DAY 1
action is good.
ETHICS
- A branch of philosophy that consists of the
fundamental issues of practical decision
making, and its major concerns on the nature
of ultimate value and the standards by which
human actions can be judged as right or
wrong.
- It is concerned with knowing what is right and
wrong.
- Greek word “ethos” which means character
- It deals with norms or standards of right and
wrong applicable to human behavior.
- These are rules imposed by anyone or a
group
AIMS OF ETHICS:
a) It addresses questions about morality
b) Identifies the standards of making moral
judgments
c) Clarifying the meaning of moral judgments
d) seeks to understand the basis of morals, how
they develop and how they are and should be
followed
BRANCHES OF ETHICS:
1. Descriptive Ethics - form of empirical
research into the attitudes of individuals or
groups of people. In other words, this is the
division of philosophical or general ethics
that involves the observation of the moral
decision-making process with the goal of
describing the phenomenon
2. Normative Ethics - concerned with criteria of
what is morally right and wrong. It includes
the formulation of moral rules that have direct
implications for what human actions, institutions,
and ways of life should be like.
3. Meta Ethics - is the branch of ethics that seeks
to understand the nature of ethical properties,
statements, attitudes, and judgments.
4. Applied Ethics - devoted to the treatment of
moral problems, practices, and policies in
personal life, professions, technology, and
government.
FRAMEWORKS/THEORIES:
1. Virtue Ethics - defines good actions as ones
that display embody virtuous character
traits, like courage, loyalty, or wisdom. A
virtue itself is a disposition to act, think and feel
in certain ways.
2. Deontological Ethics - an action is considered
morally good because of some characteristic of
the action itself, not because the product of the
3. Teleological Ethics - From a teleological
standpoint, stealing, for example, would be
deemed right or wrong depending on the
consequences. The motive alone would have
nothing to do with the rightness or wrongness of
the act.
According to Socrates, people will naturally do what is
good provided that they know what is right, and that
evil or bad actions are purely the result of ignorance.
MORALITY
- Refers to the extent to which an action is
considered right or wrong.
- It concerns the recognition of the inherent
values of people (culture and religion). A
value that is not reducible to how others benefit
us.
- These are rules not imposed by anyone, it is
how we view what is right or wrong.
KINDS OF MORALS
1. Moral Standards – refers to norms (rules and
values) about the types of actions which are
morally acceptable.
- the rules people have about the kinds
of actions they believe are morally
right, as well as the values they place
on the kinds of objects they believe are
morally good.
2. Non-Moral Standards – norms that are
unrelated to moral or ethical considerations
such as etiquettes, fashion standards, rules in
the game, etc. A non-moral act or action is not
subject to moral judgment because morality
is not taken into consideration (e.g., clothes
you wear).
3. Immoral Standards – the intent of evilness or
wrongdoing, a person or behavior that
conscientiously goes against accepted
morals or the proper ideas and beliefs about
how to behave in a way that is considered right
and good by most people.
4. Unmoral Standards – no moral perception
and not influenced or guided by moral
considerations. Nonhuman or inanimate
things incapable of understanding right and
wrong (e.g., rain, river, and trees).
5. Amoral Standards – having or showing no
concern about whether behavior is morally right
or wrong – compendiously, “without morals”
(e.g., infant, person with mental illness).
IMPORTANCE OF MORALS/RULES
a) It regulates unwanted or harmful behavior
and to encourage wanted or beneficial
behavior in society.
b) Dictated by the values of the culture regarding
what is viewed as acceptable or unacceptable
for individuals in society.
c) A prescribed guide for conduct or action
useful in guiding and monitoring the interactions
of humans in a society.
d) Prevent chaos and encourage uniformity.
e) Encourages order to make members of society
feel comfortable, secure, and safe.
DAY 2
MORAL EXPERIENCE
- An experience of moral value such that one’s
moral consciousness comes to work as one is
called to make a moral response.
- Whatever affects a person can be called an
‘experience’. It can be an emotion like love or
hatred.
- Any experience leaves behind an impression or
memory. The totality of such experiences
contributes to the formation of human
personality.
MORAL CONSCIOUSNESS
- Whether it’s the arousal of moral
consciousness that results in the
concurrence of moral experience or the
reverse, is hardly the point at issue here.
- is about a knowledge of right and wrong, of
good and evil.
MORAL VALUES
- the quality of something being good or bad, right
or wrong, and just or unjust
- differs from other types of values because it
demands for a response, it involves moral
responsibility, and it defines both the action
and the human agent
- guidelines that assist a person in deciding
between right and wrong
MORAL DEFINITIONS
- either we are drawn towards an action because
of the good that we sense in it, or we sense the
good because of our own value or that
‘goodness’ that is in us
CONTINUOUS PROCESS
- every experience demands thinking and
decision-making and there can be no universal
formula to solve every moral dilemma.
MORAL IDEALS
- pertain to what are believed to constitute a life
that is worthy of humans which are products of
generations of shaping via our tradition and
which come to the fore as summoned by
experience
ACTION-ORIENTED
- in the face of a moral situation, we feel
compelled to respond and to respond personally
right away.
- We become good not because we believe in
being good or because our parents are but
because we choose what is good and to be
good in thought and in action.
MORAL PRINCIPLES
- a fixed set of rules that ignores the
complexities of the situation and fails to
adapt one’s behavior to changing
circumstances
- general sense of what ought to be done
- can be regarded as statements picking out
those factors of situations that can be
appealed to as moral reasons
DILEMMAS
- experiences where an agent is confused
about the right decision to make because
there are several competing values that are
seemingly important and urgent
PERSONAL DILEMMA
- extremely difficult situation for someone to
handle
- it can be moral or non-moral
MORAL DILEMMA
- difficult moral problems that raise hard moral
questions
- it occurs when one moral reason conflicts with
another
 FEATURES:
- agent is required to do each of two or more
actions
- agent can do each of the actions, but they
cannot do both or all the actions are at the
same time
- agent seems condemned to moral failure
MORAL ACTIONS
- for an action to be morally good, all three
determinates must be complete and a lack in
any of them, will, at least in a qualified way,
make the morality of the act to be bad
a) Object of the act – refers to the objective moral
character of the act (e.g., murder is objectively
wrong because it messes with reality and social
order
b) Intention of the act – the purpose or motive of
the act, the ends should always justify the
means. All intentions should be in conformity
to the objective truth.
c) Circumstance of the act – the
conditions/elements of the act (time and date)
that will modify its morality. The who, what,
when, and where of actions are bearing on the
goodness or badness of the action because they
can increase or decrease the degree of
goodness or evil in the act.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
- An important part of the socialization process
- It prevents people form acting on unchecked
urges, instead considering what is right for
society and good for others.
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
- Developed by Lawrence Kohlberg
- To focus on understanding the development of
morality throughout life.
- He used the idea of moral dilemma to expand
cognitive development.
PRE-CONVENTIONAL (BIRTH – 9 YEARS OLD):
- Authority figures give reinforcement
(punishment or reward) and are obeyed for
self-preservation.
- Morality is externally controlled.
Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation
- Right or wrong is decided based on what action
is punished.
- The child obeys to avoid punishment.
- The worse the punishment, the worse the act is
perceived to be.
Stage 2: Instrumentalist-Relativist Orientation
- Right behavior is defined as acts that is
acceptable and approved by the self, and that
satisfies one’s needs or best interest.
CONVENTIONAL (9 – 13 YEARS OLD):
- Continue to follow rules for is it necessary to
ensure positive interpersonal relationships
and society order.
Stage 3: Interpersonal Concordance (Good boy, Nice
Girl Orientation)
- Right behavior is based on actions that are
approved by others/society.
- Emphasis is placed on good behavior and
people being nice to others.
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation
- Right behavior is defined as acts that conforms
to the rules set by society or authority figure.
- Individual feels duty bound to maintain social
order or conscious of what others say.
POST-CONVENTIONAL (13 y/o onwards):
- Morality is defined in terms of abstract
principles and values. People now believe that
some laws are unjust and should be changed.
- There is flexibility in accepting rules for an
individual develops their own ethical
principles that includes basic human rights as
life, liberty, and justice.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
- It is wrong to violate the rights of other
people.
- Laws are regarded as social contracts that
should promote the greatest good for the
greatest number of people.
Stage 6: Universal-Ethics Orientation
- Right behavior is based on universal principles
such as justice and equality.
- Laws are valid if they are grounded on justice.
- Trust is the basis of relationship.
GILIGAN’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
- Developed by Carol Giligan
POST-CONVENTIONAL (BIRTH – 9 YEARS OLD):
 - Known as ‘Orientation of Individual Survival
Transition’
- Concentrates on what is best for self (Self-
Preservation)
- Selfish but dependent on others
Transition 1: Selfishness to Responsibility
- Recognizes connection to others.
- Makes more responsible choices in terms of
self and others.
CONVENTIONAL (9– 13 YEARS OLD):
- Known as ‘Goodness and Self-Sacrifice
Orientation
- Puts needs of others ahead of own (self-
sacrifice)
- Feels responsible for others, and becomes
more independent.
Transition 2: Goodness to Truth
- Decisions based on intentions, consequences
and needs of self and others
POST-CONVENTIONAL (13 y/o onwards):
- Known as ‘Morality of Non-violence’
- Self and others as morally equal (to harm
other people is to harm the self)
- Right behavior is not dependent on the
perception of other people, but on the
consequence or intention of actions.
DAY 3
VIRTUE ETHICS
- Believes in pursuing virtues or ideal character
traits rather than following a set of rules is what
makes us moral. Focusing on being good
person will eventually lead to doing the right
actions.
- Concerned with the whole of a person’s life
THOMAS AQUINA’S THEORY OF VIRTUE ETHICS
- He believes that people need to identify
meaningful goals before they can act.
- He believes that the motive of an action is also
crucial, and two apparently identical acts may
be right and wrong because of their motives.
2 CONCEPTS: PRINCIPLE AND VIRTUE
Purpose: to direct people towards the goal of human
fulfilment or living a worthwhile life which means that
morality is bringing moral order to one’s own action and
will.
Principles: rules about how to act
1. Moral thought is that good should be
pursued, and evil avoided. Golden rule, “Do
unto others as you would have them unto
you”
2. Moral thought should aim towards six basic
human goods:
a) Life
b) Knowledge
c) Friendship
d) Marriage
e) Religion; and
f) Practical reason
Four Virtues: traits which are taken to be good or moral
to have
1. Prudence – doing the right thing at the right
time, at the right place, and in the right manner.
2. Temperance – denotes moderation of desires
and physical pleasures such as eating, drinking,
etc.
3. Courage – desire to do actions that are difficult
to attain or avoid, act of restraining fear to do
actions rightly.
4. Justice – disposition to give other what they are
entitled (rights) which serves as a guide in
interacting with other people and developing
relationships.
ARISTOTLE’S THEORY OF VIRTUE ETHICS
- Believes that human action is directed towards
the pursuit of the concept of Eudaemonia
(supreme happiness) which could be achieve
through Phronesis (practical wisdom) or Arete
(virtue).
- Believes that virtues are dispositions that act to
effectively perform one’s proper function in
similar situations creating habits of behaving
in certain ways.
Virtues of Character
a) Generosity; and
b) Temperance
Virtues of Thought
a) Wisdom
b) Intelligence; and
c) Comprehension
Doctrine of the Mean/Golden Mean
 - Moral behavior is the balance between the vices 2. Imperfect Duties – duties that do not always
of virtues (deficiency and excess), between need to be followed in one way or all the time
pleasure (excess) and pain (deficiency). for this is dependent on the rationality and
autonomy of an individual.
Virtue – is a state of character concerned with
choice, determined by a rational principle which means
that anybody who aspires to live a happy life must
endeavor to live a life of contemplation, reflection,
and search for balance.

Limitations – virtues are susceptible to change, there

is no definitive purpose as to what and where the end
will be and a reason why virtues are being developed.

Day 4
DEONTOLOGY (DUTY ETHICS)

- Concerned with the adherence to certain rules

or duties which means that the morality of an
action should be based on whether that action
is right or wrong under a series of rules.
- It is more concerned with what people do
(intent), not with the consequences of their
actions.

IMMANUEL KANT’S DUTY-BASED ETHICS

- Believed that ethical actions follow universal

moral laws which all human beings must
honor and be obligated to do for it is their duty
as moral agents.
- Believed that there was a supreme principle of
morality referred to as ‘Categorical Imperative’
which determines what moral duties are.

CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVES

- Commands that are intended to be the basis

of all the other rules which you should be doing
regardless of your interest and/or desire.
1. The Universalizability Principle – always act in
such a way that the maxim of your action should
become a universal law.
2. The Formula of Humanity – act so that you
treat humanity, both in your own person and in
that of another, always as an end and never
merely as means.

FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

- Specific principles (maxims and moral laws) that

emphasizes morality requires the fulfillment
of moral duties and not on self-seeking
desires.
1. Perfect Duties – duties that do not allow
exceptions and are universal which means
that they apply to all rational beings despite
the consequences of the actions.