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cU 1.1 id e..s. 1'f'\r0 .2. O..f' ol-
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u.r-. f-i t oo...t u r, re...s~ so fV\ e
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) ~c.. 1 1\. ~:;r ~ CJ c;, 1 - N IN ORGANISMS

1.1 Asexual
Reproduction
Each and eve:ry organism can live only for a cerlairt period
1.2 Sexual of time The ~ <N fr..QJll~~ att..u:aLdeath of an
Reproduction o.E_ganism represents its _ ljf_ u an. Life spans of a few
organisms are given in Figure 1.1. Several other organisms
are drawn for which you should find out their UJe ·spans
and write in the spaces provided. Examine the life spans
of organisms represented in the Figure 1.1. Isn't it both ·
interesting and intriguing to note that it may be as short
as a few days or as long as a few thousand years? Between
these two extremes are the life spans of most other living
organisms. You may note that life sp~ s of organisms are
not necessarily .correlated
. with their sizes;. the sizes
/ of
crows apd parrots are not ve:ry different yet their life spans
show a wide difforence. Smillarly:, a mango tree nas--a much •
shorter life span as compared to a p_eepal. tree. Whatever
be the life sp-Oeath of every individual organism is a •
_£,ertaintY. i.e. , n_g individual is immortal, expe~t single-~ l).e_sl
organisms. Why do we say there is ·no natural .death .
in
single-celled organisms? Given this reality, have you ever
wondered how vast number of plant and animal species
have existed on earth for several thousands of years? There
must be·some processes in living organisms that ensure
this continuity. Yes, we are talking about reproduction,
something that we take for granted. ·
 I \'I
;)
Ill BIOLOGy
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS
Reproduction is defined as a biological process in which an
organism gjye~se to young ones (offsprtng) similar to itself. '.[he q_ffsprtn~
grow, ma ture 8¥£! in tum produce new offspring.,Thus , there is a cycle
of birth, growth and death. Reproduction enables the continuity of Lhe
~ecies. generation after generation. You will study later in Cha pter 5

{~ - -•
(Principles of Inheritance and Variation) how genetic variation is created
and inherited during reproduction.
There is aJJll'ge-diversity inJli'e bfologlcaLworld and.each organism
has evolve_d its O\lffi me_chanism to multiply anJ! produce offspring.
Rose ( 1 f 'd l' · (f~ i ~ o ~·
Elephant(~) are collectively responsible for how it reproduces. Based on whether
n
t~ ip~ i~ in the· process of
- ''1 reproduction , it is of two types fivhen offspdog is produced by a s ingle
parent with or ,withou llieinvolvemen t of amete formation , the
Nucleu s
·
reproduction is aselCWll. WheE._!wo parents (opppslte sex) participat~l.r)
t h ~ e I!fQl;ess and ~o invelve fusio_g__ of male and Female
Crow ( ~ gametes, It is called selCWll reproduction~ -
Butter fly (11-2 weeks
Dog ( '2. ,; C(~ ' 1.1 AsEXUAL REPRODUCTION 19 • T>lhJ,- b W CµQ9 en ,a..t0_,./on o, r,Cf II i, o.c.o grvt e n10J-io,?
In this method, a single indiVid u al (pa rent) is capable of producing
offspring. As a r esult . the offs pring that a r e produced a r e not onll
id entica} to one·a nother but are ·al so exac l copies of th e,iJ: pa re n t?
!
Q
1i:tJ\
A re t hese o s r ing like ly to be genetically identical or d iffe rent?
]lie ~term clone is used to describe s u ch morphologically '/{!Q-
genetically similar individuals . .
C
Banana tree ( :15 4' · Cow( i&~r
·-,-
rs-_
Crocodile ~

~ _11
1)1h
.~.:-,,-,,
Horse ~
Fruit fly !{i t--t j
Daughter
cells ·
Parent cell
.r: .•-
(
(a) (bl
1( Figure 1.2 Cell., d.J.x.lslon in unicellul.a r _organis m : G) ffi11ddjn g 1!!,
~ (jg) Binary fission in Al1l()eba
I Let us see how Widespread asexual reproduction is, among different
groups of organis m s . 'i sexu a l reproduction is commo n
Tortois~ (l00-150 yeari)J . . s\_;Igle-cell~ J J -jsm~.:_~ ~~~th_relati\;W ~irRP~,_
organisation~. In Protists and Monerans , th e organism or t e p aren t
cell divides into two to give ris~ to new individu als (Figure 1.2) . J:hus,.
Figure L 1·Approximate life spans of some organisms in these....Qigam_srns cell division_Js it self a mode of r eproduction.
'' "
-. :c::--- ..._
 \11
\'I
.;) REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS (~
Contda
Germlnating
Eye Buds
j
(al
'
J\dycollllnus
(b) fiQQ.L__
(al ..BwlL
(e)
(c) . (d) I
(d)
(cl
Figure 1.4 Vegetative propagules in 'angiosperms: ( ~ s of potato; ~ me of__glnger;
Flgurel.3 Asexual reproductive structures: ~Zoospores of Chiamydomonas; (bl-"°C'onidia of ~ulbil of Agave; ~ af buds of BryophyUwn.~set of water hya~
Pentcilliwn; iis:H<uds In Hydra; ~mmules In sponge ,
Members of the Kingdom Fungi and simple plants such as algae
Many single-celled organisl!ls r~produce by binai : y ~ . whe~ reproduce through special asexual reproductive-structures (Figure 1.3).
cell divides into two halves and·each rapidly grows Into an adult (e.g., The most comn'lon ofthese~structure's, are koo1;pore~ that usually are
G · ~- .-;Amoebaifarameciumi 1r{yeast] the .di\dsion Is unequal and small microscopic motile- structures. Other common asexual reproductive
buds are produced that remain attached initially to t~parent cell structures are conidia (Penicillium), buds (Hydra) and gemmules (sponge) .
which , eventually gets separa and matu.re into new yeast You have learnt about vegetative reproduction in plants in Class XI. -
b~r ·,
/'"'~-~---'' '

organisms (cells). Unde u avqurable condition!he Amoeba withdraws

its pseudopodia and secretes a three-layereg hard covering or cyst
around itself. This phenomenon l$ termed as encystation. Whert

What do you think - Is vegetative reproduction also a type of asexual

reproduction? Why do you say so?·Is the term clone applicable to the
offspring formed by vegetative reproduction?
favour ditlons return, the encysted Amoeba divides $ WJ 11t!aje While in animals and other simple organisms the term asexual is used
unambiguously, in plants~ e term vegetative reproduction is.frequenUy;
fission and roduces many minute amoeba or pseudopodlosj!O~
used. In plants, the units of vegetative propagation such as runner,
the cyst wall bursts out. and the spores are·liberated In the surrounding
rhizome, sucker, tuber, offset, bulb are all capable of giving rise to new
medium to grow up into many amoebae. This phenomenon~
known as •sporulation. · offspring (Figure 1.4). These sl!:Uc.wr.e s ~ d,.!qgeta~ve pr o p ~*
-'1 f Mt Q,..\ \- IV' n ti) 0 b t' o;' () Q..to (H' is -( 0 V'-
V @~er o.+iv e. <µJL p Q..(o ctuc+-io(\ -
 ;J . f these structures does not Involve tw

BIOLOGy
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS
• i Q~ g r,,t. U \ t Cl.. H O I\ 'S Obviously. since the forrnatiOn °
1 disaseXU ·
al In some organisms. if the b do and physiology. when It comes to sexua l mode of reprodu ction.
parents. U1e process tnvo ve m nts) each fragment_grows into a surprisingly. tiley share a similar pattern. Let us first discuss what features
r C C' I clNt t n.,l
f l C.. r/ C f' Jl[U -10 1'
o r, cl
,c;
breaks Into distinct pi~ -: t:; [ig Hydnp . This is a lso
adult capable of producing offspnng e. ·· 1
n
mode
a are common to these diverse organ.isms.
f ae:lllentat on. All organ.isms have to reach a certain stage of growth and matu~ In
' Wt0 t1 gt,. ;LL , ec.( of asexual rem:.o.duc..tlon cal 1ed r . - the!~ llfe.~ t h e y can reproduce sexually~ Thatperiod of growth- I§
nc co ~ 1{(r~~ .
You
, must have .heard
b
t the scourge of the water bodies or about
. .a outhing but the aquatic pIan t •water hyacinth'
called the tuvenlle ph11c g is known as vegetative phase tn\ plants. !
;rhls phase Is of variable dura tions In different organ.tsws.
*
the ·terror of Ben,Ml . This 1s no . -
which Is one of tile most.111vasive weeds fou nd growing wherever theru s The end of~ ~ which marks the beginning of
• f tile water. w c ea s to ea 0 f the reproductive phase can be seen easily In the higher plants when they
standing water. It drains oxyl(en 11:0~ d 14
fi~s. You will le ~ Chapters 13 an . . ou may find come to flower. How long does it take f or marigold/ rice I wheat/ coconut/
1nd1
iITriterestin to know tilat this plant w . introduced .in a because of mango plants to come to flow er? In some !ants, where owerin occurs~
I beautiful flowers d ia e ofleave .. Si.nc"e it can propagate vegetatively rrwre than once, what would you call t inter-{lowerinq period - /uvenll
R ecuon ++,a_,- Wh<J 1-h(l ita phenomenamte and spread all over the water body In a short period or mature?
0 0 Observe a few trees in your area. Do they flower during the same
o..A-U f\V CUI I V €. of time. it is very difficult to getnd off th~
f
Are you aware how plants like potato. sugarcane, banana, ginger, month year after year? Why do you think the availability of fruits like
o.n d. ccuue dahlia are cultivated? e~ mall plants emer in from the mango. apple,jackfrult, etc., ls seasonal? Are there some plants that flower
buds called e es of tile otato tuber from tile hizomes of banan and throughout the year and some others that show seasonal flowering?
h O..Uoc ?
Plants- the annual and biennial types. show clear cut vegetative,
,rgin e When you carefully try to deterrntne tile site of origin of _the new
p an ets tn tile plants listed above. you will notice that theyfitablr" r~productiveand senescentpha~s.
arise from t i l ~ P!esent in ilie modified stems of these plants. When ~ s. A-few plants exhibit unusual
tile nodes come in con tact wttil damp soil or w~ter, tl:!_ey P!:._Oduce roots flowering phenomenon; some of s bamboo s ecies flower a
and new plan~ Sinlilarlv{ adventitious bud~se from t h e ~ once in their life time, enerall aft r 50-100 ear roduce large number
present at margins ofleaves of Bryophyllum JWs ability Is fully exploited of fruits and die. Anotherllmt Strobilant/:lus kunthiana (neelakuranjl),
by gardeners and farmers for commercial propagation of such plants. flowers o;:;;;~ 12 years~As many of you would know. this plant flowered
It Is interesting to note iliat asexual reproduction Is the common method durlng~ptember-October 2006. Its mass flowering transformed large
tracks of hilly areas in Kerala. Kamataka and Tarn.ii l'ladu Into blue
of reproduction in organisms iliat have a relatively sinlple organ.tsation,
like algae and fungi and iliat iliey shifl to sexual method of reproduction stretches and attracted a large number of tourists. In an.tmafs, the ~ e
Just belore the onset of adverse conditions. Find out how sexual phase is followed by morphological and physiological changes· prior to
reproduction enables these organisms to survive during urifavourable active reproductive behaviour. The reproductive,phase.is also of variable
conditions? Why is sexual reproduction favoured under such conditions? duration In different organ.isms.
~ exual (vegetative) as well ~ al~ des of reprnduction are exhibited Can you list .the changes seen in human beings that are indicative
by tile higher plants. On the oilier hand, o~ y sexual mode of reproduction of reproductive maturity? -
Among an.imals. for exan1ple birds. do they lay eggs all through the
~ present in mJ)_st of ili~ ~ s .
I Q, Q OU, +{) e() etiCQ..J,.{J year? Or Is it a seasonal phenomenon? What about other animals like
1.2 SEXUAL REPRODUctION rJ. ,' H . ,' lf\QJ. t v t'S:-~ · frogs and lizards? You will notice that, birds living in naturelay eggs only
seasonally. However, birds in captivi!:y (as in poultry farms) can be made
~xual reproduction Involves formation of the male and female gametes,
-
t§lay eg,gs throughout thuar! In this case. laying eggs is not related to
either by the same md.ividual or by differenflndividuals of the opposite reproduction but is a commercial exploitation for human welfare. The
These gametes fuse to form tile zygote which develops to form the
" ·"·, .. 8 new organism. It is an,elaborate, com lex and slow process as compared
females of placental mammals exhibit cyclical changes In the activities of
ovaries and accessory ducts as well as hormones during the reproductive
t9 asexual reprodu~. Because of the fusion of male an fi al phase/Jg non-primate mammali ~ e ~.-~u.c;.1 :~s,.!1~ 1 -QS>g~: ·
~ ~gst iliemsellles. - iiiiili=:...: tt
~ al reproduction results in offspring iliat ari(! tld ... em e gametes,
- no entlcal the pare~ etc .. such cyclical_changes duripg.!eproduction are called oestrus cycle
where as irJ. ~monkt,Ys. @es, and humans)_it is called menstrual
A study of diverse organisms- Ian .
tilough tiley differ so greatly in ext: malts, animals or fungi-show that !:!Cle. Many mammals. especially those living in natural. wild cond.i~
morphology, internal structure exhibit such cycles only during favourable seasons In their reproductive
 11..//~1 phase and are thei:,ef~

ra WQ.{a.!
If'
u;Ji I ol
concJ. ,"t (on
season . reede~ - '.111Y other m

81
0LoG~
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS

\•1
l~
d ti ely active thfoug out their re r ductive~ < l l s In s ome algae the two gametes are so sl~ n3 _peai:fil!SS
are repro UC V ~ - - dhen
are called continuous breeders ._ . that It is not possible to categorise them Into male and female gametes .
- 'fhatwe all grow old 1fi we live long enoug!Y, is something th They are ..hencer called ho111Qgame~ (is_og!lJ]letes) (Figu re l.5a).
recognise. But what is meant by growing old'1_The en<:!_ C!!,!;eproctu~t We However, in a majority of sexually..reproducing or an.Isms the ametes
phase can be con5.idereda@of the parameters of senesce~~ produced are of two mo holo call dlstlnct es (heterogametee) In
There are concomitant changes in the body (like s ~ such organisms the male g_amete is called the antherozold or sperm
metabolism. etc.) during this last phase ofilfe span. Old age~ of . and the female gamete is called the egs cii:,oVllDl (Figure 1.5 b, c).
leads lo death. -~ _ e!y seruallty in organisms: Sexual reproduction in organisms generally
In both e§rt3 and ~ e r ~ e for., tnvolves the fusion of gametes from two different individuals. But this
t(ansitions between the three phases. Interaction b e t w ~ e ts not always true. · From your recollection of examples studied in
""-==~:::::.:.:.::.:~:.;.;.:;_..__:..---,,-,-:--.:: ~d
ce_rtain enwonmental faetors regulate the repro u ctive processe~
--J!§ filld
Class ~ o u identify cases wher~ se!{Je,:ttltsation-is observed? Of
the associated behavioural~ressions of organisms. . course cltin uch examples in plants is eaSX,;J -+' If*
Events in sexual reproduction : After attainffient of maturity, all sexu Plants may have both male and female reproductive structures In the
re.E_J"Oducing organj5ms exhibit Pveots aod processes that have re ~ same plant (bisexual) (Figure 1.6 c, e) or on different plants (unlsexual)
fundamental similarity. even though the structures associated With sexu le (Figure l.6d) . In several fungi and plants teuns such as homothalllc
reproduction are indeed very different. The events-of sexual rep~odu al ~nd monguious ~e used to denote the bisexual condition and
though elaborate and complex, follow a regular sequence.lse~~-~ heterothalllc and dioeclo111 are the terms used to describe unlsexual
reprod_u_c_tio~~~ cterised by the fusion (or fertilisation) of t h e ~ ~onditlon. In ~ g plants ~the u ~ male-flower is staminate,
female_gametes, the fom@tion ofzygote and embryogenesis. For con-v·e-m· · • I.e., bearing stamens, wW!e the female ls pistillate or bearing pistils. In
- -- • - ence
these sequential events may be grouped into three distinct stages namely some flowering plants, both male and female flowers may be present on
the i--fertilisation, and the ~ t-fertilisation events. ' the same individu (monoeclous) or on s~ate individuals (dloeclous).
Some examples o monoeclous plants ar~ cucurblts ancCcoconuts and of
1.2.1 Pre-fertilisation Events dloecious plantl> ~ e papaya arid datepalm:. Name the type of gametes
that are formed in staminate and pistillate flowers.
These include all the events of sexual reproduction prior to the·fu s1on
• of
But what about animals? Are indlviduals of all species either male or
gametes. The two main pre-fertilisation events are gametogenesis
gamete transfer. ===::!!:~ and female (unisexual)? Or are there species which possess both the
reproductive orgaris (bisexual)? You p robably can make a list
1.2.1.1 Gametogenesis of sever~ untsexual animal species.~worms, (F,igure 1.6 a)li"onge,
As you are already aware. gametogenesis refers l:O the process of formation tapeworm and leech, typic&~~!e~ lsexual animals that possess
of th~ ~ typ~ of g~ etes :: m_~d female. Gametes are hapi-;;;ct cells. both ~ d female reproductive organs, are hermaphrodites .
~ h (Figure 1.6b) is an example of a unisexual species.
Cell divisl!)n d ~ gamete formation : Gametes in all heterogametic
.. ,.:· _=-..: ," .. species are of two types namely, maJ.e and female. Game_tes are haploid
though the parent plant body from which they arise may_ be either haploid
.:·-.. '·.i:o'··..·.::·f.:-::--.
or diploid. A haploid paren~proftl!~~_&~etes by mitotic di.visl2.,n . Does
·.:·,: ,:.. " _-:_::.: ·,/
I
this mean that meiosis never occurs in organisms that ·are h'aploid?
....... . ..·•
'• • · ·
Carefully examine the flow charts of life cycles of algae that you have 11
,-_. '• 10 ,, studied in Class XI (Chapter 3) to get a suitable answer.
I,. * \;~~; Several organisms belonging to fungi, &gae and bzyophytes
have haploid plant body, but in organisms belonging to pteridophytes,
(a) (b) (c) gymnosperms, ang!psperms and__most of tbe apima)s JocludJog bu roan
Figure 1.5 Types of gametes:~ogametes of Cladophora (an alga);@ Heterogametes ·of b<;ings, th1,; ~eqtal t>ow,ts diploid. It is obvious that mei~is. the reduction
Fw:;us (an al@]: €)!eterogametes ofJ{omo saptens (Human beings) division, hal> o~cur if a diploid body has to p,roduce haploid gametes.
ff~ \'I
J
BIOLOQy
\• .
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS
Table 1.1: Numbers in Meiocytee (diploid, 2n) and
(~
Clitellum -
(haploid, n) of Some
-- -
Fill in the Blanlr.
l t
J Testis sac
,viIJi'"lesUs
Male
1
I
Name~ f
Human beings

Chromosome number
in melocyte (2n)
46

Chromosome number
ln gamete (n)
23
I
I House fly 12
.
Testts
' I
I
Rat
Dog
4-~
78'
21
-
Cat SB
I 19
(a) I Fruit fly
i
I Ophioglossum ka f e m/ I •~o 630
p r o n onol roc.u I Apple 34'
I Rice 12
n u e1.t.,1.. 1'1.
I Maize 20
4,,.£
Potato
Female I 24
-~
s_ohlu~
I
e sex ori(an) Butterfly 380
I
aoe,-v, hQ.u o ! · Onion 16 8
~CK(?i<,.oC
Ovary
In diploid organisms. specialised cells calledlmeiocytes \gamete mother
cell) undergo meiosis. At the end of m eiosis, only one set of chromosom es
gets ~ or ated into each g&D1ete . Carefully study Table 1. 1 and fill In
the diploid and haploid chromosome numbers of organisms. Is there any
relationship in the number of chromosomes of meiDcytes and gametes?
. -l, -1.- .
/ ' 1.2.1.2 Gamete Transfer :;!n.. n.
After their forma tion, male and female gametes must be physically
brought together to facilitate fusion (fertilisation). Have you ever
wondered how the gametes meet? Jn_a majority of organisms, male
gamete Is motile and the female gamete is stationary ...Exceptions are a
few fu ngi and alga<;; in which both ·types of gametes are motile
(Figurel.7a) . There is a need for a medium through which the male
Female thallus Male thallus gametes move. In several simple plants like algae , , b ryophytes and
(d)
pteridophytes, water is the medium throu_g~ hich this gamete transfer
~ s place , A large number of the male gametes, however, fail to reach
Figure 1.6 Diversity of sexu ality in organtsms /1:i\ Bisexual animal (Earthworm) ;@ Unlsexual the female gametes. To compensate .this loss of male gametes during
animal (!;ockroach) ; @Monoeclous );t"ant (Chara); <@!) Dloeclous plant. (.Marchantia); transport, the number of male gametes produced is several thousand
@Bi.:,exual flower (sweet potato)
times the number of female gametes produced.
f\tl~=•.;.
i.:,,~.~
~<;:,_·'-a
~r.: ~•:.:
l _;;\'I BIOLOGy
¥f,·:i
1
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS
1~·--· In seed olants, pollen
- grains are the. carriers of m~
~,t;f:...J;•;
1z::-:J1~ gametes and~ ule.J!_ave the egg, P~ In many terrestrial organisms, belonging to fungi, higher animals such J>'
I
8
..::;• produced in anthers therefore. have to be transfe
as re0,!!.es, birds , mammals and.Jr, a majority of plants (bryophytes. ll-
/#f
to the stigma before it can. lead
til .
rred
to fertili sation (Figure
ptertdophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms), syngamy occurs Inside
J. 7b). In bisexual, selHer tsmg p1ants, e.g. ea the body of the organism,.hence the.process Is called internal fertilisation.
~:;·.\~ transfer of pollen grains to the stigma ls relative~ In all these organisms, egg ls formed inside the female body where they
t.i~;
:,.i-~
Fusion of
gametes
Zygote New
individual

as anthers and stigma are located close to each Oth er•

pollen grains soon after they are shed, come • In contact'
with the stigma. But In cross pollina ting pla
fa)
(includlngdioectous plants). a specialised event canf\!§
pollination facilitate~sfer of pollen grains ~
~Pollen grains gennlnate on the stigma and the
pollen tubes cany1ng the male gametes reach the OVUie
and discharge male gametes near the egg. In dioecious
animals, since male and female gametes are formed In .
different individuals, the organism must evolve a
special mechanism for gamete transfer. Successful
:I transfer and coming together of gametes Is essent1 1
for the most critical event in sexual~ prod uction, tha
fertilisation.
1.2.2 Fertilisation -k
ThfmosLvital event orlsexual reproduction is perhaps
the fusion of gametes. This process called syngamy
results in-the formation of a diploid zygote. The term
fertilisation is also often used for this process. The
1..·11 terms syngamy and fertilisation are frequently used
(b) though , interchangeably. . in Class XI) . zygote divides by meiosis to form haploid spores that grow
What would happen if syngamy does not occur?
Figure 1. 7 (a) Homogametlc ?ontact in However, it has to be mentioned here that in some
alga; (b) Germinating pollen . Ilk tlli h neybees and even som e lizards
grams on the stigma of a flower orgarusms e,~ro!:'.!.!!~ers
~ , ~o~ - =~ ==s=:.=..::;=;-==
and . birds (turkey), th~e female gamete undergoi:.s
development to -form n ew organisms without fertilisation . This
I
plienolllenori is called parthenogenesis.
Where does syngamy occur? In most aquatic organisms, such as a
maJQctty of algae and fishes as well as amphibians, syngamy occl!lTs in
the external medium (water),J.e., oµtslde the body of the organism. This
I 14 type of gametic fusion is called external fertillsation.@ rganisms
,,.,,JJ ~ biting extel}'!al fertilisation show g!"_ea!l,ynchrony between the sexes
~_Iel~e a Jarge_..Q_u mbe! of g~ _ ! n to the surrounctwg_medium
1'
(water) in order to enhance the c~ces ofsyng~ This happens In the
~ o g s where a large number of offspring are produced. A
maor disadvantage~s
predators threatening their s urvival. up to adulthood.
'
Y fuse with the male gamete. In organisms exhibiting internal fertlllsatlon,
the male gamete 1s mo We and has to reach the egg in order to fuse wtth It.
In these even though the number of sperms produced ls very large. there
l:
is a significant reduction in the number of eggs produced. In seed.plants,
however, the non-motile male gametes are carried to female gamete by
e2!1en tuby . 7-
1.2.3 Post-fertilisation Events
.
Events in sexual reprodu ction after the formation of zygote are called
P.o st-fertillsation event11.
J .2.3.1. The Zygote
Formation of the diploid zygote i~ unlversaljn all sexuallyrepr,oducing
_e_
organisms. In organisms with external fertilisation, zygote ls formed in
the external medium (usually water) , whereas in those exhibiting internal
fertilisation, zygote is formed inside the body of the organism.
Further development of the zygote depends on the type cif life cycle
!Ir
the organism has and the environment It is exposed to. In organisms
belonging to fungi and algae: ~ develops a thick wall that Is resistant,"
II
to dessication _and damage . It undergoes a period of rest before
germination. In organisms with haplontic life._c~e (As you have read
into haploid individuals. Consult your Class XI book and.find out what
kind of development talces place in the zygote in organisms with diplontic
and haplo-diplontic life cycles.
fgygote l_s the vital link t~at ensures continuity of species
between organisms· of one generation· and the next. Every sexually
~rep~oduclng organism, including human beings begin life as a single
cell-the ~ote. --
, 1.2.3.2 Embryogenesis
•
Embryogenesis refers to the process of develo ment ~ from the
~ . During embryogenesis,a gote_undergoes ell divisio · · 1
and cell differentiation·:While cell divisions increase the number of cells
in the developing embryo; cell differentiatiop. helps groups of cell~~
undergo certain modlfica~_o~j:o fo~ spec~allsed tissues and organs to
form an org~ You have studied about the process of cell division
and differentiation in the previous class.
 \'I 10 ie. ,;- 1,,o w f'
' I
<,'
_;) Mimals are categorised into ,!!J!!!!!l'' and ,!vi-.., b •
BIOLo r
'"'°'"'" 0
" '
0
""'" I OS ons '" '-"

0 (\(}.
d :,' wh,thec lho dorelopmo>t of tho zygot, rak~ pl,re ou~ld, th/'" o, w b~ 6 , oc<o o. ""
lhof=al<P"'"' °' mside, 1.,.. wholh_" ti" l•YfortiliSOO/m,r,body , 1
'J~(,, ( ~·,
terre strial species of angiosperms, structures such as ru 'i .,C1ua ou Mcu v 0- 1 o., M , 0. , /39 c1fl'.] (I I
G<",t I
eggs or give birth to young ones. n oVJ arous unals like re . rtiUsed rhizomes, suckers, tubers, offset!!, etc~ are capable of gMng cvu.. ~ - ,r,
rOMC\.1
c.u //'lic-0 SP (Yl ll
if)
new offspring. This method of asexual reproduction ls ge 0 '-" /VICX.,'fl Ot-l o,,1 ct,,.o cf
~ - the ~Used e~ c~ hard ~car~ous sh~ s and referred lo as vegetative propagation. . .
I
'\, ' safe place in the environment; l:.e:nod oT mcubation yo.l.Ul d0In & Sexual reproduction Involves the formation and fusion of g, Cl i t e•I -f L<..o t
e Ol f 11 '.!: ()( (C'/'1 •
'v hatch,9.ut. On the other hand. viViparous animals (majplity of rn g .tles It ls a complex and slower process as compared to asexual reproc if i- l' <!II'. 0. (' ct S C ,' ()('1 (ll t
6
Most of the higher antmals reproduce almost entirely by sexual r
including human beings), the zygote develops into a young on~aJs Events of sexual reproduction may be categorised Into pre-fertil LL.3 e.cl io~t q ewfii'r,Q •
~ e body of the female organism~er attaining a certain stage 0 ~ fertilisation and post-fertilisation events. Pre-fertilisation events
the young ones are delivered out of the b_ody of the female or growth, gametogenesls and gamete tra nsfer while post-fertilisation
include the formation of zygote and embryogenesls.
Because of proper embryonic care and protection, the chances of ganisll!.
Organisms may •be bisexual or unlsexual. Sexuality In pl
~f young ones is greater in viviparous organisms.. _.§_U~ varied, partlcular~losperms, due to the production of diverse
~ floweling_pl_filltS, the '!:JJote is fo:°1~nside the ovu.Je t es flowers . ~ are defined as monoectous and dloeclou s.
ertihsation the sepals, etals and stamens of the flower • ....;.... After Flowers may be bisexual or unlsexual flowers. - -- -
u,
& l? r Q n e cCtJ.L.farr- off. Can you name a plant in which the se als remain attache d fall
etes are haploid In nature and usually a dlrect product of meiotic
c!Mslon except in haploid organisms where gametes are formed by mitosis.
Eg :- 5 f\J QJ. o " cL ti! however. remainE ttached to the plant. The zygote develo :111e0 Transfer of male gametes ts an essential event in sexual reproduction.
the embryo and the ovules develop into the seed. The ovary devel: '.11t It Js relatively easy In bisexual organisms. In unlsexual antmals tt occurs
the fruit which develops a thick wall called pericarp that is p t p~ mto by copulatioI) or simultaneous release. In angiosperms, a special process
P ci.r .s,·s +en IQ fun ti (Fi ro ective · called pollination ensures transfer of pollen grains which cany the pollen
·gure 1.8). After dispersal, seeds germinate under f _ m
s
c.~>'- conditions to produce new plants. avourable
grains to the stigma.
Syngamy [fertilisation) occurs between the male and female gametes.
Syngamy may occur either externally, outside the body of organisms or
s internally, inside the body. Syngamy leads to formation of a speclaUsed
cell called zygote."
The process of development of embryo from the zygote Is called
s embryogenests. In antmals, the zygote starts developing soon after Its
p s :~ .• _ ·_.··. p formation. Animals may be etthei;, oviparous or viviparous. Embryonal
p protection and care are better In viviparous organisms.
: In flowering plants, after fertilisation, ovary develops Into fruit and
ovules mature Into seeds. Inside the mature seed is the progenitor of
the next genera,tion, the embryo.
i
Fig~e 1.8 A few kinds of fruit showing seeds [~) and
protective pertcarp [Pl_
; SUMMARY
l EXERCISES
Reproduction enables a species to live generation after generation. 1. Why Is reproduction ·essential for organisms?
Reproduction In organisms can be broadly classified into asexual and
;
2. Whicli Is a better mode of reproduction: sexual or asexual? Why?
sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction does not Involve the fusion
3. Why ls the offspring formed by asexual reproduction referred to as clone?
[m
of gametes. It is common In organisms that have a relatively simple ""'l
0 organisation such as the fungi, algae and some Invertebrate animals. 4. Offspring formed due to sexual reproduction have better chances of
16 /The offspring formed by asexual reproduction are Identical and can be
1~·1=
•
survival. Why? Is this statement always true?
I
!!!!!! referred to as olones. Zoospores, co~idia, etc., are the most common
asexual structures formed in several algae and fungi. Budding 5. How does the progeny formed from asexual reproduction differ . from
and gemmule formation are the common asexual methods seen In those formed by sexual reproduction?
lower animals.
6. Distinguish between asexual and sexual reproduction. Why Is vegetative
Prokaryotes and unicellular organisms reproduce a sexually by reproduction also considered as a type of asexual reproduction?
cell division or l binary fission of the parent cell. In several aquatic and
t'