There’s more to silo operations than just putting material into a bin and removing it -

calculations are necessary if you want a successful operation with minimal mistakes.

The discharge process is often overlooked, but this is one of the most detrimental parts of the
whole operation. Things such as arching and ratholing can occur, so steps need to be taken in
the design of the silo and feeders to prevent such events.

Keep reading to find out more about silos, and what needs to be considered when designing
a silo.

What Is A Silo?
A silo is a large bin or tower that’s used to store bulk materials. Some materials commonly
stored in silos include sand, cement, grains, and metals - but pretty much any bulk material
can be stored in a silo.

Typically, silos are made using large sheets of steel for durability and strength. These sheets
are often ribbed on the inside to ensure that material doesn’t stick on the silo wall, which
reduces product loss.

Silos can vary in height to accommodate the amount of bulk material and the surrounding
environment, but they tend to range from 10m to 90m tall, accommodating weights of up to
80 tons.

The removal of the material depends on your supplier and what the material actually is -
however, silos usually have an access point on the roof to put the product in, and an exit
point on the bottom for removal.

Some ways of removing the material include the power of gravity, an auger, or a pneumatic
conveying system.

A typical silo features a cone-shaped design, which helps you gain control of the bulk material
flow. If pneumatic conveyors are in place to remove the bulk materials, then a conveyor tube
is attached to the bottom of the silo, to ensure no product is wasted and that the process is
more streamlined.

In larger workplaces where a large number of materials are being stored and processed,
multiple silos will be connected to the same conveying system to save time, manpower, and
money.

Other silos are placed on a raised platform so a removal truck can park directly underneath
and collect the load. This is a cost-effective method, but generally, you’ll find that multiple
trips will need to be made to collect all of the bulk material from the silo.

Mass Flow
Flow issues can be prevented by making sure that mass flow occurs inside the silo or hopper
(depending on the material). To achieve mass flow, you must make sure that the walls are
steep enough, and the friction levels are low enough for the bulk materials to slide down.

To achieve this, you must make sure that the materials are tested and that the walls are
measured - and then you must calculate the right hopper angle to allow mass flow to occur.
Mass flow bins are ideal if you want a reliable and steady flow out of the silo. However,
mistakes can be made, and what you think is a mass flow bin can actually be a funnel flow
bin, causing problems with the flow.

To overcome this, you will want to recalculate the angle of discharge and the minimum
diameters - reassessing every calculation made to determine the silo or hopper
measurements.

In a hopper or a silo, there are two main flow patterns that can occur.

Bulk Flow
In bulk flow, all of the solids are moving when the material is being emptied from the outlet,
which stops material from getting stuck to the walls of the silo. This encourages the materials
to flow in a ‘“first in first out” manner, providing a more structured exit, preventing ratholing
and sifting segregation.

FIFO (first in first out) is more effective with bulk flow. Mass flow bins can be sensitive to
arching, so this is something to watch out for during the process.

Funnel Flow
Bulk flow and funnel flow are very different flow methods. Funnel flow tends to be more
chaotic and is more likely to worsen the segregation of materials. Funnel flow can also result
in stagnant material being left inside (ratholes) the edges of the silo or hopper. Ratholing can
lead to particle degradation, caking, and spoilage, which is not only a waste of product but a
waste of time and space.

With a funnel flow, the product leaves the silo in the centre of the bin, creating a funnel
shape. This can cause both arching and ratholing - we’ll go into more detail on arching and
ratholing soon.

Calculation Methods
Powders can be difficult to control when stored in a silo or hopper and can slide and fall.
When a large amount of powder is stored in a bin, it’s submitted to pressure due to the height
of the powder and the weight of the powder on top pushing down on the powder below. This
can have an impact on flowability.

Because of this pressure, solids tend to be cohesive. When this occurs, arching and ratholes
can occur, which can be detrimental to the flow of the powder when discharging from the silo
or hopper.

Arching and Ratholing

Arching and ratholing relate to the flowability of bulk solids and powders. Arching occurs
when a powder is stored in a hopper that doesn’t have steep enough cone walls or a large
enough outlet.

For improved flowability, powders need to be submitted to a constraint. The constraint

depends on the outlet shape, and whether the powder can support it to consolidate itself and
create arches. If the angle of the exit isn’t steep enough, then it’s likely that an arch will form.

Calculating the hopper wall angle is and the critical outlet diameter is critical in preventing
arches from forming and if you want the powder to flow.

Ratholing can be avoided if you pay attention to calculations. The hopper must be designed
so the outlet diameter is larger than the outlet rathole critical diameter. The rathole diameter
is usually larger than the arching diameter.

This effect only tends to happen with powders, and the effect can be very different when
liquids are stored.

The flow of powder in a silo/ hopper is determined by 3 things - the internal friction of the
powder, how easily the powder can move on the surface of the silo walls, and how the
powder compacts under the weight of the top-level powder.

How you measure these properties is important - if you want high flowability, you must follow
the steps below.
Learn About The Powder
Knowing all about the powder and its properties is key if you want the powder to flow. You
must learn the powder flow function, the static angle of internal friction, and the wall friction
angle.

It’s important to know the characteristics of the product to discharge - and these can be
determined by a shear tester. Once you learn these characteristics, you can calculate the
critical discharge diameter. This is the diameter that the product will risk to arch - and
different diameters can be calculated depending on the bin used.

Find Out The Angle For Mass Flow

Mass flow is imperative if you want a clean, rathole-free flow. The first step is deciding
whether you need a conical hopper shape or a wedge hopped shape - but this depends on the
environment and the material being stored.

In the food industry, conical hoppers are more desirable as they’re easier to clean - but in
many other instances, wedge-shaped hoppers are used as they’re generally bigger. You’ll also
have to determine the type of power feeder at the base and factor this into your operation.
For example, star valves are far more difficult to fit in a wedge-shaped hopper, so this is
something that should be considered.

Feeders
A feeder can help to control the flow of the materials exiting the hopper or silo. Feeders are
also useful as they can dose the solid, and reach another unit while lowering the installation
height.

The feeder should always be sized correctly - if the feeder is too small, the powder can flow
poorly and chaotically and can result in a funnel flow bin instead of a mass flow bin.

A poorly fitted or constructed feeder can be the source of many other issues in the process -
flow being the main one. You should be especially careful with hoppers that have slotted
outlets, as the feeder needs to draw perfectly along the entire cross-section of the outlet.
Although hoppers with slotted outlets carry more risk, hoppers with round outlets can still
have uneven flow if the hopper interface isn’t designed and fitted with exact precision.

The design of the feeder is extremely important - it must be designed to bring the material
out of the entire silo or hopper bin. A good feeder design will have large and steel pipe slopes
to ensure the material flows quickly and efficiently, and will also be able to take the powder
in the whole section of the outlet.

Three main feeders are used in most cases in the industry, and they are:

Butterfly Valves
Butterfly valves are the simplest types of valve positioned on the outlet of a silo. As opposed
to other types of valves, butterfly valves are super hygienic - but they do have a
disadvantage.

Once open, materials can be left in the passing area - and sometimes there can be enough
material to form a new bridge. For very cohesive powders, you may need discharging aids
and even vibrating valves to overcome this.

Screw Feeders
Although screw feeders are effective, it’s important to note that if the powder exits from this
type of feeder unevenly, then structural damage may occur on large silos. If the screw feeder
is placed below an elongated hopper, be sure to use a pitch to keep on taking powder in the
flow direction. If you don’t the screw feeder will fill up pretty quickly and will only be taken
out on one side.

Rotary Valves
Rotary valve feeders need to make sure that there’s a 2 diameter section of pipe between the
hopper and the valve. This is to regulate and improve the flow and to hopefully result in a
better mass flow.

This type of feeder is typically placed under hoppers that have round outlets. When you use a
rotary valve, you must make sure that a short vertical spool is installed between the hopper
outlet and the valve inlet to make sure that the flow pattern is correct.

Discharge Rate
Calculating the discharge rate is imperative if you want to improve your system. There are
two widely used equations to determine this - the Johanson equation and the Berverloo
equation.

Although these two equations can help you to estimate the flow, it’s important to note that
they offer no certain accurate figure.
The Berverloo equation is direct, but for finer particles, you may get an overestimated
discharge rate.

Although many people are skilled in liquids and gases, not many people know the ins and
outs of bulk material handling. Knowing how a hopper or silo design can have an effect on a
materials cohesive strength is imperative for a successful operation, and know knowing this
can result in costly mistakes.

Silos can be as tall as 90ft, and store tonnes and tonnes of bulk material, so it’s never a straight-
forward process getting them cleaned efficiently.

The methods of cleaning can change depending on what’s being stored inside it, as
contamination, moisture, and clumping can all occur if the silo isn’t cleaned properly - which can
lead to material loss.

If you haven’t cleaned your silo in a while, you may notice less material coming out than
expected, or blockages may occur which can put a stop to your whole operation.

Cleaning may cause temporary downtime, but it’s a lot better than your whole operation
suddenly failing.

Keep reading to find out more about why you need to get your silo regularly cleaned, as well as
3 different silo cleaning methods.

Why Do I Need To Clean My Silo?

Silos need regular cleaning not only for hygiene purposes but for safety and to protect the bulk
materials stored.

When bulk materials are stored inside a silo for long periods of time, they can begin to clump
and gather around the sides of the silo. Some silos have preventative measures against this such
as ribbed interiors, but many don’t.

The materials built up around the side of the silo will need to be knocked off and cleaned off the
interior walls - as this won’t be coming out during the emptying process and results in material
loss.

If you notice that less material is coming out than expected, then you know it’s time to get your
silo cleaned.

The built-up materials inside the silo can also change the pressure, which causes off-centre
loading. This can damage your equipment, so it’s best to get it checked on a regular basis.

It’s also a legal requirement to keep your silos maintained to an acceptable standard according to
the Confined Space Regulations Act 1997, which also means you should find a qualified and
component contractor to ensure this for you.

Silos should be cleaned at least once a year, but more frequently for larger operations. It may be
time-saving to get your silo cleaned along with maintenance and servicing, as this will lower any
down-time saving you money.

How Do I Clean My Silo?

Flour Silo
Flour silos and other silos containing powders can be difficult to clean, as the materials tend to
clump together - especially when wet. When the material is clumped together, it’s a lot more
difficult to control and can develop a paste-like consistency.

Rope access tends to be the norm for cleaning flour silos, but this depends on the design. Some
have an opening on the roof, or near the roof, as well as the silo floor, which makes for easier
access for cleaning and servicing.

It’s highly recommended that the silo cleaning team be trained for cleaning in dangerous
conditions and confined spaces, as it can be a dangerous task if not completed correctly.

The cleaning process begins with a dry scrape down of the interior walls and surfaces to remove
any clumped flour or materials stuck on the inside. Then, hot water or steam will be blasted at
the walls with pressure to ensure any residue is removed.

Once the hot water pressure wash has been completed, the silo walls should then be treated with
a food-safe sanitiser.

You should always be careful what products you use on the inside of a silo that stores
consumable products, as many products can be dangerous when ingested.
Grain Silo
Silos should always be emptied as much as possible before the cleaning process begins, and a
brief inspection should be done to gather knowledge of entry points, safety issues, and the
overall structure.

It’s necessary to get silos containing consumable goods cleaned regularly as any residue can
attract insects, bugs, and mould, which can contaminate your grains. Insects and bugs can also
consume the grain, which will both contaminate and destroy your product.

A common method of cleaning silos for grain is by vacuuming the interior to remove any
residual dust.

Once the silo has been vacuumed, you need to check over the floors, flanges and seams have no
dirt or dust. If you do notice any dirty areas, use a clean water wipe and rub them down.

It’s important to thoroughly dry the area after cleaning, as damp can lead to mould which will
contaminate your grains.

Cement Silo
It can be a lot more difficult to clean a cement silo than a silo for powders and grains as cement
can harden around the silo interior. Evaporation and moisture can cause clumping in the silo,
which can lead to clogging issues.

Before you start on the inside of the silo, the silo exterior should be rinsed with water to remove
dust and dirt. If rinsing doesn’t remove all the dirt, then try cleaning tools and agents for a
harsher clean.

Safety should always be considered, so when possible, use equipment that negates the need for
human-entry. CO2 blasting is a great way of removing the clumps of cement on the silo interior
and exterior and minimises the loss of material.

This method can also help to remove blockages in pipes and storage vessels and reach places that
a cleaning team won’t be able to by hand.

Once the silo has been cleaned, it must be dried efficiently. Any damp areas may lead to rusting,
which in time can lead to structural failure.

Conclusion
Cleaning your silo is imperative and can prevent blockages and complete system failure.
Whether you get your silo cleaned when you get it serviced, or you just do it as and when
needed, it’s important for safety and hygiene reasons.
Handling tonnes of bulk materials can be a difficult task, and lots of planning must go into it
to make the process streamlined and efficient. An effective bulk handling system will speed
up the transport of your bulk materials, saving you time and money.

At Croston Engineering, we’ve got decades of experience handling bulk materials and can
help you out every step of the way.

Keep reading to find out what a bulk material handling system is, the various steps of the
process, and what equipment is typically used.

What Is a Bulk Material Handling System?

You need a planned system in place in order to transport bulk materials on a quick and
constant basis. The materials are received from either ships, trains, or trucks, and then
unloaded to a storage facility or a site, most commonly using conveyor systems.

The bulk materials will be deposited into a stockpile, and can then be retrieved by the
stockpile using equipment such as automatic reclaimers or reclaim tunnel hoppers and
feeders. Once reclaimed from the stockpile, the materials will then be transported for
processing at a facility.

It’s important that your bulk material handling system is tailored to your environment and
your requirements, which is where we come in. At Croston Engineering, we have plenty of
experience in this area and can offer our services from start to finish.

Belt Conveyors
Belt conveyors are one of the most used pieces of equipment in bulk material handling.

Different conveyors such as screw or chain conveyors can be used, but belt conveyors tend to
be the most effective as they’re designed for the continuous transport of bulk materials,
which reduces manpower, time, and money.

Belt conveyors consist of a system of belts and pulleys that work together to get the bulk
materials moving. The belt wraps around a pulley located either end of the conveyor.

A pulley is connected to a drive unit which gets the materials moving. There can be more than
one pulley depending on your requirements. The length of a conveyor also depends on your
requirements - it can vary from a few meters to tens of miles.

Belt Conveyor Maintenance

The belt is one of the key components of a belt conveyor, and one of the most expensive.
Unfortunately, belts tend to be exposed to impact, corrosion, and elongation, so it’s
important to work with a belt that can withstand damage.

The belt contains the materials being conveyed and transmits the force to move the load.

Regular maintenance is necessary to keep the belt conveyor functioning quickly and
efficiently. If poorly designed, the system can easily become frail and break under harsh
conditions.

Some components of a conveyor belt have a short life even well maintained properly - for
example, rolling element breakings can only function well for a few months, so it’s important
to get your system serviced on a regular basis so any flawed components can be fixed or
replaced.

The belt should also be cleaned using the appropriate equipment to increase the lifetime of
the system as well as for safety reasons. The feed and discharge points should be a cleaning
priority to increase the longevity of other components such as rollers and idlers.

Belt Conveyor Design

There’s a lot to consider when designing a belt conveyor. Not only does the system need to
withstand the amount of weight you expect to be moving, but other factors such as dust
presence and corrosion need to be considered.

Superior seals should always be used for bearings and other components otherwise damage
is likely to occur. All components should be correctly designed to fit your needs, and if
designed correctly, your bulk materials will be transported with no problems for years.

With a standard conveyor design, a direct-coupled motor gearbox or a parallel-shaft drive

supplies the power which operates the drum. Some designs use a motorized drum, where an
electric motor, bearings, and a gear unit form a complete drive unit inside the pulley drum
shell.

This powers the belt directly and keeps the drum protected from external forces. Motorized
drums can have power of up to 150kw, but this varies depending on your expected load
weight.

The components used in a belt conveyor should be lightweight and compact, but this can
make servicing the components more difficult.

Reclaimer Machines
Once the bulk material has been transported from the ship or truck and transported to the
site (usually using a belt conveyor system), the bulk is usually placed in stockpiles and then
reclaimed when needed.

Stacker and reclaimer machines are used to speed up the stacking and reclaiming process,
which reduces costs as well as manpower.

A boom conveyor is used to reclaim the bulk materials from stockpiles and feed the materials
to silos, bags, and other storage apparatus.

A common method of reclaiming is bucket wheels or rail tracks. Bucket-wheel mechanisms

are usually powered by a motor of variable frequencies that can be adjusted by modifying the
rotational speed of the bucket wheel.
Over-force protection units are used to prevent any overpowering accidents that can halt the
entire process. The bucket mouth is designed using wear-resistance materials as it can
experience severe damage over time.

Tungsten carbide tends to be used, as it’s a structurally rigid material that withstands wear
and tear. The bucket teeth also experience wear, so rigid and strong ferromagnetic materials
are used for this too.

The speed of reclaimer and stacker machines vary depending on the design and your
requirements. The speeds for standard operations can vary from 5 to 12 metres per minute,
but this can increase to 30 metres per minute for larger machines.

The faster the machine, the more unstable the process, so a low speed is encouraged unless
higher power is needed. At Croston Engineering, we can help you determine which design
and speeds will work best for your process.

Silos can store pretty much any bulk materials, from consumable goods like salt, flour, or
grain, to oil, coal, and dust. They can accommodate up to 80 tonnes of bulk material, and it
can be very costly if any of the material is wasted or damaged.

It’s imperative to get your silo serviced at least once a year - but why? Keep reading to find
out why it’s important to regularly service your silo and for information on how silos are
cleaned and maintained.
Why Do Silos Need Servicing?
As well as regular maintenance, your silo should be designed to withstand the elements and
to increase longevity. Preventative maintenance is just as important as scheduled servicing -
maybe more so.

Many things can lead to silo damage, including improper filling and unloading of the silo, and
weak foundations. These issues can go unnoticed if your silo isn’t regularly serviced, which is
why you should get your silo serviced at least once a year.

Proper care and inspection of your silo will increase the life of the silo as well and reduce the
need for repairs.

To Protect Your Materials

Some silos are made using large steel sheets that have ribbing on the inside, which helps to
reduce the build-up of product on the sides of the silo. However, this doesn’t mean that there
won’t be any build-up.

After some time bulk materials will build up and become compacted on the sides of the silo,
which will need to be knocked off during servicing. This clumping can cause blockages and
means less material will in the emptying process, so you’ll be losing material.

It also lowers the predictability of your offloading process and causes off-centre loading,
which can change the amount of pressure on the walls and damage your equipment.

This can all be avoided by getting your silo regularly serviced and keeping a close eye on each
step of the loading and offloading process.

To Identify Issues
Regular maintenance will pick up on issues such as wear, blockages, and structural failures.
It’s a way to pick up on minor issues before they develop into more costly or dangerous
problems.

Even if durable materials are used in the silo design, weather and time can still cause wear on
the silo body. Degradation can show differently depending on the silo’s construction and the
bulk materials stored in it.

Concrete silos may exhibit cracks and crumble, whereas steel silo issues can include the
build-up of material and corrosion.
Once inspections have been completed, you’ll receive results and maintenance will be
performed - which is a lot better than waiting for something to break and having to break the
bank fixing a whole system collapse.

Thankfully, most silo failures don’t occur suddenly - your silo will exhibit signs of distress and
you’ll pick up on these problems and get them serviced. It’s important to catch potential
failures early so they can be quickly addressed with minimal damage.

For Safety Reasons

Silos can be as tall as 90m and as wide as 90ft and can store tonnes of bulk material, so if
there are any structural failures, lives could be at risk.

Regular maintenance can pick up on any potential structural failures, as well as corrosion and
accidental damage. Every silo, whether it be made of steel, fibreglass, or concrete, has a
support structure that will need to be regularly inspected as a safety precaution.

Although there have been no reported fatalities in the UK from a silo failure, that doesn’t
mean that it can't happen. In Europe, there have been cases of loss of life from silo failure,
which could have been prevented with regularly scheduled silo maintenance.

What Needs To Be Serviced?

Your silo should be serviced once a year at least, but professional inspections can be as little
as every 5 years - although it’s not recommended.

Some things that need to be inspected closely include:

Roofs
Roofs are one of the main parts of the silo and work with the silo body to keep the bulk
materials dry and protected. If there are any problems with the roof, leaking can occur which
may lead to contamination, lowering the quality of your product.

Any roof leaks can lead to corrosion on the inside of the silo, as well as the roof beams - which
can cause structural damage.

Flaking on the roof beam pockets can expose the beams and cause the roof to collapse,
which is something that can be avoided by checking this regularly.
Silo Exterior
During in-house or professional inspections, exterior surfaces are always something you
should inspect closely. Look for any cracks on the walls, roofs, and foundations as this is an
indicator of stress.

It’s important to catch these things early before they develop into holes or total wall failure
and collapse - which would be a lot more expensive and damaging than a regular checkup.

You should also look out for any signs of corrosion and rust, as this can lead to silo failure if
left untreated.

Silo Cone
The cone construction and design can hugely affect the performance, and if best practices
and safety precautions are not adhered to, silo cone failure can become a costly problem.

The silo cone inspections should be left to professionals as safety practices need to be
followed.

Silo cone failure can be easily prevented by routine silo servicing. However, silo cone
inspections should be left to professionals as safety practices need to be followed.

The inspector will look for ways that the silo can be improved, as well as the materials used
and the thickness of the silo wall.

Suspended cones are no longer best practice, as this type of silo, unfortunately, has a high
failure rate, and will need more repairs than the new standard. The inspector will recommend
that you update this, and it should be addressed during servicing.

Bulk Material Buildup

The buildup of material is likely to occur if the silo hasn’t been cleaned in a while, or if the interior
doesn’t feature ribbing.
The buildup can lead to clumping, which can cause a skewed flow and unbalanced pressure, potentially
damaging any equipment and losing material.