4166 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 56, NO.
4, JULY/AUGUST 2020
An Implementation of Solar PV Array Based
Multifunctional EV Charger
Anjeet Verma , Member, IEEE, Bhim Singh , Fellow, IEEE, Ambrish Chandra , Fellow, IEEE,
and Kamal Al-Haddad , Life Fellow, IEEE
Abstract—In this article, an implementation of solar photovoltaic
(PV) array powered grid-connected residential electric vehicle (EV)
charger is presented, which caters the need of an EV, household
loads, and the grid. The charger is enabled to operate autonomously
using a PV array for providing an uninterruptible charging and
power to household loads. However, in the absence of the PV array
or insufficient PV array generation, the grid-connected mode of
operation is presented. Moreover, the charger is supported with the
synchronization and seamless mode switching control, so that the
charger automatically connects/disconnects from the grid without
disturbing the EV charging and household supply. The charger is
also enabled with the vehicle-to-grid active/reactive power support
to the grid and vehicle-to-home power transfer for supporting the
local loads in an islanded condition. The charger is also controlled
to operate as an active power filter for achieving the unity power
factor operation and total harmonic distortion of the grid current
within 5%. Moreover, for achieving energy management, a dc-link
voltage regulation based energy management strategy is used and a
sliding mode control is used for regulating the dc-link voltage. For
satisfactory operation under distorted voltage condition, a second-
order generalized integrator frequency-locked loop with dc offset
rejection is used to generate the sinusoidal reference grid current.
The charger is designed for a single-phase 230-V, 50-Hz grid and it
is experimentally validated in the laboratory.
Index Terms—Bidirectional charger, electric vehicle (EV), power
quality, reactive power, solar photovoltaic (PV) generation.
I. INTRODUCTION
N the current scenario, the electric vehicle (EV) is emerging
I as a promising solution to the problems caused by fossil
fuel-powered vehicles [1]. However, the adaptability of EV
depends on the charging infrastructure [2]. The charging of EV
requires a huge amount of electrical energy, which mostly comes
Manuscript received July 9, 2019; revised November 15, 2019 and February
6, 2020; accepted March 23, 2020. Date of publication April 7, 2020; date of
current version July 1, 2020. Paper 2019-TSC-0608.R2, presented at the 2018
IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo, Long Beach, CA,
USA, Jun. 13–15, and approved for publication in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS
ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by the Transportation Systems Committee of
the IEEE Industry Applications Society. This work was supported in part by
the J. C. Bose Fellowship under Grant RPO03128, in part by the Indo–U.S.
Project (RP03443G), and in part by FIST Project under Grant RP02195G.
(Corresponding author: Anjeet Verma.)
Anjeet Verma and Bhim Singh are with the Department of Electrical Engi-
neering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India (e-mail:
anjeet15@gmail.com; bsingh@ee.iitd.ac.in).
Ambrish Chandra and Kamal Al-Haddad are with the Department of Electrical
Engineering, École de Technologie Supérieure, Montreal, QC H3C 1K3, Canada
(e-mail: ambrish.chandra@etsmtl.ca; kamal.al-haddad@etsmtl.ca).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this article are available online
at https://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIA.2020.2984742
0093-9994 © 2020 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
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from coal-/gas-based power plants. Therefore, in a true sense, the
EVs can be a green and clean alternative to the present transport
system when the electrical energy required for the charging of
EV, comes from the renewable energy sources such as solar and
wind [3]. The advantage of this kind of charging station is that
the photovoltaic (PV) array power is generated and used locally.
Because of this, the transmission lines need not be upgraded
for high power. Moreover, the charging station does not require
to draw power from the grid when the cost of energy is high.
Another advantage of PV array based charging station is that it
is not location-specific. Ma and Mohammed [4] have proposed
the use of office building and parking area for laying down the
solar PV panels, as these solar PV panels also work as a shed
and prevent the heating of the vehicles and buildings. Therefore,
the use of PV array based charging station not only avoids
overloading of the grid, but it also minimizes the operational cost
of the charging station. Moreover, the coordinated operation of
the PV array and EV mitigates the impacts of PV generation on
the utility, and it eliminates the problems caused by the solar PV
generation intermittency [5].
Therefore, many researchers have contributed their work for
developing the PV array based charging station. Gunter et al.
[6] and Satpathy et al. [7] have proposed the PV array and wind
energy-based grid-connected system. Marra et al. [8], Saxena
et al. [9], Monteiro et al. [10], Tran et al. [11], and Tazay and
Miao [12] have reported the implementation of the PV array
based EV charging station. However, in the literature, a dc–
dc converter (mostly boost converter) is used to connect the
PV array to the dc link. In this article, the solar PV array is
directly connected to the dc link. The major advantages of this
topology include the reduction in one power stage through the
elimination of dc–dc converter stage, circuit complexity, and the
cost of the converter, without compromising the performance of
the PV array. Moreover, this topology is a kind of retrofit solution
wherein the PV array can be augmented to the existing charging
infrastructure with minimum change in the software (maximum
power point tracking (MPPT) control algorithm) alone.
However, if the charger is used only for charging the EV, the
charger remains idle for at least 50% of the lifetime. Therefore,
the converter of the charger has to be used for other tasks to
improve the operational efficiency of the charger when the EV
is not connected for charging. There are many functionalities
proposed in the literature such as the four-quadrant operation of
charger, vehicle-to-home (V2H) operation using the EV battery,
and active filtering [13]. However, in the available literature,
 VERMA et al.: IMPLEMENTATION OF SOLAR PV ARRAY BASED MULTIFUNCTIONAL EV CHARGER
TABLE I
STATE OF THE ART ON SOLAR PV ARRAY BASED EV CHARGER
different converters and controls are used for different modes of
operation. Moreover, the charger operation is restricted by the
grid availability (islanded or grid-connected operation), types
of mode switching among different operating modes (seamless
or discontinuous) and these conditions affect the operational
efficiency of the charger. Many efforts are being made to develop
an integrated system with the capability to perform the above
functionalities, which are beneficial to the grid, household loads,
and the EVs [14]. Kikusato et al. [15] have proposed a framework
for the charge/discharge management of EV battery using the
forecasted information of home and grid management system
so that the PV array power is utilized maximally and very less
power is drawn from the grid. Sun et al. [16] have proposed
the strategy for minimizing the residential energy cost consid-
ering the driving pattern and the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) power
transfer in EV integrated PV array and battery-based residential
microgrid. Bhamidi and Sivasubramani [17] have proposed the
optimal planning and operational strategy of residential mi-
crogrid participating in demand side management. Yang et al.
[18] have reported a strategy for distributed coordination of EV
charging with renewable energy in the microgrid of building.
Chaudhari et al. [19] have proposed a hybrid optimization
strategy for analyzing the economics of energy storage in the
renewable energy-based charging station. Ravichandran et al.
[20] have developed a chance-constrained based control strategy
for microgrid and the integrated EV. Turker and Bacha [21]
have minimized the charging cost of the EV using V2G and
V2H functionality. Erdinc et al. [22] have proposed a smart
household operation with bidirectional EV and energy storage.
However, from the review, it is observed that the recent literature
is dominated by the theoretical study and very few publications
have implemented the solar PV array based EV charger, which
is capable of performing the above-mentioned functionalities
using a unified control and single topological structure. Table I
lists a comparison of the presented charger with the current
literature.
Therefore, in this article, a household load integrated, grid-
connected solar PV array based multifunctional EV charger
is implemented with the combined control for achieving the
satisfactory operation of various functionalities such as follows:
1) PV array MPPT without dc–dc converter;
2) four-quadrant operation of charger (V2G/G2V);
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4167
3) V2H with nonlinear load;
4) active filtering;
5) islanded/grid-connected operation;
6) synchronization (automatic mode switching);
7) MPPT derating;
8) point of common coupling (PCC) voltage correction.
However, an integration of EV charging with a renewable
source, household load, and the grid creates challenges for the
energy management in the overall system. Jafari et al. [26]
have proposed a novel predictive fuzzy logic based energy
management system for a grid-integrated microgrid, in which
the controller utilizes the long term data of the system and
predicts the energy generation, demand and the cost of the
energy. Many researchers have attempted to develop the rule
and optimization-based energy management system [41]–[43].
In the rule-based approach, the operation of the microgrid is
decided by the heuristic rule. However, the drawback of the
heuristic-based rule is that the rules are microgrid specific.
Therefore, it is not possible to design the generalized rules.
The centralized optimization [44] based energy management
system uses the day-ahead forecast to optimize the microgrid
operation. However, due to the high variability and uncertainty
in the renewable generation, load, and limited forecast accuracy,
the day ahead scheduling cannot provide good performance.
The droop control based power management scheme is also
popular in microgrid [38], [45]. However, the selection of the
droop gain for a wide range of operations is critical. To improve
the gain tuning of the droop controller, low bandwidth com-
munication is used. However, due to the low bandwidth of the
communication channel, a delay introduces in the signal, which
affects the gain tuning. Lin et al. [37] have proposed the dis-
tributed power management strategy for the multiple paralleled
bidirectional interlinking converter. However, in this article, a
dc-link voltage regulation based energy management scheme is
proposed, which uses only present dc-link voltage information
for effective energy management. Moreover, it does not require
any communication medium to share the information. Therefore,
this method is simple, cheap, reliable, and easy to implement
for the residential microgrid, whereas the schemes presented
in [46] and [47] require the past information, present infor-
mation, and information about other constraints affecting the
system.
 4168
However, the effectiveness of the energy management scheme
depends on the promptness and accuracy of the dc-link voltage
controller. Hafezinasab et al. [48] have proposed power factor
(PF) correction in ac–dc converter using the adaptive interme-
diate bus voltage, in which proportional–integral (PI) control is
used to regulate the dc-link voltage. Taghizadeh et al. [49] have
reported the strategy for cancelling the second harmonic ripple in
the dc-link voltage for designing the enhanced dc voltage control
loop. Davari and Mohamed [50] have proposed the robust dc bus
voltage control loop for effective power sharing. Yi et al. [24]
have used a unified control for a three-phase power converter, in
which a PI controller maintains the dc-link voltage. Similarly,
there are many other publications in which a PI controller regu-
lates the dc bus voltage. However, the gains of the PI controller
are fixed during the operation. Due to which, the tuning of the PI
controller for accommodating the unknown disturbances during
the operation is not possible. Therefore, in this article, a sliding
mode control (SMC) is used for dc-link voltage regulation, so
that both dynamic and steady-state performances of the system
are improved. SMC is known for its excellent dynamic re-
sponse and strong robustness to disturbances and uncertainties,
such as unknown variations of control variables and system
parameters [51].
The main contribution of this work involves assimilating
various functionalities such as 1) PV array MPPT without dc–dc
converter, 2) four-quadrant operation of charger (V2G/G2V), 3)
V2H with nonlinear load, 4) active filtering, 5) islanded/grid
connected, 6) synchronization (automatic mode switching), 7)
MPPT derating, and 8) PCC voltage correction, in a single
EV charger configuration, without the need of additional dc–dc
converter for PV array, thereby reducing the cost of the charger
and improving the reliability of the charging and household
supply. The advantage of this system is that a single system
meets the requirements of household load, EV, and the utility.
The main features of this system are as follows.
1) The use of PV array energy for EV charging and power-
ing the household load, simultaneously in islanded mode
and grid-connected mode (GCM).
2) Development of a robust control strategy for generating a
sinusoidal voltage at PCC, with total harmonic distortion
(THD) less than 5%.
3) The use of EV battery energy for supplying the house-
hold load uninterruptedly in islanded mode using V2H
functionality.
4) Design of control for synchronizing the grid and PCC
voltage and logic for generating the switch enabling logic
(E) for a seamless transition between islanded mode and
GCM.
5) Active power filter operation using voltage source con-
verter (VSC), so that the charger does not pollute the
grid.
6) On-demand V2G reactive power capability using the
VSC and the EV battery.
7) In GCM, voltage and current always comply with the
IEEE-519 standard.
8) Capability to operate under distorted voltage condition.
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 56, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2020
Fig. 1. Circuit topology of the charger.
9) A dc-link voltage regulation based energy management
strategy for all operating modes.
10) An SMC-based robust dc-link voltage regulation, so that
the energy management scheme performs its aforemen-
tioned tasks.
II. SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
The circuit topology of the presented charging system is
shown in Fig. 1. This system is a single-phase bidirectional
charger for an EV that integrates the solar PV array directly
on the dc link of the VSC. This system charges the EV battery
using the solar PV power/the grid power and feeds the solar
PV/EV battery power into the grid. This charger is a two-stage
charger, i.e., a bidirectional ac–dc conversion followed by the
bidirectional dc–dc conversion stage. The ac–dc conversion
stage converts the input ac voltage into the dc voltage while
charging the EV battery and works as an inverter to change the
dc voltage into the ac voltage while feeding the solar PV power
and EV power into the grid. The EV battery is connected to the
output of the bidirectional dc–dc converter (BDDC). The dc–dc
converter in this charger accomplishes the various tasks. While
charging the EV battery, the dc converter works in buck mode
and operates in boost mode while discharging the EV battery.
Moreover, it also regulates the dc bus voltage and harnesses
the maximum generated power from the solar PV array. The
charger is connected to the grid through the coupling inductor
(Lc ). It is needed to eliminate the harmonics and to smoothen
the grid current. A ripple filter is also connected at the PCC to
prevent the injection of switching harmonics generated by the
VSC into the grid.
III. ENERGY MANAGEMENT STRATEGY
The energy management strategy of this charger is based
on the regulation of constant dc-link voltage. The flowchart
of energy management under different operating conditions is
shown in Fig. 2. The energy management in steady state under
GCM is given as
PPV ± PB ± Pg − Ph = 0. (1)
 VERMA et al.: IMPLEMENTATION OF SOLAR PV ARRAY BASED MULTIFUNCTIONAL EV CHARGER
Fig. 2. Flowchart for energy management and operating strategy.
Here, PPV , PEV , Ph , and Pg are solar PV array power, EV
power, household load power, and grid power, respectively. In
this expression, the positive power represents the supplying of
power and negative power represents the consumption of power.
This means that the EV and the grid can both supply and consume
power. In GCM, the charger undergoes the transient caused by
the change in solar irradiance, household load, and EV charging
current. The change in the PV array power only affects the
grid power and the charging/discharging of the EV battery and
household supply should not be affected.
Therefore, a series of events occur to achieve the energy
equilibrium in the system during irradiance change
Solar irradiance↑↓ → PPV ↑↓ → power at DC link↑↓
→ Vdc ↑↓ → Vdc regulation → IP ↑↓ → i∗g ↑↓ → ig ↑↓.
(2)
Similarly, with the change in EV charging/discharging, the
solar PV array power and the household supply remain unaf-
fected, and the series of events for energy management during
this transient are as follows:
charging power↑↓ → IEV ↑↓ → power at DC link↓↑
→ Vdc ↓↑ → Vdc regulation → IP ↑↓ → i∗g ↑↓ → ig ↑↓. (3)
In standalone mode, the energy management in the steady-
state condition is given as
PPV ± PEV − Ph = 0.
Similar to the GCM, the solar irradiance and household load
change also disturb the energy equilibrium in standalone mode.
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4169
However, the EV battery compensates for all disturbances in
the power, as the dc-link voltage is controlled through the EV
battery. Under the solar irradiance change, energy management
is achieved as
Solar irradiance↑↓ → PPV ↑↓ → power at DC link↑↓
∗
→ Vdc ↑↓ → Vdc regulation → IEV ↑↓ → IEV ↑↓. (5)
Under household load change, energy management is
achieved as
ih ↑↓ → power at DC link PPV ↓↑ → Vdc ↓↑
∗
→ Vdc regulation → IEV ↑↓ → IEV ↑↓. (6)
IV. CONTROL ALGORITHM
The control objective is to charge the EV and supply the
household load uninterruptedly irrespective of any disturbance.
Therefore, the control is designed such that the multifunctional
operation is achieved. The control is mainly divided into islanded
mode and GCM, as shown in Fig. 3. However, the V2G active
and reactive powers, V2H modes are covered in these two
main controls. Moreover, the combined BDDC control for both
islanded mode and GCM is also discussed.
A. GCM Control
The purpose of GCM mode is to regulate the dc-link voltage
(4)
and control the grid current for controlling the active and reactive
power flow, thereby generating the switching pulses for the VSC.
The SMC and VSC control are explained as follows.
 4170 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 56, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2020

Fig. 3. Combined control strategy of VSC.

1) SMC of DC-Link Voltage: In this work, SMC is utilized for loss component of the reference grid current have to be quick.
regulating the dc-link voltage and MPPT of the solar PV array. In this article, the voltage error is selected as the surface, which
The dc-link voltage regulation is also required for the MPPT depends on the net active power flow; therefore, using the sliding
of the solar PV array, as in single-stage topology the MPPT is surface, the estimated current is expressed as
achieved by regulating the dc-link voltage at the MPP voltage 
+
Pdc ,S > 0
of the solar PV array. The MPPT algorithm [52] estimates the Id = − . (9)
reference dc-link voltage (Vdc ∗ ) at which the peak power of Pdc , S < 0
the solar PV array is extracted. However, in the absence of the The SMC considers the first-order derivative of the dc-link
solar PV generation, the dc-link voltage is regulated at a specific voltage derived from the power balance at dc link as
voltage (360 V).
Since the dc-link voltage is regulated by the SMC, the surface d 1 2
Pi = Vdc idc = Cdc Vdc Vdc + V (10)
of the SMC is designed using the combination of proportional dt RL dc
and integral functions of voltage error. The proportional and where RL is the equivalent load on the dc side of the charger,
integral type of sliding surface is selected to control the reaching which is modeled as a resistive load for simplicity.
and sliding dynamics of the controller. Initially, when the voltage Now using (9) and (10), the first-order derivative of the dc-link
error is high, the proportional term takes the error near to the voltage is given as
surface, and after reaching the surface, the integral term controls • Id 1
the sliding of voltage error at the surface. Vdc = − Vdc + μ (11)
Cdc Vdc RL Cdc
The voltage error is expressed as
where μ represents a disturbance in the dc-link voltage caused
∗
e = Vdc − Vdc . (7) by the change in the irradiance, load change, and the charg-
ing/discharging current change.
Using (7), the designed sliding surface is given as
  Here, |μ|is upper bounded by σ, which is a positive constant
S = α1 e + α2 edt = γe + edt (8) given as |μ| ≤ σ < 1.
The controller for dc-link voltage regulation and for estimat-
where γ (γ = α1 /α2 ) is a positive constant, which decides the ing the loss component of current is designed based on Lyapunov
steady-state and dynamic performances of the controller such as stability criteria, which state that [53]
the steady-state error, overshoot/undershoot, settling time, and •
lim S · S < 0. (12)
the robustness of the controller. s→0
The voltage of the dc link depends on the net instantaneous •
active power flow. If the net instantaneous active power flow Using (7), (8), and (11), the S · S is as follows:
• • •
becomes positive, the dc-link voltage increases. However, the ∗
S{γ(Vdc − Vdc ) + e} = S{γ(Vdc ) + e} (13)
dc-link voltage decreases with net negative instantaneous active    
power flow. Therefore, for controlling the active power balance Id 1
S γ − Vdc + μ + e (14)
in the system, the dc-link voltage regulation and estimation of Cdc Vdc RL Cdc

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 VERMA et al.: IMPLEMENTATION OF SOLAR PV ARRAY BASED MULTIFUNCTIONAL EV CHARGER
  
γId γ The in-phase (ut ) and the quadrature-phase unit template (qt )
S − Vdc + γμ + e .
Cdc Vdc RL Cdc
•
Now, Id is selected such that S · S < 0
 
1 1 1 ∗
Id = Cdc Vdc − Vdc + Vdc − (σ + δ)sign(S)
RL Cdc γ γ
(16)
where δ is a positive constant. The values of γ, δ, and σ selected
for implementation are given in Appendix I. Moreover, the
detailed derivation of the stability of the controller is discussed
in Appendix II.
Due to the presence of (σ+δ)sign(S) in (16), the chattering
phenomenon may appear with the used SMC control. The chat-
tering cannot be fully eliminated with the used SMC control.
However, the chattering has been restricted to a certain frequency
by defining the lowest allowable steady-state error by defining
the value of δ such that the (σ+δ) does not become very small.
Since σ is a positive constant, δ is defined as
 grid current (ig ) and the hysteresis controller generates the
 e  , ve > 0.1 V
δ= . (17)
.1ve < 0.1 V
2) VSC Control in GCM: VSC control is shown in Fig. 3. Due
to the nonlinear household loads and the EV, the grid current con-
tains harmonics. Moreover, the PF also deteriorates. Therefore,
for improving the PF and ensuring the grid current THD within
5%, a second-order generalized integrator frequency-locked
loop with dc rejection capability (SOGI-FLL-DR) [54] is used
to estimate the fundamental load current so that the reference
current becomes free of harmonics. Fig. 3 shows the extraction
of fundamental active load current component through sample
hold with zero-crossing detector. The expression for the active
current estimation is given as [54]
ihp kωs2
= 3
ih s + (ko + kω)s2 + ω 2 (s + ko )
where ih and ihp are loads and fundamental load currents, ω is
the frequency, k is a gain, which decides the speed of estimation,
ko is the dc rejection coefficient, and λ is frequency estimation
coefficient.
Using (16) and Ihp , the total active current is estimated as
Ip = Id − Ihp .
The amplitude of the reactive current (Iq ) of the reference grid
current (is ∗ ) is obtained on the basis of reference reactive power
command (Qref ) and it is given as
2 × Qref
Iq =
Vtm
where Vtm is the amplitude of the PCC voltage (vs ).
The real (Ip ) and reactive (Iq ) components are multiplied
with the in-phase (ut ) and the quadrature-phase unit template
(qt ) to obtain instantaneous reference active grid current (ip )
and instantaneous reference reactive grid current (iq ), and it is
given as
ip = I p × u t , i q = I q × q t .
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4171
(15) are obtained using the following expressions:
vgp vgq
ut = , qt = (22)
Vtm Vtm
where vgp and vgq are the in-phase and quadrature-phase voltage
of PCC voltage (vg ) and Vtm is the amplitude of the PCC voltage.
These two (vg and vs ) voltages obtained using the SOGI-FLL-
DR algorithm become free of harmonics, so that the estimated
unit templates also become sinusoidal. Using vpg and vgq , the
Vtm is obtained as
Vtm = 2 + v2 .
vgp gq (23)
Using reference active grid current (ip ) and reference reactive
grid current (iq ), the total reference grid current is obtained as
i∗g = ip + iq . (24)
This reference grid current (ig ∗ ) is compared with the sensed
triggering signals for the VSC.
B. VSC Control in Islanded Mode
In islanded mode, the objective of the integrated system is
to charge the EV and supply the household load autonomously
using the PV array energy. Moreover, the V2H power transfer is
utilized to feed the household load in the absence of the PV array
energy. In islanded mode, the VSC is controlled to operate as
an inverter to supply the load as per the control shown in Fig. 3.
For this, the controller generates the voltage using the reference
frequency and reference voltage as shown in Fig. 3. Using the
sensed voltage and the reference voltage, the pulses for the VSC
are generated. While operating in the islanded mode, the charger
needs to be connected to the grid for two-way power exchange.
Therefore, it is required to match the PCC voltage, frequency,
(18) and phase to the grid voltage, frequency, and phase. So that
the connection to the grid becomes seamless and automatic.
Therefore, the controller estimates the phase angles of the PCC
voltage and grid voltage and calculates the phase error between
two voltages. The PI controller is used to minimize the phase
error between two voltages. The PI controller translates the phase
error information into error frequency. Using the error frequency,
the controller generates the reference voltage of the corrected
(19) frequency. As soon as the phase of two voltages matches to
each other, the controller generates the enabling signal for the
bidirectional switch as per the switching logic shown in Fig. 3.
C. BDDC Control
(20) The combined control of the BDDC for islanded and grid
connected is exhibited in Fig. 4. In GCM, the EV battery
is charged in constant current/constant voltage mode and the
cascade PI controller loop is used to control the charging of
the EV battery. The outer PI controller controls the terminal
voltage of the EV battery and gives the reference battery current
for the current control. The reference current using a PI controller
is given as
∗ ∗
(21) Iev (r) = Iev (r − 1) + kpv {Veve (r)
 4172
Fig. 4. Combined control strategy for BDDC.
− Veve (r − 1)} + kiv Veve (r)
where Veve is the dc-link voltage error and kpv and kiv are the
gains of the PI controller.
For V2G power transfer, the reference current for discharging
the EV battery is given by the user. The point to note here is that
the sign of reference EV current for V2G mode is opposite of the
G2V mode. Now using the reference EV current and the sensed
EV currents, the error in the EV current is calculated and the
inner PI control gives the duty cycle of the BDDC. The duty
cycle is calculated as
de (r) = d∗e (r − 1) + kpi {Ieve (r) − Ieve (r − 1)} + kii Vev (r)
(26)
where Ieve is the current error and kpi and kii are the gains of the
controller.
In islanded mode, the BDDC is used to regulate the dc-link
voltage. Moreover, the MPP of the solar PV array is also achieved
by regulating the dc-link voltage. For this, the MPPT algorithm
gives the reference voltage of the dc link for the MPP operation.
However, in the absence of the PV array (V2H), the dc-link
voltage is regulated at a specified voltage (V∗ dc = 360 V), as
shown in Fig. 4. In this condition also, cascaded PI control is used
whose outer loop regulates the dc-link voltage and the inner loop
controls the EV charging/discharging current. The expression of
the outer loop is given as
∗ ∗
Iev (r) = Iev (r − 1) + kpd {Vde (r) − Vde (r − 1)} + kid Vde (r)
(27)
where Vde is the voltage error. However, the gains of the con-
troller are kpd and kid .
Now, (26) gives the duty cycle using reference and the sensed
current. After this, the pulsewidth modulation generator gives
switching signals for the converter.
V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The EV charger designed for single-phase 230-V, 50-Hz grid
is shown in Fig. 5. The open-circuit voltage and short circuit
current of the solar PV array is 460 V and 10 A, respectively.
However, the maximum power point voltage and current are
396 V and 9.5 A, respectively. The lead-acid battery of 240 V,
35 Ah is used as an EV battery in the experimental prototype.
The implementation of the charger is carried out using the
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 56, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2020
(25)
Fig. 5. Hardware prototype of charger. (1) Single-phase grid. (2) Solar PV
array simulator. (3) Simulator PC. (4) VSC. (5) BDDC. (6) DC power supplies.
(7) Sensors and optoisolator. (8) Digital controller dSPACE 1006. (9) Controller
PC. (10) Interfacing inductors. (11) Single-phase household load. (12) EV
battery.
digital controller (dSPACE-1006). For the implementation of
the control algorithm, the digital controller requires various
(voltage and current) signals of the charger. Therefore, various
voltage and current signals (analog) are acquired using the Hall
Effect based voltage (LEM LV-25P) and current (LEM LA-55P)
sensor. These signals are converted into digital signals using an
analog-to-digital converter. The digital controller uses the digital
signal to implement the control algorithm and to generate the
switching pulses for VSC and dc–dc converter.
The performance of the charger is shown in Figs. 6–13. The
performance of the charger is evaluated in both steady-state
and dynamic conditions. The steady-state performance of the
charger is presented for the case when the solar PV array energy
is used to charge the EV, feeds the local household load, and
supports the grid with surplus power. The dynamic performance
of the charger is presented for various operating modes in both is-
landed and grid-connected conditions. During implementation,
the solar PV array power (PPV ), the power drawn from the grid
(Pg ), and the power drawn from the EV (PEV ) are considered
positive. However, the power fed into the grid, power drawn
by the load, and power drawn for EV charging are considered
negative.
A. Steady-State Performance of Charger
Fig. 6 shows the experimental results in a steady-state con-
dition. The steady-state behavior of the charger is presented for
the GCM, when the solar PV array power (Ppv ) is used for EV
charging, powering the local load, and supporting the grid with
the surplus power.
 VERMA et al.: IMPLEMENTATION OF SOLAR PV ARRAY BASED MULTIFUNCTIONAL EV CHARGER
Fig. 6. Steady-state performance in GCM. (a), (b) VPV , IPV , and PPV .
(c), (d) vh , ih , and Ph . (e), (f) vg , ig , and Pg . (g)–(i) Harmonic spectrum of
vg , ig , and ih . (j), (k) Vev , Iev , and Pev . (l), (m) vc , ic , and Pc .
Fig. 6(a) and (b) shows that the solar PV array is generating
3.77 kW. Out of 3.77 kW, 0.8 kW is taken by the household load
(Ph ) and 0.95 kW is used by the EV for charging. Remaining
1.91 kW is fed into the grid at unity power factor (UPF). The
voltage (VPV ), current (IPV ), and power (PPV ) of the solar PV
array are shown in Fig. 6(a) and (b). The voltages, currents, and
powers of the load and the EV battery are shown in Fig. 6(c) and
(d) and Fig. 6(j) and (k), respectively. The voltage (vg ), current
(ig ), and power of the grid (Pg ) are shown in Fig. 6(e) and (f).
The charger is not injecting any voltage and current harmonics
into the grid as shown by the grid voltage (vg ), grid current (ig ),
and load current (ih ) THD in Figs. 6(g)–(i). Moreover, it is also
not drawing any reactive power from the grid as justified by
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4173
the unity displacement power factor operation of the charger in
Fig. 6(f). Fig. 6(l) and (m) shows the VSC parameters.
B. Dynamic Performance of Charger
The islanded mode of the charger is presented to show the
charger capability to operate autonomously using the solar PV
array energy for providing the charging facility to the EV and
supply to the household load. During the islanded mode of opera-
tion, the household load changes along with the solar irradiance.
Therefore, the charger performance under these disturbances is
presented in Fig. 7. Initially, the solar PV array charges the
EV and feeds the household load as shown by the negative
EV current in Fig. 7(a). However, after some time, the solar
PV array generation (Ppv ) becomes zero. Therefore, to feed
the load uninterruptedly, the EV battery starts discharging, to
support the home loads, as shown by the positive battery current
(Iev ) in Fig. 7(a). This mode is called V2H. Fig. 7(b) shows the
voltage generated at the PCC (vs ) using the charger. Moreover,
the nonsinusoidal load current (ih ) is also exhibited in Fig. 7(b).
Fig. 7(b) exhibits that during solar irradiance change, the PCC
voltage (vs ), load current (ih ), and dc-link voltage (Vdc ) are
undisturbed.
The islanded operation under load change is shown in Fig. 7(c)
and (d). Here, the load is changed in step over a wide range. The
dc-link voltage is maintained by the BDDC, the load change
is compensated by the EV battery. Because of this, the EV
battery charging changes with the load change. However, the
solar PV array generation (Ppv ) and the dc-link voltage (Vdc )
are not affected by the load change. Fig. 7(d) also shows that
the connection/disconnection of the household load is not dis-
turbing the PCC voltage. Fig. 7(d) shows that when the load is
disconnected, the whole solar PV array power (Ppv ) is stored
into the EV battery. However, the MPP operation of the solar
PV array is not affected.
In Fig. 7(e) and (f), the solar irradiance is changed in steps,
keeping the household constant. Initially, with the increase in
solar irradiance, PV power increases. As a result, the power
stored in the EV battery also increases to maintain the active
power balance. However, when the solar irradiance is increased
from 500 to 1000 W/m2 , the solar PV array generation does not
increase because the controller increases the reference dc-link
voltage to achieve the MPPT derating as the charging rate of EV
is restricted by the controller, as shown in Fig. 7.
The charger operates in GCM either due to the excess power
generation or power scarcity. In both cases, the charger ex-
changes the power with the grid at UPF. However, in GCM also,
many disturbances occur during the operation. Therefore, the
stable operation of the charger under these operating conditions
is required. The behavior under the load perturbation in GCM
is shown in Fig. 8. In GCM, the dc-link voltage is regulated by
the voltage source converter of the charger, therefore, the load
change only affects the grid power. Here, the load is changed in
steps and the corresponding change in grid power (Pg ) can be
seen in Fig. 8(a). The reduction in load current (ih ) is causing
an increase in grid current (ig ) as shown in Fig. 8(b). However,
the PV array current (Ipv ) and the EV charging current (Iev )
 4174 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 56, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2020

Fig. 7. Dynamic performance in islanded condition. (a), (b) Under solar irradiance change. (c), (d) Under the change in household load. (e), (f) Derating of
MPPT.

Fig. 8. Dynamic performance in GCM. (a), (b) Under change in household load. (c), (d) Under change in solar irradiance power. (e), (f) Under change in
charging/discharging of EV battery.

are not affected by the load change. The same is justified by
the undisturbed PV array (Ppv ) and the EV power (Pev ). The
voltage across the dc link (Vdc ) is also regulated during the load
change.
The performance under solar irradiance change is shown in
Fig. 8(c) and (d). Due to the change in the solar irradiance level,
the PV array generation (Ppv ) changes. Since the household
loads and the EV charging should not be disturbed by the
irradiance change, the grid power (Pg ) changes to maintain the
power balance. The solar irradiance is changed in step from
1000 to 700 W/m2 , 700 to 300 W/m2 , and so on. Due to this,
the grid power (Pg ) becomes both positive and negative. That
means, at 1000 W/m2 , the excess generation is supplied back to
the grid. However, at 300 W/m2 , the power is drawn from the
grid. The EV power (Pev ), load power (Ph ), and dc-link voltage
(Vdc ) remain undisturbed.

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 VERMA et al.: IMPLEMENTATION OF SOLAR PV ARRAY BASED MULTIFUNCTIONAL EV CHARGER
Fig. 9. Performance of V2G reactive power support.
Fig. 10. Performance under distorted voltage condition and active power filter
operation.
Fig. 11. Synchronization, mode switching, and enabling signal generation.
Fig. 12. Comparison of dc-link voltage regulation using PI and SMC control.
In GCM, the EV charger participates in demand based active
power exchange with the grid. Therefore, the EV voluntarily
takes active power from the grid or discharges some of its stored
energy to the grid, as shown in Fig. 8(e) and (f). Due to the
charging /discharging of the EV battery, the grid power (Pg )
changes without affecting the PV array generation (Ppv ) and
the load supply (Ph ). Fig. 8(e) and (f) shows the step change in
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4175
Fig. 13. Performance comparison under the sudden change in charg-
ing/discharging current of EV. (a) PI control. (b) SMC control.
the battery current (Iev ) from charging to discharging. Due to
the discharging of the battery, the grid current (ig ) increases.
However, the PV array current (Ipv ) and the dc-link voltage
(Vdc ) remain unaltered. Therefore, from the dynamic results,
it is observed that the charger operation in GCM and islanded
mode are not affected by the disturbances. Moreover, it is also
perceived that one type of perturbation is not interfering with
the operation of another component.
Fig. 9 shows the V2G reactive power performance at Pg =
0 kW. Due to the step-change in the reference reactive power
(Qref ) from 1 to –1 kVAR, the grid current (ig ) becomes lead-
ing from lagging. Moreover, the dc-link voltage (Vdc ) remains
undisturbed.
Fig. 10 shows the harmonic compensation and PCC voltage
correction capability of the charger. Fig. 10 shows that the grid
current (ig ) is the same as load current (ih ) without harmonics
mitigation using VSC. However, it is observed that the grid
current (ig ) becomes sinusoidal after harmonics compensation.
The current (is ) of VSC is shown in Fig. 10. Moreover, it is
observed that the PCC voltage (vg ) profile also improves due to
compensation.
Fig. 11 shows the performance of mode switching control
and enabling signal (E) generation after synchronization. From
Fig. 11, it is observed that the charger is automatically switching
the mode between islanded mode and GCM without affecting the
power to the household load. Moreover, during the connection
to/disconnecting from the grid, the grid current (ig ) is smooth.
C. Comparison of DC-Link Voltage Regulation Using PI
Control and SMC Control
Fig. 12 shows the dc-link voltage (Vdc ) regulation capability
of the PI controller and SMC under the step change of 50 V in
reference dc-link voltage (V∗ dc ). From Fig. 12, it is observed that
 4176 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 56, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2020

the SMC is faster in regulating the dc-link voltage as compared APPENDIX II

the PI control.
The SMC for dc-link voltage regulation in (16) minimize the
voltage error and estimates the loss component in finite time.
D. Performance Comparison of SMC and PI Control at To guarantee this, the following condition has to be verified for
Sudden Change in Charging/Discharging Current of EV both positive and negative voltage errors [53]:
Due to sudden variation in EV current (Iev ) from discharging •
to charging, the dc-link voltage (Vdc ) is not regulated with the lim S · S < 0. (28)
S→0
PI control, as shown in Fig. 13(a). However, the SMC control •
has regulated the dc-link voltage (Vdc ) at the sudden change, Using (7) and (8), S is derived as
as shown in Fig. 13(b). Since the PV array MPP operation • • •
∗ ∗
depends on the dc-link voltage regulation at MPP voltage; the S = γ(Vdc − Vdc ) + Vdc − Vdc . (29)
PV array does not operate at MPP due to the steady-state error in •
PI control. Moreover, it also changes under the sudden change Using (11), (16), and (29), S is calculated as
in EV current. However, with SMC, the steady-state error is •
always zero and it also does not change with EV current change. S = −γ[(σ + δ)sign(S) − μ (30)
Therefore, it always operates at MPP. •
which after multiplication with S gives S · S as
•
VI. CONCLUSION S · S = S(−γ((σ + δ)sign(S) − μ)
An integrated charger with solar PV array, household load, = −γδ |S| − γS(σsign(S) − μ). (31)
and grid has been implemented using the insulated gate bipolar
junction transistor (IGBT) switches based converters, solar sim- Now, for the reference dc-link voltage more than the actual dc-
ulator, EV battery, dSPACE (1006) controller, and the test results link voltage, the voltage error becomes positive, which implies
have verified the simultaneous EV charging and household that the reaching point lies in the positive side of the surface,
supply in both islanded mode and GCM. From these test results, i.e., S > 0. Now considering (31) for S > 0, we obtain
it is observed that this charger is performing its specified task of •
EV charging, supplying local loads and maintaining the power S · S = −γδ |S| − γS(σ − μ)< 0 for σ ≥ |μ| (32)
quality at the grid side. Moreover, the islanded operation with which justifies that
voltage THD less than 5% and V2H operation using solar PV
•
array is also verified. The demand-based reactive power support lim+ S · S < 0. (33)
and the active power filtering using VSC are also validated S→0

through test results. The smooth transition from islanded mode For the negative voltage error, the actual dc-link voltage be-
to GCM and vice versa are verified by test results. comes more than the reference dc-link voltage and the reaching
point lies in the negative side of the surface, i.e., S < 0. Therefore,
APPENDIX I evaluating (31) for S < 0 gives
•
System Parameters: S · S = −γδ |S| + γS(σ + μ)< 0 (34)
Single-phase supply: 230 V, 50 Hz
Reference dc-link voltage V∗ dc = Vmpp (with PV array) which finally leads to
V∗ dc = 360 (without PV array) •
PV array: Voc = 460 V, Isc = 1 A, Vmpp = 396 V, Impp = lim− S · S < 0. (35)
S→0
9.5 A, 3.77 kW
From (35) it can be concluded that, for positive voltage error,
EV battery: 240 V, 35 Ah (Lead Acid)
the controller increases the Id for drawing more power from the
Lc = 5 mH, Cdc = 2200 μF, Lb = 2.6 mH
grid to reduce the error. However, for negative voltage error, the
Bidirectional Converter Parameters:
controller reduces the Id for reducing the power fed into the grid.
Switching frequency: 20 kHz
Equations (33) and (35) justify that the controller can regulate
Parameter of PI current controller: Kp = 0.0816, KI = 256.61,
the dc-link voltage for both positive and negative voltage errors.
ξ=1
Bandwidth of current controller (ω n ) = 6283.19 rad·s–1
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Anjeet Verma (Member, IEEE) was born in Varanasi,
India, in 1991. He received the B.Tech. degree in
electrical and electronics engineering from G.L. Bajaj
Institute of Technology and Management, Greater
Noida, India, in 2012 and the M.Tech. degree in
electrical machines and drive from the Indian Institute
of Technology (BHU), Varanasi, India, in 2015. He is
currently working toward the Ph.D. degree with the
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Insti-
tute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India.
His research interests include electric vehicle, re-
newable energy based charging infrastructure, power electronics, renewable
energy, microgrid, and power quality.
Bhim Singh (Fellow, IEEE) was born in Rahamapur,
Bijnor, India, in 1956. He received the B.E. (electri-
cal) degree from the University of Roorkee, Roorkee,
India, in 1977 and the M.Tech. (power apparatus and
systems) and Ph.D. degrees from the Indian Institute
of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India, in 1979 and
1983, respectively.
In 1983, he joined the Department of Electrical
Engineering, University of Roorkee (now Indian In-
stitute of Technology Roorkee), as a Lecturer. In
December 1990, he joined as an Assistant Professor,
the Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi,
where he became an Associate Professor in 1994 and a Professor in 1997. He
has been the J. C. Bose Fellow of DST, Government of India since December
2015. He has guided 83 Ph.D. dissertations and 167 M.E./M.Tech./M.S.(R)
theses. He has filed 52 patents. He has executed more than 80 sponsored
and consultancy projects. He has coauthored a text book on power quality:
Power Quality Problems and Mitigation Techniques (Wiley, 2015). His research
interests include solar PV grid systems, microgrids, power quality mitigation,
PV water pumping systems, and improved power quality ac–dc converters.
Authorized licensed use limited to: College of Engineering - THIRUVANANTHAPURAM. Downloaded on October 09,2023 at 16:48:21 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Ambrish Chandra (Fellow, IEEE) received the B.E.
degree from the University of Roorkee (presently In-
dian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee), Roorkee,
India, in 1977, the M. Tech. degree from the IIT Delhi,
New Delhi, India, in 1980, and the Ph.D. degree from
the University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada, in
1987.
Since 1999, he has been a Full Professor of Elec-
trical Engineering with the École de Technologie
Supérieure (ÉTS), Montreal, QC, Canada. Before
joining ÉTS as an Associate Professor in 1994, he
was a Faculty Member with IIT Roorkee. From 2012 to 2015, he was the Direc-
tor of Multidisciplinary Graduate Program on Renewable Energy and Energy
Efficiency at ÉTS. He is currently the Director of master program in electrical
engineering. The primary focus of his work is related to the advancement of
new theory and control algorithms for power electronic converters for power
quality improvement in distribution systems and integration of renewable energy
sources. He is the Co-Author of book Power Quality: Problems and Mitigation
Techniques (Wiley, 2014).
Dr. Chandra is a Fellow of many organizations, including Canadian Academy
of Engineering, Institute of Engineering and Technology U.K., Engineering
Institute of Canada, etc. He is a registered Professional Engineer in Quebec.
He is a Distinguished Lecturer of IEEE PES and the IEEE IAS Society. He was
the recipient of IEEE Canada P. Ziogas Electric Power Award 2018.
Kamal Al-Haddad (Life Fellow, IEEE) received
the B.Sc.A. and M.Sc.A. degrees from the Univer-
sité du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, QC,
Canada, in 1982 and 1984, respectively, and the
Ph.D. degree from the Institut National Polytech-
nique, Toulouse, France, in 1988.
Since June 1990, he has been a Professor with the
Electrical Engineering Department, École de Tech-
nologie Supérieure, Montreal, QC, Canada, where he
has been the holder of the Senior Canada Research
Chair in Electric Energy Conversion and Power Elec-
tronics since 2002. He has supervised more than 170 Ph.D. and M.Sc.A. students
in the field of power electronics. He is a Consultant and has established very
good link with many Canadian industries working in the field of power elec-
tronics, energy conversion, electric transportation, renewable energy, multilevel
topologies, aeronautics, and telecommunications. He has coauthored more than
600 transactions and conference papers as well as two books.
Prof. Al-Haddad is a Fellow Member of the Canadian Academy of Engineer-
ing. He was the IEEE IES President (2016–2017), is the Associate Editor for
the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL INFORMATICS, an IES Distinguished
Lecturer, and the recipient of the 2014 IEEE IES Dr.-Ing. Eugene Mittelmann
Achievement Award. He is a member of the Academy of Sciences and Fellow
of the Royal Society of Canada.