ED-201: Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

UNIT 5, No. 2

There are two important types of motivation theory: CONTENT THEORY and
PROCESS THEORY. Content models of motivation focus on what people need in their lives
(i.e. what motivates them). Process theories look at the psychological and behavioral processes
that affect an individual’s motivation (Twowp, 2021). Process theories explain how people are
motivated. They are concerned with the process by which motivation occurs, and how we can
adjust our processes to alter motivation levels.

PROCESS THEORIES

Process theories of motivation focus on the “hows” of motivation. Instead of focusing on

what people need, these models focus on the psychological and behavioral processes that humans
follow. By understanding these processes it’s possible to understand the actions, interactions, and
contexts that motivate individuals’ behaviors.

Process theories view motivation as a rational process. Individuals analyze their

environment, develop thoughts and feelings, and react in certain ways. Process theories attempt
to explain the thought processes of individuals who demonstrate motivated behavior.

Process theories of motivation try to explain why behaviors are initiated. These theories
focus on the mechanism by which we choose a target and the effort we exert to “hit” the target.

FOUR MAJOR PROCESS-BASED THEORIES

A. REINFORCEMENT THEORY

● Developed by Burrhus Frederic Skinner or B.F. Skinner along with his associates. It
states that behavior is a function of its consequences—an individual will repeat behavior
that led to positive outcomes and avoid behavior that has had negative effects. This
phenomenon is also known as the ‘law effect’.
● Reinforcement Theory tries to explain what motivates good and bad behavior in the
workplace. It also gives us a mechanism to influence the behavior of our team using what
the theory refers to as reinforcement, punishment, or extinction.
 ● Reinforcement Theory argues that the internal needs of individuals can be ignored when
you are trying to motivate them to behave a certain way. It assumes that people learn to
change their behavior based on what happens to them from exhibiting a certain behavior.

According to Reinforcement Theory, there are four factors involved in influencing motivation:
a. Positive reinforcement: a reward you give
when the desired behavior is exhibited.
Positive reinforcement encourages
individuals to continue to exhibit this
desirable behavior. Examples of positive
reinforcement rewards include financial
bonuses, praise, and time off in lieu,
amongst others.

b. Negative reinforcement: also uses reward,

a reward you provide by removing
something negative from the environment.

c. Punishment: this is when you use the

threat of negative consequences to stop undesirable behavior. Don’t confuse punishment
with negative reinforcement. Punishment is giving something negative, whereas negative
reinforcement is the taking away of something negative.

d. Extinction: refers to stopping someone’s learned behavior. You can extinguish a behavior
by withholding the positive reinforcement that led to that behavior in the first place.

B. EXPECTANCY THEORY

● Developed by Victor Harold Vroom. It states that a person behaves the way they do
because they are motivated to select that behavior ahead of others because of what they
expect the result of that behavior to be.
● The theory is based on the assumption that our behavior is based on making a conscious
choice from a set of possible alternative behaviors. According to the Expectancy Theory,
the behavior we choose will always be the one that maximizes our pleasure and
minimizes our pain.
● This means that individuals will only choose the right behavior (to work hard) if they
perceive the outcome of choosing this option is the most desirable for them. In simple
terms, that could mean that they might gain something or that they might not lose
something.
Within the theory, three variables at play must be present to motivate individuals effectively.
These are:

a. Expectancy: is the belief that if you

work hard (effort) you will be able to
hit the targets (performance) that have
been set for you.

b. Instrumentality: In this variable, you’re

assessing how likely you are to receive
a reward if you hit the targets that have
been set for you. It is the belief that the
reward you receive depends on your
performance.

c. Valence: Valence is simply the perceived value of the reward to you. It is the importance
you place on the expected outcome of your performance. This often depends on your
individual needs, goals, values, and sources of motivation.

Expectancy Theory can help us to understand how individual team members make decisions
about behavioral alternatives in the workplace. It gives us the idea that:
● Rewards must be linked directly to performance.
● How a person’s reward is chosen should be transparent.
● Rewards should be deserved.

C. GOAL SETTING THEORY

● Developed by Edwin A. Locke. The theory is based on research showing that with the
right goals you can increase both productivity and motivation.
● This theory suggests that when you set specific and challenging goals, and receive regular
feedback on your progress, then your productivity and motivation will increase.
● As well as showing the types of goals that can increase motivation, this theory also
showed how not to set goals. It believes that setting unspecific and vague goals failed to
increase motivation.

Why Goal Setting Increases Productivity?

There are many reasons why goals increase productivity, including:

● Goals keep you focused on what’s important. When you get sidetracked you quickly
realize that the distraction isn’t moving you towards your goals.
 ● Goals make you more persistent. It’s natural to have days where you’re super motivated
and other days where things aren’t going so well. Having goals that you’re committed to
can give you the determination to push through difficult times.
● Goals help you rise to the challenge. If you’re committed to achieving them, then
stretch goals can help you to achieve more than you thought possible.

5 Principles of Goal Setting

To be motivating and increase productivity, goals need to have the following 5 characteristics:

1. Clarity. To be motivating goals need to

be clear. When a goal is clear it’s easy to
understand exactly what you need to
achieve. It’s not open to debate or
interpretation.

2. Challenge. To be motivating goals need

to be challenging, but not too
challenging. A goal that is too easy to
achieve won’t motivate you to up your
game and increase your performance.
Similarly, a goal that you perceive as way beyond your capability won’t motivate you
either. It may demotivate you. For a goal to motivate it must hit the sweet spot between
challenging you and not over challenging you.

3. Commitment. For a goal to be motivating you must be committed to it. Likewise, if you
are setting goals for others you need to ensure that they buy into the goal.

4. Feedback. For a goal to continue to motivate you as you work towards it, you must
receive feedback.

5. Task Complexity. For a goal to be motivating it must not be too complex. Highly
complicated goals can be overwhelming and demotivating.

D. SELF- DETERMINATION THEORY

● Developed by Richard Ryan and Edward Deci. Self-determination theory seeks to

explain how being self-determined impacts motivation—that people feel more motivated
to take action when they think that what they do will affect the outcome.
● Self-determination theory suggests that people can become self-determined when their
needs for competence, connection, and autonomy are fulfilled.
Components of Self-Determination

According to self-determination theory, people need to feel the following to achieve

psychological growth:

a. Competence: People need to

gain mastery of tasks and learn
different skills. When people
feel that they have the skills
needed for success, they are
more likely to take actions that
will help them achieve their
goals.

b. Autonomy: People need to feel

in control of their own behaviors and goals. This sense of being able to take direct action
that will result in real change plays a major part in helping people feel self-determined.

c. Connection or Relatedness: People need to experience a sense of belonging and

attachment to other people.

Other factors that also help or hinder the three elements needed for growth include:

● Extrinsic motivators can sometimes lower self-determination. According to Deci, giving

people extrinsic rewards for intrinsically motivated behavior can undermine autonomy.
As the behavior becomes increasingly controlled by external rewards, people begin to
feel less in control of their behavior, and intrinsic motivation is diminished.

● Positive feedback can boost self-determination. Deci also suggests that offering
unexpected positive encouragement and feedback on a person's task performance can
increase intrinsic motivation. This type of feedback helps people fee
References:

G, D. (2022c, December 15). Theories of Motivation - Expert Program Management.

Expert. https://expertprogrammanagement.com/2019/06/theories-of-motivation/

Twowp. (2021). Motivation Theories: content and process. The World of Work Project.
https://worldofwork.io/2019/02/motivation-theories-context-and-process/

Kishore, K. (2021). The reinforcement Theory of motivation. Harappa. https://harappa.

education/harappa-diaries/reinforcement-theory-of-motivation/

EPM. (2020, October 22). Motivation theories explained in 10 minutes [Video].

YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=woa2Qa8i80U

Bright, D. S. (2019, March 20). 14.3 Process Theories of Motivation - Principles of

Management | OpenStax. https://w2.am/vEeHD

ACTIVITY:

List at least 3 factors or variables that motivate you in your studies. Briefly, explain each
one on how they motivate you.

Example:
Family- Through their hard work and efforts in giving me the opportunity to go to school,
I feel motivated to study because I don’t want to waste each penny they spend on me.

QUIZ:
I. Multiple Choice
Direction: Read and answer the following question carefully. Choose the best answer from the
choices provided and write only the letter that corresponds to your answer.

1. The following statements are true about Process Theories, EXCEPT?

a. It focuses on how a certain individual is motivated.
b. It answers the question, “What motivates people?”
c. It views motivation as a rational process.
d. It explains behaviors that affect an individual’s motivation.

2. Which of the following is NOT a Process Theory?

a. Self-Determination Theory
b. Reinforcement Theory
c. ERG Theory
d. Expectancy Theory

3. Which factor under the Reinforcement Theory uses the threat of negative consequences to stop
undesirable behavior?
a. Extinction
b. Positive Reinforcement
c. Negative Reinforcement
d. Punishment

4. Which of the following analogies about the factors under the Reinforcement Theory is
INCORRECT?
a. Positive Reinforcement: Praising or giving compliments to someone’s good performance.
b. Negative Reinforcement: Reducing the homework of students if they behave in class.
c. Punishment: Suspension of a student for violating the rules of the school.
d. Extinction: Promotion of an employee for his remarkable attitude at work.

5. Hajima was given a certificate of recognition because he showed outstanding performance in

his class. This motivated him to strive harder and focus more on his studies. The given certificate
of recognition is an example of ________.
a. Negative Reinforcement
b. Positive Reinforcement
c. Extinct Reinforcement
d. Punishment

6. Expectancy Theory was developed by _____.

a. Richard Ryan
 b. Burrhus Frederic Skinner
c. Edwin A. Lock
d. Victor Harold Vroom

7. Which Process theory believes that aiming for the right goal can increase both motivation and
productivity?
a. Right-Goal Theory
b. Self-Goal Theory
c. Goal-Setting Theory
d. Goal-Making Theory

8. To become motivating, your goals should be clear and specific. Which characteristic of the
goal is being implied?
a. Commitment
b. Clarity
c. Task-Complexity
d. Feedback

9. Which of the following is a reason why setting a goal is important?

a. Having goals saves time because it allows you to focus on unnecessary things.
b. Aiming for the right goal saves time because you focus on what’s important.
c. Setting goals gives you conflict in managing your time.
d. Having a goal is not important and is only a waste of time.

10. According to self-determination theory, people need to feel the following to achieve
psychological growth. Which is NOT included?
a. Expectation
b. Competency
c. Autonomy
d. Connection

II. Analysis
Direction: Read and analyze the following statements carefully. Identify which type of Process
Theory is being implied in each statement. Choose your answer from the box below.

Reinforcement Theory Expectancy Theory

Goal-Setting Theory Self-Determination Theory
1. Jinja joined the singing bee contest expecting that if she won, she would receive an additional
grade from her teacher. Her expectations pushed her to join the said contest.
- Expectancy Theory

2. Gwen Chan thought she had the competency to lead her research group. Her determination led
her to become the leader.
- Self-Determination Theory

3. To be in the top 10 is what Jebal is aiming for in his class. He spent his weekends studying in
the library motivated by his target.
- Goal-Setting Theory

4. A rule was implemented in the class. Those who would be caught cheating during exams will
automatically get a zero score. Afraid of getting the punishment, Michoso focused on her own
answer sheet and answered all the questions independently.
- Reinforcement Theory

5. Pali got his first promotion for having the highest sales within the year. This motivated him to
work for higher sales in the coming years.
- Reinforcement Theory