolution to explained the
Strabo (63 or 64 BC – 24 AD)
organ of different human skin colors, particularly black
skin which he believed to be result of the environment.
• Strabo described the known world in his • Al-Idrisi (1100 – 1165) was hired by Roger II, King of Sicily
17 volume work, Geography. He and task to gather all geographic info resulting to the
regarded Earth as a sphere at the creation of “Roger’s Book.”
center of a spherical universe.
• He wrote the book between 8 B.C. and
More infos
A.D. 18. It explains how humans are
related to their natural surroundings in
• Around 1445, Gutenberg introduced the first practical
diff. part of the world that time.
printing press, which greatly increased the availability of
books across Europe.
Ptolemy (100-170 AD) • In 1475, Ptolemy's "Guide to Geography" was printed
and became widely popular, introducing ancient
• Ptolemy wrote an 8 volume Guide to Greek geographical knowledge to Europe during the
Geography based on information Renaissance.
gathered by Roman merchants and • One of its admirers was Christopher Columbus, who
soldiers. He prepared numerous maps, found inspiration in Ptolemy's book.
which were not improved upon for more • Columbus was influenced by Ptolemy's idea that the
than a thousand years. Earth's size was smaller than it actually is and that Asia
• He attempted to explain the whole world was larger.
which is that time Europe, Africa, and Asia. • Guided by these notions, Columbus set out to reach
• He also that it was smaller than Eratosthenes idea and Asia by sailing west. However, he ended up discovering
though Asia was larger than it is actually was leading to the Americas instead, although he believed until his
the idea that whole world fit in this 3 continents on earth. death that he had indeed reached Asia.
• Roman Empire decline the idea of Ptolemy and Strabo • He’s unintended discovery pushes for the marked of the
and thinks that Earth is flat and they used the map beginning of the Age of Discovery. That triggers to swift
called T-O Maps that is centered in Jerusalem. progress of globalization.
• Chinese geographers Phei Hsiu created maps more
precise than Europeans.
Abu Tayhan al-buruni
Middle Ages • In mathematical
geography
Muslim geographers (7th & 8th centuries) • He combines
mathematical
• In the middle age Muslim equations in
geographer such as Al-Idrisi, Al order to
Yaqubi, Al-Masudi, Ibn Al-Faqih, develop
Al-Istakhri, Ibn Battuta, Ibn methods of
Khaldun etc maintained the pinpointing
Greek and roman techniques location by
and developed new ones. The recording
Islamic empire stretched form degree of
Spain to Indian, and Arab and latitude and
Jewish traders travelled longitude.
throughout Eurasia, Africa. The world map of Al-Idrisi • He introduced
And Indian Ocean. techniques to
• An early supporter of environmental determinism was measure the earth and distances on it using
the Afro-Arab writer al-jahiz who explained how the triangulation. He found the radius of the earth to 6339.6
environment can determine the physical characteristics km. A value not obtained in the west until the 16th
of the inhabitants of a certain community. century.
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Geography grow as science traits and explores how people interact with each
other in their environment in various ways.
Immanuel Kant Freidrich Ratzel (1844-1904) and his American student,

Ellen Churchill (1863-1932)
• German philosopher Immanuel Kant
(1724-1804) placed geography within
Claimed that geography was the study of influences of the
a framework of scientific knowledge.
natural environment on people.
• He argued that all knowledge can be
classified logically or physically. • Ratzel is a German geograpger and he connected
• Logical classification organizes the idea to existing Charle’s Darwin Theory. Ratzel
plants/animals into a systematic contended that advanced cultures stemmed from
framework of species, based on temperate climates where humans had to adapt to
characteristics, regardless of when or changing conditions. Unfortunately, this concept
where they existed. has been misused to support unfavorable ideas,
• Physical classification identifies plants/animals that including racism.
occur together in particular times and places.)
Ellsworth Huntington (1876-1947)
Two opposing views
Argued that climate was the major determinant of
Environmental determinism civilization (temperate climate of northwestern Europe
produced greater human efficiency and better health
conditions).
Emerging from cultural ecology, environmental possibilism
asserts that the environment certainly shapes human life, yet
it's not the sole influencer. Characteristics of Environmental Determinism
While it can impact human culture, people have the ✓ Environment control human action and activities
capacity to adapt in diverse ways. This adaptability is the ✓ Humans are badly depended on natural environment.
reason why similar environments can give rise to entirely ✓ Human were live due to environmental force.
different lifestyles, and different environments can lead to ✓ Human were naturalized.
similar ways of life. ✓ Human attitude, decision making influence by
environment.
Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) &
Carl Ritter (1779-1859) (German geographers)
The theory that the human’s physical, mental and moral

habits are directly due to the influence of their natural
environment. They concentrated on how the physical
environment caused social development, an approach
called environmental determinism.
• Von Humboldt considered geography a

connecting science that binds together humans
and the natural world and explored the world
extensively, spending five years in South America
studying the distribution of rocks, plants, and
animals.
• Ritter considered geography an integrative science
and is recognized for establishing regional
geography. Ritter’s approach is employs concepts
from physical geography to the regions with shared
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possibilism Probabilism
The geographic approach that emphasizes human- Another school of geographic thought, regional studies,
environment relationships is now known as cultural ecology. developed in France during the 19th century. Also called the
To explain the relationship between human activities and cultural landscape approach, it was initiated by Paul Vidal
the physical environment, modern geographers reject de la Blache (1845-1918) and Jean Brunhes (1869-1930). It
environmental determinism in favor of possibilism (the was later adopted by American geographers, including
physical environment may limit some human actions, but Carl Sauer (1889-1975) and Robert Platt (1880-1950).
people have the ability to adjust to their environment)
They rejected the idea that physical factors simply
Carl Sauer (1889-1975) - a significant American geographer, determine human actions. They argued that each place
dismissed the idea of environmental determinism and has its own distinctive landscape that results from a unique
contributed to the concept of environmental possibilism. combination of social relationships and physical processes.
Everything in the landscape is interrelated.
• He established what's known as the "Berkeley
School" of cultural geography, named after his
conclusion
teaching role at the University of California,
Berkeley.
• By the 18th century geography had become
• Sauer's key contribution to geography was his
recognized as a discrete discipline and became part of
concept of the "cultural landscape."
a typical university curriculum in Europe and Paris and
• This approach centers on the interplay between
Berlin.
humans and their environment.
• The royal geographical society was founded in England
in 1830.
He succinctly put it as follows: • The first real geographical intellect to emerge in United
Kingdom geography was Helford john appointed
"A cultural landscape is formed by a cultural group from a reader at Oxford university in 1887
natural landscape. Culture is the driving force, the natural • The national geographic Society was founded in the
area is the platform, and the cultural landscape is the USA in 1888
outcome." • In writing geography constructed historically
relationship with people.
Characteristics of Possibilism • Scientists from all the periods in the development of the
geography and made strong beneficial relation with
✓ Human were free to choose and decide their activities the people.
✓ Natural did not control human being • Now geography is further divided in branched major
✓ Nature provided opportunities and possibilities to are human geography and physical geography as well
human as sub other branches.
• All time its valuable but now a day’s geography
becomes important and valuable subject which have
much influence in development of man GPS system is
one the example of this.
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LESSON 3: POPULATION GEOGRAPHY

Population Positive checks
• comes from the Greek word populous, which means • Are mortality risk (Kendall, 2001). They are those
people. that limit population growth such as hunger,
• It is the interaction between the organisms that causes disease, and war.
a population to change.
• It is the total number of people inhabiting a particular Negative checks
geographic area at a specified time (Sullivan, 1995).
• Are limits to fertility (Kendall, 2001). They include
Demography differed marriage, moral restraint, and birth
control.
Study of populations, their characteristics and changes.
Demographers
FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN POPULATION SIZE
✓ study population size;
✓ density and distribution;
✓ age structure; 1. Change in population size
✓ sex ratio;
✓ Birth rate; = (births – deaths) + (immigrants – emigrants)
✓ Death rate
✓ Immigration and emigration rates MIGRATION
Thomas Malthus
Permanent change of residence of a person or group
“The power of population growth is greater than the power • Emigration – movement of people out of the
of Earth to produce subsistence.” country.
Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) • Immigration – movement of people into a country
Push Factors
1. No job opportunities;
2. Poverty;
3. War and;
4. Environmental Factors
Pull Factors
1. Economic opportunity
2. Political Freedom and
THE NEO-MALTHUSIAN PERSPECTIVE 3. Better standards of living
• Has reemphasized the dangers of population.
• To them, the earth is a “dying planet” with too many

people and too little food, compounded by
environmental degradation.
• Neo-Malthusians encouraged people to be part of the

solution to the problem of overpopulation by having
only one or two children in order to bring about zero
population growth.
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2. (Crude) Birth rate 4. Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
The number of individuals born during a specified time The average number of children a woman has during her
interval. reproductive years.
Mathematically, the formula to calculate the Crude Birth For instance, China's TFR is 1.7, indicating a relatively low
Rate is: fertility rate, while Niger's TFR is 7.2, signifying a significantly
higher fertility rate.
CBR = (Number of Births / Total Population) × 1000
Where: Biotic potential
• Number of Births: The total count of live births within The maximum rate at which a population could increase
the specified time period. when birth rate is maximal and death rate minimal.
• Total Population: The total number of individuals in
the population during the same time period 5. Replacement Fertility
However, merely comparing total birth numbers would
provide insufficient insight into the internal population Number of children needed to replace everyone in the
dynamics of each country. Through the use of the CBR, population.
which accounts for population size, we can effectively
compare birth rates between countries. For example, Zero Population Growth:
China's CBR is 14 births per 1000 people, whereas Niger's CBR
is 52 births per 1000 people. birth rate = death rate.
Natural increase 6. infant mortality rate

When the birth rate is higher than the death rate, more It is a crucial demographic indicator that measures the
people are being born than are dying so the population number of deaths of infants under the age of one year per
grows. 1000 live births within a specific time period, usually a year.
It is a critical measure of a population's health and well-
3. (Crude) Death rate being, particularly regarding maternal care, healthcare
access, and overall living conditions.
The number of individuals who die during a specified time
The formula to calculate the Infant Mortality Rate is:
interval.
IMR = (Number of Infant Deaths / Number of Live Births) ×
The formula to calculate the Crude Death Rate is:
1000
CDR = (Number of Deaths / Total Population) × 1000
Where:
Where:
• Number of Infant Deaths: The total count of deaths
• Number of Deaths: The total count of deaths within among infants under one year old during the
the specified time period. specified time period.
• Total Population: The total number of individuals in • Number of Live Births: The total count of live births
the population during the same time period. during the same time period.
Continuing the comparison, China's CDR stands at 7 deaths In China, there are 29 infant deaths for every 1000 live births,
per 1000 people, while Niger's CDR is higher at 22 deaths per while in Niger, this number is significantly higher at 127 infant
1000 people. deaths per 1000 live births. This means that in Niger, more
than 1 in 10 children do not survive to celebrate their first
Natural decrease birthday.
when the death rate is higher than the birth rate
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7. life expectancy FACTORS AFFECTING BIRTH RATES
Life expectancy is a fundamental demographic measure 1. Children in labor force
that quantifies the average number of years an individual is 2. Cost of raising and educating children
expected to live from birth, assuming current age-specific 3. Urbanization
mortality rates remain constant throughout their life. It serves 4. Education level and employment for women
as a critical indicator of a population's overall health, quality 5. Infant mortality rates
of life, and healthcare access 6. Population religion and beliefs, customs and traditions.
7. Average marrying age
An individual born in China can expect to live 8. Availability of Birth control and Abortion
approximately 71.4 years, whereas someone born in Niger
has an average life expectancy of about 42.2 years. FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN POPULATION SIZE
8. doubling time Density
The concept of doubling time pertains to the duration it Defined as the number of individuals of a species living in a
takes for a population to grow twice in size. particular area of that population.
A straightforward method to determine this span involves
dividing the number 69 by the Natural Increase Rate (NIR) Distribution
percentage.
The arrangement of the individuals of a population within a
For China, this results in 99 years when dividing 69 by 0.7. In particular space.
the case of Niger, dividing 69 by 3.0 yields 23 years,
indicating that its population will double within just 23 years.
POPULATIONS TREND COMPARISON
These seemingly minor shifts in the NIR can lead to
substantial consequences. However, it's important to bear in
mind that the NIR evolves over time, thereby influencing the DEVELOP COUNTRIES
doubling time.
Is a sovereign state that has a highly developed economy
9. zero population growth and advanced technological infrastructure relative to
other less industrialized nations.
For a country to achieve stability, the Natural Increase Rate
(NIR) must be zero, which occurs when births and deaths Developing Countries
are in balance.
Also called a less-developed country (LDC),. is a nation
This equilibrium point is termed "zero population growth"
with a lower living standard, underdeveloped industrial
(ZPG). The specific Total Fertility Rate (TFR) that results in
base?
ZPG varies, typically falling within the range of 2.1 to 2.4.
While it might seem intuitive for this rate to be exactly 2, the DEVELOPED COUNTRIES DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
adjustment considers the reality that some women pass
away before reaching childbearing age, necessitating a
Low infant mortality rate High infant mortality rate
slightly higher number due to these instances.
The population measurements of China and Niger highlight Life expectancy of 77 years Life expectancy of 52 years
the potential for misleading impressions based solely on
population size. Total fertility rate = 2.0 Total fertility rate = 5.7
Per capita GDP = $36,110 Per capita GDP = $800
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103,331,046 as of Wednesday, March 15, 2017, based on Republic act no. 10345
the latest United Nations estimates.
THE RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
ASSUMPTIONS BY 2040
ACT OF 2012
Philippines Population will increase to 141.7M ✓ Guarantees universal access to methods
WOMEN – 73,213,900 MEN – 73,917,800 on contraception, fertility control, sexual
education, and maternal care
✓ Mandate that the Philippine government and the
private sector will fund and undertake widespread
distribution of family planning devices such as
condoms, birth control pills, and IUDs, as the
government continues to disseminate information
on their use through all health care centers.
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION LEVEL

A model to show the changes in birth and death rate as a
country passes through various stages of development.
Reasons why Filipino have an Immense Growth of Population

Stage 1 (primitive)
✓ Tradition of having big families
✓ Question of Gender
✓ The male macho image.
✓ Educational background
✓ Unsatisfactory/Ineffective family relationship
✓ Economic reasons
✓ Contraceptive methods
PROBLEMS ON POPULATION GROWTH
1. Environmental Problem Very high birth rate because:

2. Social Problem
3. Economic Problem • No contraception or family planning (because of
4. Educational Problem cost, religion & education
5. Health Problem • High infant mortality rate so families have many
6. Problem of food supply children to ensure that some survive to adulthood.
7. Problem of destruction of nature • People want big families to work on the land and
look after them in old age.
• Children are a sign of virility (male status)
Cutting global population growth
Very high death rate because:
• Family planning
• Improve health care • Little medical science (drugs, doctors)
• Elevate the status of women • Poor diet, malnutrition
• Increase education • Little clean water & poor sanitation
• Involve men in parenting • Famine, disease & plague
• Reduce poverty The result: High fluctuating population.
• Sustainability
• Equal distribution of wealth • Periods of low natural increase
• Periods of low natural decrease.
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Stage 2 (early expanding) STAGe 4 (Low fluctuating)
Low birth rate because:

Still high birth rate because:
• Family planning & contraception freely available
• Still little family planning & high infant mortality • Emancipation (improved status) of women
rate. • Later marriages
• Desire for material possessions
Rapidly falling death rate because:
Low death rate because
• Improving medical facilities
• More food & more balanced diet • Good health care
• More clean water & better sanitation • Good diet & hygiene
The result: Early expanding. The result: Low fluctuating
• Rapidly increasing amount of natural increase. • Low natural increase
Stage 3 (late expanding) Stage 5 (Zero growth)
Rapidly falling birth rate because:
• Fewer children needed due to increased

mechanisation & industrialisation Very low birth rate because:
• Lower infant mortality rate
• Some family planning & contraception available • High cost of having children (education, housing
etc)
Falling death rate because: • Later marriages
• Improving medical facilities • Emphasis on individual lifestyle
• Better access to doctors & hospitals (roads, larger
Low death rate
urban population)
The result: Declining
The result: Late expanding.
• Low natural decrease
• Large amount of natural population increase.
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Demographic transition model (DMT)
The DTM was then used as a predictive model, it was
suggested that the patterns seen in these industrialised
countries would be repeated in other countries as they
developed/ industrialised.
Population change over time

The graph below shows how the UKs BR, DR and total
population have changed over the past 300 years.
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The dmt
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LESSON 4: THE GEOGRAPHY OF MIGRATION

Population distribution 8. Technological Advancements: Modern
technology, including communication and
The distribution of the Earth's population is not uniform but transportation, has enabled people to live in a
rather exhibits distinct patterns influenced by a variety of wider range of environments and connect with
factors. others across distances, impacting how populations
are distributed.
These factors include geographical, environmental,
historical, economic, and social elements. Some key 9. Environmental Considerations: Environmental
aspects that contribute to population distribution are: factors such as natural disasters (earthquakes,
hurricanes) and climate change can impact where
1. Geographical Features: Physical features such as populations are concentrated and influence
mountains, deserts, and bodies of water can create migration patterns.
barriers that limit human settlement. Fertile plains
and river valleys often attract populations due to
their agricultural potential and accessibility for Overall, the distribution of the Earth's population is a
trade and transportation. complex interplay of various factors that shape settlement
patterns, create population clusters (ecumene), and leave
2. Climate and Resources: Areas with favorable other areas sparsely inhabited.
climates and abundant natural resources tend to
support larger populations. Regions with fertile soils,
suitable for agriculture, and a consistent water
supply are more likely to be densely populated.
3. Economic Opportunities: Urban centers and areas

with economic opportunities tend to draw
populations due to the availability of jobs,
education, and better living standards. This often
leads to the growth of cities and metropolitan
regions.
4. Historical Factors: Historical events and migration

patterns can influence where people settle. Trade
routes, colonization, and historical settlements
continue to impact population distribution today.
5. Infrastructure and Accessibility: Access to

transportation networks, such as roads, railways,
and airports, can significantly affect population
distribution. Regions with good connectivity are
more likely to attract inhabitants.
6. Cultural and Social Factors: Cultural preferences,

social ties, and traditions play a role in determining
where people choose to live. Family, community,
and cultural connections can influence settlement
patterns.
7. Government Policies: Government policies, such as

urban planning, land use regulations, and
incentives for certain industries, can influence
population distribution by encouraging or
discouraging settlement in specific areas.
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Overpopulation or population pressure 4. Environmental Degradation: High population
densities can contribute to environmental
Overpopulation refers to a situation in which the number of degradation, including deforestation, soil erosion,
people in a specific area, region, or even the entire planet pollution, and loss of biodiversity. This degradation
exceeds the carrying capacity of that area or the available can lead to a decline in resource availability and
resources. It suggests that there are more individuals than quality, affecting the long-term sustainability of
the environment can sustain in terms of providing adequate ecosystems and human well-being.
food, water, shelter, and other essential resources. 5. Economic Factors: Economic systems play a crucial
role in mediating the relationship between
Population pressure relates to the impact of a population's population and resources. Access to resources is
size and growth on the available resources within a given often influenced by factors such as income
area. It doesn't necessarily mean that an area is truly distribution, land ownership, property rights, and
overpopulated, but it highlights the strain that the existing global trade patterns. Unequal distribution of
population might place on resources, infrastructure, and resources can exacerbate population pressure and
services. contribute to social inequalities.
6. Demographic Transition: As societies move through
The relationship between population pressure and the the demographic transition model, birth rates tend
availability of resources is a complex and nuanced issue to decrease as a result of factors like urbanization,
that has been a topic of debate among scholars, improved healthcare, and education. This can lead
policymakers, and environmentalists. While there isn't a to a decrease in population pressure and offer a
definitive consensus, there are several key points to consider window of opportunity for resource management
in this discussion: and sustainable development.
1. Malthusian Perspective: Thomas Malthus, an 7. Sustainable Development: Efforts to address the
economist and demographer from the 18th challenges posed by population pressure and
century, argued that population tends to grow resource availability emphasize the importance of
exponentially while resources only increase linearly, sustainable development. This involves balancing
leading to inevitable population pressure and economic growth, social equity, and
resource scarcity. Malthusian predictions of environmental stewardship to ensure that resources
catastrophic food shortages and societal collapse are managed in a way that meets the needs of the
due to overpopulation have not fully materialized present without compromising the needs of future
on a global scale, partly due to advancements in generations.
agricultural technology and resource
management.
2. Technological Innovation: Advancements in
technology and agricultural practices have
allowed societies to increase food production and
resource extraction, which has alleviated
immediate resource scarcity. Innovations such as
irrigation, fertilizers, genetically modified crops, and
improved transportation have boosted agricultural
yields and resource utilization.
3. Local vs. Global Dynamics: The impact of
population pressure on resource availability varies
based on geographical location and local context.
Some regions might experience resource scarcity
due to high population densities and limited
resources, while others with low population densities
might still struggle with resource depletion due to
unsustainable resource management practices.
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MIGRATION Pull factors
• Populations change due to births, deaths, and Pull factors, on the other hand, represent the positive
migration. In the United States, the total fertility rate attributes and opportunities that entice individuals to
is 2.1, indicating a stable population. specific destinations. These factors highlight the appeal of
• However, the population continues to grow certain locations due to the promise of better living
because of migration, which involves permanent standards, increased opportunities, or a more conducive
moves to new locations. environment. These are the positive attributes of a
• Migration also played a vital role in the destination that attract migrants:
development of major religions. Christianity's
spread, for instance, happened as people moved 1. Economic Opportunities: The promise of better jobs,
within the Roman Empire, exchanging ideas along higher wages, and improved standards of living
established routes from Israel to Italy. Stories of can attract individuals seeking to improve their
travelers and newcomers are central in Christianity economic prospects.
and Judaism. 2. Political Stability: Countries with stable
• Migration is key to studying human geography as it governments, good governance, and respect for
impacts both origin and destination, creating new human rights can attract people fleeing political
cultures and sometimes conflicts. Migration reflects unrest or persecution.
population, political, ethnic, economic, and 3. Quality of Life: Access to quality healthcare,
physical geography. Consider migrants' origins, education, and social services can entice migrants
destinations, and reasons for moving to understand looking for improved living conditions.
the complexities and diverse perspectives involved. 4. Cultural and Social Factors: The presence of a
familiar culture, community, or family members can
push factors make a destination appealing to migrants.
5. Safety and Security: Areas with low crime rates and
Push factors encompass the challenging circumstances overall safety can attract people seeking a secure
and adverse conditions that encourage or compel environment for themselves and their families.
individuals to seek new horizons. These factors reflect the
difficulties or limitations people face in their current Internal migration
environments, prompting them to consider the prospect of
migration as a way to improve their lives. These factors often Internal migration, which involves a lasting relocation within
involve negative aspects of their current location: a country, is a frequent event. Individuals who make
permanent moves to different locations within their own
1. Economic Factors: Lack of job opportunities, low
country are referred to as internal migrants. The essential
wages, poverty, and limited economic prospects
aspect here is the enduring nature of the move, signifying
can push people to seek better livelihoods
that it is for an extended duration
elsewhere.
2. Political Factors: Political instability, persecution, Example: In India, a country known for its diverse
lack of human rights, and conflict can drive population and economic disparities, internal
individuals and families to flee for safety. migration is common. Many individuals from rural
3. Environmental Factors: Natural disasters, climate villages in states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh migrate
change, and environmental degradation can to major cities like Mumbai, Delhi, or Bangalore.
make living conditions untenable and prompt They are drawn by the allure of better job
migration. opportunities, education for their children, and
4. Social Factors: Discrimination, social unrest, and access to healthcare facilities that are often lacking
lack of access to basic services like healthcare and in their home regions.
education can motivate people to leave.
5. Demographic Factors: Overpopulation, lack of
resources, and limited access to services can push
individuals to find better living conditions elsewhere.
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For example, the Syrian Civil War has led to a
International Migration
massive refugee crisis, with millions of Syrians fleeing
to neighboring countries and beyond to escape
International migration refers to the movement of people the conflict. These refugees have sought asylum in
across international borders, involving a change of country countries like Turkey, Lebanon, and European
of residence. This type of migration can be due to various nations, as well as farther-reaching destinations, in
reasons, such as economic opportunities, family search of safety and a new beginning.
reunification, education, asylum-seeking, or other factors.
Example: Consider a situation where an individual Iternally displaced persons

from the Philippines decides to move to Canada for
better job prospects and a higher standard of living. • Those who are forced to leave their local
This person obtains a work visa and relocates to communities for another area within their own
Toronto, where they secure employment in their country are referred to as internally displaced
field of expertise persons (IDPs).
• During 1999, there were 17 million IDPs globally, with
chain migration the majority concentrated in Africa. Often, this
circumstance arises from conflicts, leading
where people choose to migrate to a specific place innocent civilians to seek refuge in areas less
because their relatives or fellow countrymen have already affected by war.
settled there. For instance, if your cousin has moved to New • Refugees and IDPs have captured the attention of
York City from Jamaica and you also have the opportunity international humanitarian organizations. Most
to immigrate to the United States, it would be logical for you refugee populations are particularly vulnerable,
to go to New York City where your cousin can provide mainly composed of women and children. In
support in finding a place to live and securing a job. recent times, the numbers of these displaced
individuals have increased due to a noticeable
uptick in internal conflicts within various countries.
brain drain
where the most talented and motivated individuals, such as

Immigration policies
doctors, nurses, and young professionals, leave their home
countries for better opportunities abroad. Immigration policies refer to the rules, regulations, and laws
established by a country to govern the entry, stay, and rights
of foreign individuals within its borders.
Refugees
• These policies are designed to manage and control
Refugees are individuals who have been forced to flee their the inflow of immigrants, addressing various
home countries due to well-founded fears of persecution, economic, social, political, and security
violence, or conflict. This displacement can be a result of considerations.
factors such as race, religion, nationality, political beliefs, or • Immigration policies can encompass a wide range
membership in a particular social group. of aspects, including visa categories, eligibility
criteria, refugee admissions, family reunification,
Refugees seek safety and protection in another country and
employment opportunities, and pathways to
often cannot return home because of the danger they
permanent residency or citizenship.
would face.
• Countries often have different types of immigration
• Refugees typically lack the protection of their home policies, and these policies can change over time
country and require international assistance and in response to shifting national priorities and global
legal recognition to ensure their safety and rights. circumstances.
• They may live in refugee camps, host communities,
For example, Canada's immigration policy is known for
or urban areas in their host countries while awaiting
its points-based system that evaluates applicants
a resolution to their situation, which could involve
based on factors such as age, education, work
returning home, local integration, or resettlement in
experience, language skills, and adaptability.
a third country.
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Undocumented migration
Undocumented immigration refers to the movement of

individuals across international borders without proper legal
authorization or documentation.
• These individuals, often referred to as

undocumented immigrants or illegal immigrants,
enter a country without following the formal
immigration procedures and without obtaining the
necessary visas or permits.
• Undocumented immigration can occur for various
reasons, including seeking better economic
opportunities, fleeing violence or persecution,
reuniting with family members, or escaping
environmental challenges.
• Undocumented immigration is a complex and
contentious issue, with debates focusing on issues
like border security, human rights, economic
impacts, and the moral obligations of host
countries.
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1st Semester | 1SEDS-B | Midterms | PPT and Workbook Based
LESSON 5: THE GEOGRAPHY OF CULTURE, LANGUAGE, AND RELIGION

Folk and Popular Culture Popular Culture
Culture found in a large, heterogeneous society that shares

What is culture? certain habits despite differences in other personal
characteristics and it is affected by the mainstream media
The word culture itself comes from the latin word cultura, and the technological advancements that could alter the
meaning cultivation or growing. change over the course of period of time rapidly influenced
by the technology.
• It includes everything about the lifestyle, beliefs,
and values of a group of people. Even the definition • In popular culture, big cities often start trends like hit
of “family ” is a part of a group’s culture. songs, fashion, and food. The internet, even though
• Culture is transferred within a society by imitation, it wasn't made for this, has become a big way to
instruction, and example and is learned, not advertise.
inherited, from one’s parents
Examples:
In contemporary times, the term "culture" refers to patterns
of meanings that have been transferred throughout history • Music and dance trends.
and are contained in symbols. • McDonalds, Pokémon, American Media.
• These symbols serve as a medium of Important terms

communication, allowing individuals to perpetuate
and enhance their understanding of the world, as
well as express their views towards life Custom
Folk Culture The frequent repetition of an act, to the extent that it

becomes characteristic of the group of people performing
the act.
It is traditionally practiced in small or homogeneous rural
groups and it is authentic and organic since it came from Example:
the lived experiences of a group of people.
• Greeting etiquette from around the world.
• These are the collective customs, traditions,
narratives, and knowledge systems that pertain to Taboo
specific cultural groups.
• Folk culture is more resistant to change and is
A restriction on behavior imposed by social custom.
rooted in long-standing traditions and practices.
Example:
Ferdinand Tönnies using words like Gemeinschaft (for small
communities) and Gesellschaft (for bigger societies). • Jewish religion does not eat pork, shellfish or
meat and diary in the same meal.
These words describe how people live together and relate
• We don’t eat RATS!
to their surroundings.
• Gemeinschaft can be understood as a Habit

representation of life inside a small scale
community, A repetitive act performed by an individual.
• Gesellschaft pertains to the functioning of life within
a broader societal context. Example:
Example: • Brushing your teeth in the morning.

• Eating potato chips
• Moken – True Folk • Origins of Folk and Popular Cultures
• Amish – American Folk.
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Origins of folk and popular cultures Clustering of Folk Cultures
Hearth Folk Culture
The region from which innovative ideas originate Influence of the physical environment
Example:
Environmental Determinism
Origin of country music located in 4 hearths.
A nineteenth and early twentieth century approach to the
Origins of Folk and Popular Cultures study of geography that argued that the general laws
sought by human geographers could be found in the
Folk Culture Music physical sciences. Geography was therefore the study of
how the physical environment caused human activities.
Anonyms and transmitted Orally.
Examples:
Pop Culture Music • Distinctive food preferences – Fish in Marine
climates.
Written by specific individuals for the purpose of being sold. • Folk housing – Adobe in hot dry climates and Igloos
in frozen climates.
Diffusion of Folk Cultures
FOLK ARCHITECTURE
Folk Culture
Historically created from local
Diffuses through migration and relocation diffusion. materials
Slow and on a smaller scale • Wood, brick, stone,

skins, etc.
Relocation diffusion
• Uniquely and
• The spread of a feature or trend through bodily traditionally
movement of people from one place to another. arranged.
• Functionally tied to physical environment.
Example:
Popular Culture Widely Distributed?
o Spread of Amish Culture
o Hindu Religion in the US.
Wide Dispersion of Popular Culture
Popular Culture
The role of Television in diffusing popular culture
Rapid and widespread Diffusion of television
Hierarchical Diffusion • Changed diffusion of popular culture
• Government control
• The spread of a feature or trend from one key
o Propaganda – Information of a biased or
person or node of authority or power to other
misleading nature, used to promote or
persons or places
publicize a particular political cause or
Example: point of view.
o Film industry from Hollywood. Diffusion of the internet

o Media from LA and NY.
• Changed even more!
• Is there propaganda on the internet today?
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• How do you know what is true and what is not? • Aggressive consumerism evident in most Western
Media , including hip hop and rock and roll.
does Globalization of Popular Culture cause problems? • Inefficient over-consumption of Meats, Poultry,
even Fish (fed other fish and chicken) by meat-
Globalization eating pop cultures.
• Mineral Extraction for Machines, Plastics and Fuel
• New larger housing desires and associated energy
Actions or processes that involve the entire world and result
and water use.
in making something worldwide in scope.
• Exists when barriers to interaction are removed and Pollution

space-time compression occurs.
Water treatment and improved public health may come
Western Media Imperialism? with higher incomes.
However, increased waste and toxins from fuel use,

U.S., Britain, and Japan dominate worldwide media.
discarded products, plastics, marketing and packaging
Glorified consumerism, violence, sexuality, and militarism?
materials, etc.
• U.S. (Networks and CNN) and British (BBC) news
media provide/control the dissemination of Globalization of popular culture
information worldwide. Critics argue that American
The good
news organizations reflect American Values and
Bias. 1. Cultural Exchange and Understanding:
Problems with the Globalization of Culture allows people from different parts of the world to access
and appreciate diverse forms of art, music, film, and
Threats to folk culture. Changes traditional roles of Women literature. This can lead to greater cultural understanding
and appreciation.
• Fat or Skinny
• Objectification 2. Increase Communication and Connectivity
• Prostitution and Violence Through the internet and social media, people can easily
connect with others from different cultures, fostering cross-
Maladaptive Diffusion cultural friendships and collaborations.
An idea or innovation that is not suitable for the environment 3. Economic Benefits
in which it spreads into. What works in one environment
Industries related to popular culture, such as
doesn’t always work in another.
entertainment, fashion, and technology, can stimulate
Example: economic growth and create jobs in various countries.
Hybrid seeds diminished local plant diversity, which 4. Empowerment and Representation
caused loss of traditional modes of
Globalization has provided platforms for underrepresented
agriculture/plant management, which led to
groups to share their voices and stories, leading to greater
problems of food security in several developing
diversity and inclusivity in popular culture.
regions.
5. Education and Exposure
Environmental Effects of Globalization
Access to global pop culture can be educational,
exposing people to different languages, traditions, and
Accelerated Resource Use in Consumer Societies: perspectives, which can be enriching and broadening.
• Furs: minx, lynx, jaguar, kangaroo, whale, sea otters

(18th Century Russians) fed early fashion trends.
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branches and language groups. Some languages share a
recent common ancestor and grammar and vocabulary.
The bad
Other informations
1. Cultural Homogenization
Some argue that globalization can lead to the loss of unique • Phonemes - The sounds in a language.
cultural identities as popular culture trends become • Early writing was often pictographic - Such as
dominant, potentially eroding local traditions and cuneiform
languages. • Dialect - Variations of sounds & vocabulary in a
language
2. Cultural Imperialism • Accent - Differences in how a language sounds or
is spoken
There's concern that the dominance of Western popular
• Idiom - A language peculiar to a certain group or
culture in global markets can marginalize and overshadow
region
the voices and expressions of cultures from less
• Patois- Generally refers to rural or provincial speech
economically dominant regions.
• Vernacular - Also refers to a local form of a
3. Loss of Authenticity language.
• Lingua Franca - A common language used for
The commercialization and mass production associated cross-cultural communication or for trade Examples
with pop culture can sometimes dilute the authenticity and include Kiswalhili, Russian, French,
originality of cultural expressions • Pidgin - A simplified language used by people who
don’t speak the same language
4. Inequality and Exclusion
o Different from a lingua franca because it
Globalization can lead to a "digital divide" where some generally refers to a language that is
communities, particularly in less developed regions, may not nobody’s native language
have equal access to the benefits of global pop culture. Usually has a simplified vocabulary
• Creole - A pidgin that is adopted by a group as its
5. Erosion of Traditional Values primary language
Critics argue that exposure to certain elements of popular

culture, particularly in media, can lead to the erosion of
Three main languages families
traditional values and norms, especially among younger
generations. ➢ Indo- European (English)
➢ Sino-Tibetan (Chinese)
6. Environmental Impact ➢ Afro-Asiatic (Arabic)
The production and distribution of pop culture-related Language origin

products, such as fashion or merchandise, can contribute to
environmental issues like pollution and waste. The very first language ever created is hard to pinpoint, but
it likely appeared as soon as people could communicate
Geography of language through gestures, speech, or symbols
Languages are a set of system of communicate that The origins of all contemporary languages can be traced
composses of letters and sounds depending on what region back to some ancient linguistic precursor.
for talking or writing. A language family is the largest group.
The presence of root words in languages serves as
• A linguistic family's languages share an ancient compelling evidence suggesting the origins of languages
beginning before written documentation. predating written history.
Language branches subdivide a language family. These

branches share linguistic traits with a recent ancestor
language. Linguistic classification includes language
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• Linguists believe that a common Indo-European
Indo-european
language, called Proto Indo-European, existed
thousands of years ago.
The Indo-European language family comprises numerous • This language gave rise to many different
strata, however, our attention will be directed towards the languages, showing how languages evolve over
specific aspects. time.
• Despite their apparent dissimilarities, German and
English both belong to the Germanic branch of the
Indo-European language family. Kurgan hearth theory
Germanic branch These are group of people known as the Kurgans lived near
what's now the border between Russia and Kazakhstan.
The Germanic branch can be classified into two major They were nomads who roamed in search of grasslands for
subdivisions, namely High German and Low German. their animals.
o The majority of individuals in Germany Instead of staying together, they split up and went in
communicate in High German, while different directions. The Kurgan warriors, being powerful,
English, Danish, and Flemish are classified conquered many areas between 3500 and 2500 B.C. and
as subcategories within Low German. spread their language to where Indo-European languages
are spoken today.
Romance branch
Anatolian hearth theory
The Romance branch of languages can be traced back to
a period approximately 2,000 years ago, with its origins It suggests that the first Proto Indo-European speakers were
rooted in the Latin language. in Anatolia, which is part of modern-day Turkey, about two
thousand years before the Kurgan people.
• Currently, the Romance languages encompass
Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Italian. According to this theory, the people of Anatolia and the
Proto-Indo European language spread due to farming
Balto-slavic branch practices, not military conquest.
In the 7th Century, the Balto-Slavic branch was first Language diffusion
regarded as a unified linguistic entity referred to as Slavic.
However, as time progressed, it underwent a process of The phenomenon of linguistic diversification has been
subdivision, resulting in the emergence of several smaller extensively studied by analyzing sound alterations over an
groupings. extended period of time.
• Presently, the Balto-Slavic branch encompasses the ➢ Furthermore, it was discovered that these
subsequent groups: East Slavic, West Slavic, South consonants had a tendency to undergo a process
Slavic, and Baltic. of gradual phonetic modification, sometimes
referred to as "softening," as time progressed.
Proto indo-european If it is viable to infer a substantial portion of the lexicon of
these languages, including those that are no longer spoken
The predominant linguistic branch of the Indo-European (such as Latin), then it is plausible to extend this endeavor
language family, widely spoken across the globe, is Indo- and reconstruct the antecedent language.
Iranian, encompassing a vast array of over 100 distinct
languages ➢ The utilization of the deep reconstruction technique
has resulted in the postulation of the existence of a
Now, let's look at the most widespread language family, proto-Indo-European language, which serves as
Indo-European. the precursor of languages such as Latin, Greek,
and Sanskrit.
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➢ Consequently, this proposed linguistic framework Often, closely related spoken language variations
may establish connections with other languages of demonstrate mutual intelligibility but are classed as different
ancestral origin that were contemporaneous. languages due to political and historical causes, as in the
Numerous theoretical frameworks contribute to the Scandinavian languages.
understanding of the origins and development of
the vast array of languages comprising the • Although Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and
contemporary linguistic landscape. Icelandic speakers can largely comprehend each
other, each national group speaks a distinct
As human populations dispersed and migrated, linguistic language.
divergence occurred, leading to the emergence of • There are numerous cases where political, ethnic,
dialectal variations. religious, literary, and other factors require linguistic
variety distinction.
Over time, these dialects grew geographically isolated,
eventually evolving into distinct languages. The The differences between Hindi and Urdu, Flemish and Dutch,
phenomenon of language convergence was facilitated by Serbian and Croatian, Gallego and Portuguese, Xhosa and
the interaction between languages that had been Zulu are academically studied.
geographically isolated for extended periods of time.
• Due to sociopolitical circumstances, these
When our ancestors moved to new places, they brought language pairings are often regarded different
their languages with them. When people took over new languages despite their mutual intelligibility.
areas, grew in numbers, or introduced others to their beliefs,
languages moved around too. Writing systems created by Lapp and Chinese dialects are examples of spoken
one group were adopted and used by others. language varieties that lack mutual intelligibility but are
designated as the same language for political, historical, or
Languages spread in different ways. Sometimes, people cultural reasons.
move and bring their language with them (relocation
diffusion).
Other times, a dominant language becomes widespread

Geography of Religion
for social, political, or economic reasons. Sometimes, new
Religion exerts a significant influence on the cultural
words or expressions are picked up from other languages
practices of adherents, exerting its impact on several
(contagious diffusion).
aspects such as beliefs, behaviors, dietary choices, and
even attire.
Language types and distribution
A religion can be defined as a comprehensive framework
The exact number of languages currently spoken worldwide encompassing a set of beliefs and rituals that acknowledge
remains uncertain. The estimated range of the number of the existence of a transcendent entity or power that
languages spoken globally falls between 5,000 and 7,000, surpasses the realm of human beings.
with the precise figure being subject to interpretation due to
the subjective differentiation between languages and Religion
dialects.
Religion is belief in a god or gods and the activities that are
Dialects, which are variations of a particular language,
connected with this belief, such as praying or worshipping
manifest divergences based on geographical and ethnic
in a building such as a church or temple.
distinctions.
• Many native English speakers identify themselves Spirituality

English speakers, despite differences in vocabulary,
Involves the recognition of a feeling or sense or belief that
pronunciation, and sentence structure.
there is something greater than myself, something more to
• English speakers in the United Kingdom, New
being human than sensory experience, and that the greater
Zealand, Australia, Canada, and the US recognize
whole of which we are part is cosmic or divine in nature.
their shared linguistic identity.
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Theology THE 7 WORLD’S MAJOR RELIGIONS
s the study of religious faith, practice, and experience
1. Hinduism
especially the study of God and of God's relation to the
2. Buddhism
world.
3. Confucianism
4. Taoism
5. Judaism
eastern belief 6. Islam
7. Christianity
This includes the East Asian religions (Shintoism, Sindoism,
Taoism and Confucianism) Classification of Religion
Westerm belief Ethnic Religions

Religions that originated within western culture Ethnic religions are inherently associated with a distinct
ethnic or cultural group. The individuals in question do not
Worldview engage in deliberate efforts to proselytize, but occasional
instances of conversion may occur.
This is how every individual sees and interprets the world.
For a certain individual, social environment and • Hinduism and Judaism serve as illustrative instances.
upbringing are critical in the development of a religious Despite their dispersal through migration, individuals
life. remain closely tied to their ancestral ethnic
communities.
Understanding Beliefs and worldviews
Universalizing Religions
• Every individual sees and interpret the world
different than others (BELIEF) Universalizing religions have the objective of proselytizing
• The overall perspective is a collection of beliefs individuals in order to adopt their respective faith systems.
about life and the universe being held by people. Certain adherents of various religious traditions dedicate a
(WORLDVIEW) portion of their lives to proselytizing and persuading others
to embrace their beliefs
Beliefs in God o Gods is found in almost all religions.
It is noteworthy that many religious practices exhibit a
• Existed during prehistoric times and this has synthesis of diverse aspects, as exemplified by Voudon (also
continued to the modern day. known as (Voodoo).
• Human life may be produced hundreds of religions
and belief systems. In this context, African deities undergo a reinterpretation as
Catholic saints, thereby acquiring a semi-divine status within
Kinds of belief system the framework of Catholic theology.
Syncretism refers to the phenomenon wherein two distinct

• Monism – there is no real distinction between the religious traditions combined, resulting in the emergence of
god and the universe. a novel religious system.
• Monotheism – the doctrine or belief in one supreme
god.
• Polytheism – the belief of many gods.
• Atheism – disbelief of existence of a personal god.
• Agnosticism – god cannot be known
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Origin of Religions Hinduism
Based on Vedic teachings from 1500 BCE, is considered the

Christianity
oldest religion. The religion is a mix of Indian religions and has
no founder.
Jesus Christ is the center of Christian monotheism.
• The religion fluctuated with both Buddhism and
Christianity was created by Jewish Jesus in the 30s–50s CE. Jainism in India before a significant revival after the
• Early Christianity abandoned many Judaic social, medieval period. It became the main religion in
cultural, and religious institutions and adopted a India.
distinct spirituality. • Hinduism is the the world's third biggest religion due
• Faith's main creeds were developed around the to its vast following.
300s CE. Despite persecution, Christianity became
the state religion of the Roman Empire and its Chinese Religions
successors and the world's largest faith.
The religious practices of Daoism, Confucianism, and
ancestor worship are intrinsically linked to the cultural fabric
Islam of China. The practice of these customs is observed by
individuals of Chinese heritage, whether residing inside the
Muhammad started Islam in 607 in Saudi Arabia. borders of China and in other regions across the globe.
The Quran claims common heritage with Jewish and Confucianism

Christian ideas.
Confucianism is an ancient Chinese belief system, which
• Muhammad taught monotheism in Mecca amid
focuses on the importance of personal ethics and morality.
polytheist opposition and swiftly founded a Muslim
Whether it is only or a philosophy or also a religion is debated
society. The Islamic community was forced to move
to Medina in 622, where they codified and
expanded across the Arabian Peninsula. Taoism
• In 632, Muhammad's death year, nearly all of
Arabia converted to Islam, which has since Taoism is an ancient Chinese philosophy and religion that
become the world's second largest religion, instructs believers on how to exist in harmony with the
especially in the Middle East and Southeast Asia. universe
Buddhism Sikhism
Gautama Buddha founded Buddhism, borrowing from (or Early 1500s CE Guru Nanak founded Sikhism in Punjab,
rejecting) numerous Vedic traditions that define Hinduism. Northern India.
• Buddhist debates with Hindus and Jains for ages A Hindu raised in the Muslim-ruled Mughal Empire, Guru
produced opposing religious traditions and beliefs. Nanak preached his own religion and renounced both. A
• Buddhism flourished in East Asia, transforming the community grew around him.
region's culture and it is the fourth largest religion in
• The next two centuries saw nine additional Sikh
the world, with about 200 million followers in China
gurus. Since the last guru chose Guru Granth Sahib,
and numerous Southeast Asian countries.
the Sikh community has had no leader.
• Despite being a religious minority, Sikhs defeated
the Mughals and founded a magnificent kingdom
in Northern India in the 1800s.
• Punjab-based Sikhism is the fifth or eighth largest
religion worldwide.
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Judaism Religious Conflicts
People fight for many reasons, but religious differences are
Jewish monotheism comes from Israel and Judah. The
especially bitter.
Hebrew calendar dates Judaism to 3761 BCE, while the
Middle East is in 5782. Sectarian violence occurs when religious beliefs and
practices disagree.
• Major religious groups have traditionally persecuted
its members. Examples include Catholic-Orthodox battles and
• After the Roman Empire destroyed the Second Protestant Reformation wars. Similar tensions exist
Temple, Judaism scattered. between Sunni and Shia Muslims today.
• Violence and bigotry against Jews are historical.
Still, Judaism is one of the world's most popular Religious extremism also causes strife. It requires literal
religions interpretation of religious beliefs. Fundamentalists who judge
their fellow believers as undevout cause problems.
Diffusion of religion
Extremism justifies practically any measures to attain
Religions spread differently. Sometimes a king or emperor religious aims, including bloodshed. Separate religions like
converts, inspiring others. Other times, missionaries spread Muslims and Christians or Hindus and Buddhists conflict.
religion abroad. Convincing people involves direct Politics, resources, ethnic tensions, and economic
preaching. competition cause many religious disputes.
• Understanding that the religious map varies is vital. Religion vs. Government
We regard maps as historical photos.
• They depict how faiths spread historically. A • The Israel-Palestine conflict involves territory,
Buddhist or Christian place may become Muslim resources, and politics.
later. This is religion's continuing story. • Myanmar's Rohingya problem involves ethnicity,
Religions spread globally in various ways. Missionaries nationalism, and post-colonial history.
spread Christianity, one of the most popular religions. Those
who didn't accept the religion were sometimes forced to. Types of religious conflict
Islam extended from the Middle East to Africa, Asia, and 1. Inter-religious conflict
Europe. Buddhism spread slowly throughout Asia from • Involving of two or more religious groups or
Nepal. movements.
India's most popular religion, Hinduism, doesn't recruit. The • They stated as purely religious disagreements
Indian subcontinent was divided into Hindu India, Muslim like Hindu vs Muslims.
Pakistan, and Muslim Bangladesh due to religious 2. Intra-religious conflict
differences. • It can be condcuted within the existing religious
group
• These are basically religious conflicts within a
particular religion that are rooted in differences
resulting from religious matters.
3. Sectarian Violence
• Secctarianism can be defined as a form of
bigotry, discrimination, or hatred arising from
attaching relations of inferiority and superiority
to differences between subdivisions within a
group. Common examples are denominations
of a religion, ethnic identity, class, or region for
citizens of a state and factions of a political
movement.
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LESSON 6: ETHNIC AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY

ETHNICITY AND RACE Race
Race is a human classification system that is socially
ETHNICITY constructed to distinguish between groups of people who
share phenotypical characteristics.
Large groups of people classed according to their common
racial, national and cultural origin or background and more. Since race is socially constructed, dominant groups in
It is a broader distinction that is linked with cultural society have shaped and informed racial categories in
expression. order to maintain systems of power—thereby also
producing racial inequality.
It came from the Greek work “ethos” meaning
“nation,people”. • A category of humankind that shares certain
distinctive physical traits.
Ethnography - the scientific description of the • Is a more narrow distinction. Usually associated
customs of individual peoples and cultures. with biology and linked
Ethnographer - a person who studies and describes Classified as racial identities

the culture of a particular society or group.
• Ethnicity is about learned behavior, while race 1. American Indian or Alaska Native
is based on inherited traits. 2. Asian
• Ethnicity and race also have a lot to do with 3. Black or African American
where people live and how they interact with 4. Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
space. Things like language, religion, and 5. White
cultural traits are part of ethnicity.
• Most ethnicities are seen as normal, while Origins of race
smaller groups are often seen as different.
1500’s
There are three main ideas about how different cultures interact:
The term “race”, used infrequently before the 1500s, was
1. Amalgamation (blending) used to identify groups of people with a kinship or group
• The idea that multiethnic societies will connection.
eventually become a combination of
The words ”race,” “white” and “slave” were used by
the cultural characteristics of their
Europeans in 1500s, brought these words to North America.
ethnic groups.
2. Acculturation (adoption), Mid-1600’s
• Is the adoption of the cultural
characteristics of one group by
No evidence
another.
of English
3. assimilation (becoming similar). referring to
• the reduction of minority cultural themselves
characteristics, sometimes to the point as “white
that the ethnicity ceases to exist. people” till
before this
While we like to think of everyone in our country as part of time
the same group, that's not always the case. Many countries
struggle with ethnic tensions. Race and ethnicity are difficult
to distinguish.
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Late 1600’s Political geography
European Enlightenment philosophers and naturalists newly Political geography studies how the world is divided into
categorized the world and their new beliefs argued that states, how each state differs spatially, and how they
there were natural laws that governed the world and interact worldwide. Political geography includes these facts
human beings. because they show how politics affects Earth's surface.
1700’s The location of countries and states is significant, but this

field also involves alliances, borders, disputes, and elections.
European colonists “white” to refer to themselves became States vs nations
entangled with “race” and “slave” in American colonies.
State, like country, is the main political unit. Official
1800’s
government control exists within its bounds. The world has
196 states, but wars and breakups can change this.
The U.S outlawed the transaltlantic slave trade in 1808.
Meanwhile, during 1861 there is the American Civil War. Since Ireland gained independent, the UK has
transformed. Another example is when the Soviet
Modern instances of Racial Categorization Union split into fifteen Eastern European nations.
• 1500’s – First influx of African slaves in America. Nation-states consist of ethnically similar people. Similar
cultural and historical identities. Egypt, Finland, and Japan
• 1948 – African Aparheid and First Palestinian exodus
are nation-states. Most states are multinational, with multiple
• 2013 – Black Lives Matter nations within their borders.
ETHNIC GROUP VS ETHNICITY More individuals traveling between countries means more
multinational states. Stateless nations don't have a state. US
Native American tribes are an example.
ETHNIC GROUP
Sovereignty
has been defined as a group that regards itself or is
regarded by others as a distinct community by virtue of Sovereignty means a state's ability to make its own decisions
certain characteristics that will help to distinguish the group
without interference from other powers.
from the surrounding community.
• Take Angola for instance. It used to be controlled
ETHNICITY by Portugal, but now Angolans have their own say
in how their country is run.
is considered to be shared characteristics such as culture, • However, just because a state is sovereign doesn't
language, religion, and traditions, which contribute to a mean everyone in it agrees. Civil wars can happen,
person or group’s identity. especially when there are different nations living
within one state.
ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH ETHNICITY
1. Inequality
2. Violence
3. Ethnic Discrimination
4. Culture vs. Government
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Colonialism and Imperialism 3. Political instability
Colonialism happens when one nation creates permanent Many countries experienced political instability and
settlements in another country and then attempts to impose fragmentation as a result of arbitrary borders imposed by
its economic, political, and cultural values on the new colonial powers, which did not take into account local
country, this is called colonialism. ethnic, religious, or tribal divisions.
A colony is any region that is ruled by another sovereign. The 4. Loss of independence autonomy
colony's ruling state can pick and choose which institutions
it wants to exert authority over. Colonized nations lost their independence and the ability to
make decisions about their own governance, economy,
Examples include the European colonization of the
and future
Americas at the expense of the local population
through means such as warfare and illness.
boundaries
The "3 Gs" are a common shorthand for the three main motivations Boundaries are like invisible lines that separate one state
for European colonialism: from another. They include the airspace above and the
ground below. There are different types of boundaries.
1. the spread of Christianity,
2. the expansion of European political and economic 1. Physical Boundaries: Natural features such as
power, and mountains, lakes, and rivers. For instance, the Rio
3. the acquisition of new resources. Grande River divides the US and Mexico. As rivers
change course, boundary difficulties arise.
Imperialism is a bit different. It's about controlling territory that 2. Geometric Boundaries: Straight lines, unrelated to
already had its own society. natural features. These can follow latitude or
longitude.
For example, Europeans controlled Africa and Asia
for several centuries. They didn't set up many new 3. Ethnic Boundaries: Cultural factors such as language
settlements, but they did dominate the existing or religion define ethnic boundaries. Religious
societies for the same three reasons as in differences define the border between Hindu-
colonialism. majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan.
4. Cultural Boundaries: These might cause tensions
Colonization wasn't only done by Europeans, but their
influence was the biggest on a global scale. Today, we can between ethnic groups or religions. When
still see the effects of colonial times in many developing Yugoslavia separated into countries, the new
countries. borders didn't cover all ethnic groups, causing
violence.
Effects of imperialism & colonialism in the world: 5. Apartheid regime: South Africa became racially
segregated under this regime. Racially divided
groups lived in separate locations. This method
1. Economic Exploitation generated several issues and was repealed in 1991.
Colonial powers extracted vast amounts of wealth and In Africa, many boundaries are geometric, and this has
resources from their colonies, often leaving local economies led to conflicts because numerous ethnic groups are
depleted and impoverished. split across different states. This has also resulted in cross-
border trade. For example, the Somali ethnic group is
2. cultural and social disruption divided between five different countries, leading to
challenges and conflicts.
Local cultures and traditions were often suppressed or even
eradicated in favor of the culture of the colonizing power.
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International Cooperation 6. Faster Crisis Response
In times of crisis, international cooperation allows for quicker

Alliances protect and benefit states militarily and
and more coordinated responses, providing aid and
economically. Military partnerships protect against common
support to affected regions.
foes, while economic ties facilitate trade. These alliances
are like large organizations where states sacrifice power for
Disadvantages of International cooperation
the greater good.
The UN is the largest such group. It now has 193 members 1. Loss of Sovereignty
after WWII. The UN maintains peace, aids crises, and sets
global standards. It holds key organizations including the Countries may have to compromise their independence
World Health Organization in Geneva and the Food and and sovereignty to some extent in order to participate in
Agricultural Organization of the United States in New York international agreements and organizations.
City.
Advantages of International Cooperation

2. Inequality Among Nations
1. Promotes global peace and security More powerful countries may dominate decision-making
processes, potentially leading to unfair treatment of smaller
When countries work together, they can address common or less influential nations.
security threats and conflicts, reducing the likelihood of wars
and armed conflicts.
3. Conflicting Interests
2. Economic benefits Countries may have conflicting economic, political, or
social interests, making it difficult to find common ground
Cooperation can lead to the creation of larger and more and hindering progress.
stable markets. This can boost trade, economic growth, and
prosperity for participating countries.
4. Risk of Dependence
3. Shared Resources and Expertise Some countries may become overly dependent on
international aid or cooperation, which can potentially stifle
Countries can pool resources and expertise to address local development efforts.
global challenges such as climate change, natural disasters,
and pandemics more effectively.
4. Promotes Human Rights and Social Justice
International cooperation can lead to the development

and enforcement of international laws and norms,
protecting human rights and promoting social justice.
5. Scientific and Technological Advancements
Countries can work together on scientific research and

technological innovations, leading to progress and
discoveries that benefit humanity.
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1st Semester | 1SEDS-B | Midterms | Workbook Based
LESSON 7: THE GEOGRAPHY OF DEVELOPMENT

THE GEOGRAPHY OF DEVELOPMENT Another way to measure development is by looking at the
kinds of jobs available in a place.
DEFINING DEVELOPMENT
There are three main types:
The goal of development is to raise the living standards of
less developed nations to those of more developed nations. • Primary (getting goods from the earth),
It entails enhancing everyone's access to better health • Secondary (turning raw materials into finished
care, education, and employment opportunities. The work products),
of policymakers is not easy. • Tertiary (services like transportation,
communication, and more).
According to Rubenstein, development is the process of
Primary and secondary sectors employ more people in
improving people's lives through the dissemination of
developing nations, while tertiary sectors employ more in
information and tools. People are more likely to make
industrialized nations.
positive changes if they have access to resources that can
help them. The third indication is worker productivity. More developed
countries have more advanced technology; thus workers
This divides the world's nations into those with advanced get more done.
economies and those with less so. Some geographers,
though, take a different tack. When classifying nations, the Social Indicators
Cold War era's political division into "first world," "second
world," and "third world" was commonly used. Social indicators play a crucial role in assessing the progress
of development as well. Education and literacy serve as
• You may be familiar with the term "third world" to
describe the world's poorest nations. significant indicators.
High living standards, high levels of education, long life Significant disparities can exist in various domains between
expectancy, and low rates of infant mortality are hallmarks nations that are more advanced and those that are less
of more developed nations like the United States and advanced.
Japan. In contrast, many citizens in less developed countries
lack access to such amenities as these. Keep in mind, too, • In contemporary times, a significant number of
that even within these broad classes, there is a great deal geographers direct their attention towards the
of nuance. examination of female education and literacy rates
as indicators of progress.
Economic Indicators • The observed disparity in literacy rates between
more developed and less developed countries can
Although per capita income (PCI) is often used to gauge be attributed to the greater literacy rates among
progress, reliable data is often lacking for many nations, women in the former.
especially those with less developed economies.
Social indicators are frequently employed as a means of
assessing the quality of life, a fundamental component of
Consequently, GDP has come to be the common measure of
Rubenstein's conceptualization of development.
economic output. The worth of a nation's annual output,
measured in dollars.
However, in order to calculate GDP per person, we divide

the total GDP by the total population. This is useful for doing
cross-national comparisons. However, per capita GDP does
not reveal whether or not a country's wealth is distributed
fairly.
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Demographic Indicators According to proponents of dependency theory, this historical
process has given rise to a global economic system
Demographic indicators are a crucial method for assessing characterized by a reliance of less developed nations on
development. These indicators encompass factors such as the exportation of raw resources to more developed
mortality rates for infants, natural increase rates, crude birth nations, who in turn engage in the processing and sale of
rates, and life expectancy. higher-value items.
The concepts in question were discussed during our lecture
Transnational firms, primarily situated in economically
on population. Examining the demographic indicators of a
advanced nations, have significant influence within this
nation is a subject of considerable interest; however, the
framework, frequently exhibiting a preference for their
analysis becomes significantly more valuable when
home country to the detriment of less developed
juxtaposed with corresponding statistics from other nations.
counterparts.
The graph illustrates the magnitude of disparities between
more developed countries (MDCs) and less developed While dependence theorists primarily attribute the
countries (LDCs). The United Nations has devised a underdevelopment of less developed countries to the
methodology for assessing a nation's degree of actions of more developed nations, it is crucial to
development through the utilization of many indicators. acknowledge the presence of internal obstacles inside
these less developed countries. These obstacles include
Human Development Index (HDI). The Human Development corruption, inadequate infrastructure, political instability,
Index (HDI) is a composite measure that assesses various and conflicts, all of which further hinder their advancement.
indicators including per capita GDP, literacy rate,
education level, and life expectancy. Ways to Improve Development
These indicators are used to construct a standardized scale
There are different strategies to help less developed
ranging from 0 (representing the lowest level of
countries (LDCs) improve their overall situation.
development) to 1.0 (representing the highest level of
development). This indicator facilitates comprehension of One approach is self-sufficiency, which focuses on
the diverse degrees of global development.
breaking the economic ties that give more developed
Global Distribution of Development countries (MDCs) control over LDCs.
This implies that less developed countries (LDCs) ought to

In terms of development, Anglo-America stands out as the
engage in domestic production of commodities rather than
most developed region, scoring 0.93 on the HDI. This high
depending on imports from more developed countries
score is due to factors like a strong economy, abundant
(MDCs). While this approach leads to steady progress, it can
resources, fewer jobs in the primary sector, and an
also lead to problems like inefficient production and
advanced tertiary sector.
bureaucratic challenges. Many countries tried this in the
Among the less developed regions, Latin America ranks 20th century, but most moved away from it in the 1970s.
relatively high with an HDI of 0.76. East Asia, which includes
An alternative method that holds prominence in global
China, has made significant progress, with an HDI of 0.70.
While land ownership issues and strict governance were development is international trade. This approach promotes
hurdles in the past, China now has considerable the practice of countries focusing on the production of
development potential. commodities in which they possess a comparative
advantage, while relying on imports for goods in which their
The gap between developed and developing regions is production capabilities are relatively weaker.
longstanding. Capitalism and colonial economic
interactions are its roots. European nations exploited Africa, It involves policies favoring free trade, which means
Asia, and Latin America for raw minerals, powering their removing tariffs and taxes on trade. However, this approach
Industrial Revolution.
has challenges too. It can lead to uneven distribution of
resources, and countries specializing in one product can be
vulnerable if the demand or price for that product drops.
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Additionally, relying heavily on foreign investment and trade 4. The decline of commodity prices has impacted
can make LDCs more dependent on MDCs, exacerbating
developing countries that rely on exporting
issues raised by dependency theorists. LDCs often offer tax
commodities such as oil, minerals, and agricultural
breaks and cheap labor to attract foreign companies, but
products. The 1980s commodity price crash
this can create a competitive race to the bottom.
significantly reduced their export revenues.
Financing poses a notable obstacle for less developed 5. Debtor countries may have suffered fundamental
countries (LDCs). The primary international institutions that issues such as corruption, incompetence, and poor
offer financial assistance for development purposes are the economic policies.
World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). These causes caused debt crises in many developing
Nevertheless, numerous previous endeavors have proven to nations. Debt defaults, restructurings, and creditor
be ineffective, with a substantial percentage of the monies negotiations followed their inability to pay.
being diverted due to fraudulent practices.
To address the situation, numerous steps were taken:
During the 1980s, there was a significant increase in interest
rates, resulting in challenges with loan repayments.
1. One example of debt restructuring is when debtor
Consequently, numerous Least Developed Countries (LDCs)
governments engage with creditors to restructure
This entails implementing measures such as reducing their debt. This usually entailed extending
government expenditure, privatizing industries, augmenting repayment, lowering interest rates, or forgiving
service fees, raising taxes, and actively seeking to attract some debt.
foreign corporations and investments. 2. International Assistance: The IMF and World Bank
Although the primary objective of these modifications is to provided financial aid and policy guidance to
debtor nations. These countries were often
enhance economic growth, they may provide difficulties in
compelled to conduct structural adjustment plans
terms of the social progress of these nations
to fix economic concerns.
International Debt Crisis 3. Bilateral and Multilateral Aid: Debtor countries

received aid from these sources to stabilize their
economies and fulfill their debt obligations.
The 1980s worldwide debt crisis saw several developing
countries, mainly in Latin America, Africa, and Asia, unable 4. Policy Reforms: Debtor countries often needed
to pay their debts. These nations had excessive debt relative economic reforms to address underlying difficulties.
to their economic potential throughout this crisis. These reforms included fiscal discipline, monetary
stabilization, trade liberalization, and state-owned
The international debt crisis had many causes: enterprise privatization.
5. Long-Term Solutions: Strategies were implemented
1. Rapid Borrowing: In the 1970s, emerging countries to avert future debt crises. This included
substantially borrowed from international financial encouraging responsible lending, debt
institutions and commercial banks. These loans management in debtor countries, and sustainable
were generally in foreign currencies, making them economic strategies.
exchange rate-sensitive.
Global development is a difficult problem with no simple
2. Rising Interest Rates: Global interest rates increased solutions. The conversation has barely explored this complex
in the late 1970s and early 1980s. This interest rate problem. Whatever the approach, Rubenstein's notion of
hike greatly increased debt payment costs, development must be considered.
straining debtor nations.
Different opinions exist on development focus. Some believe
3. Economic Downturn: Debtor countries faced
that a strong economy can fund social services like health
economic downturns, hindering revenue care and education. Others believe social development
generation for debt repayment. should be prioritized to create a healthier, more educated
populace that drives economic growth.
39
Estape, Zedric R.

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Geography 1 (Human Geography)

1st Semester | 1SEDS-B | Prelims | PPT, Workbook, and Lecture Based

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY

What is Geography? Spatial- The nature or character of physical space, as in an

o A method, not a body of knowledge 2. Urban Geography: Urban geography focuses on

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY

Geography is the science that studies the interdependence

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY

Or by human factors such as language, religion, forms of Perceptual Regions

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY

Is defined as a particular place or position

• A directional indicator shows which direction on a map

CARDINAL DIRECTIONS INTERMEDIATE DIRECTIONS

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY

2. TROPIC OF CANCER- 23 ½ degrees north.

3. TROPIC OF CAPRICORN- 23 ½ degrees south.

4. ARCTIC CIRCLE- 66 ½ degrees north.

5. ANTARCTIC CIRCLE- 66 ½ degrees south.

6. PRIME MERIDIAN- 0 degrees, divides the globe into two

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY

• Over the years, the position of the International Date

• For Example, the time on a sundial – which was typically

International Data Line (IDL)

The International Date Line is an

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY

Prime Meridian: the meridian of 0 degrees longitude which

International Date Line: An important corollary of the prime

LESSON 2: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

• A work of history the book contains a wealth of

LESSON 2: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

LESSON 2: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

Immanuel Kant Freidrich Ratzel (1844-1904) and his American student,

The theory that the human’s physical, mental and moral

• Von Humboldt considered geography a

LESSON 2: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

LESSON 3: POPULATION GEOGRAPHY

• Has reemphasized the dangers of population.

• To them, the earth is a “dying planet” with too many

• Neo-Malthusians encouraged people to be part of the

LESSON 3: POPULATION GEOGRAPHY

Where: Biotic potential

Natural increase 6. infant mortality rate

when the death rate is higher than the birth rate

LESSON 3: POPULATION GEOGRAPHY

Per capita GDP = $36,110 Per capita GDP = $800

LESSON 3: POPULATION GEOGRAPHY

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION LEVEL

Reasons why Filipino have an Immense Growth of Population

PROBLEMS ON POPULATION GROWTH

1. Environmental Problem Very high birth rate because:

LESSON 3: POPULATION GEOGRAPHY

Low birth rate because:

Stage 3 (late expanding) Stage 5 (Zero growth)

Rapidly falling birth rate because:

• Fewer children needed due to increased

LESSON 3: POPULATION GEOGRAPHY

Population change over time

LESSON 3: POPULATION GEOGRAPHY

LESSON 4: THE GEOGRAPHY OF MIGRATION

3. Economic Opportunities: Urban centers and areas

4. Historical Factors: Historical events and migration

5. Infrastructure and Accessibility: Access to