ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE THEORY

Course Code:EC2102-1
Credits: 3
ppt credit: Dr.Roopa B Hegde

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Course Content

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Course Content

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Coulomb’s Law – Experimental Law

Coulomb’s Law: the force between two very small objects separated in
a vacuum or free space by a distance, which is large compared to their
size, is proportional to the charge on each and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.

Mathematically,

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Coulomb’s Law – Experimental Law

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Coulomb’s Law – Experimental Law

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Coulomb’s Law - Vector Form

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Coulomb’s Law - Vector Form

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Coulomb’s Law - Vector Form

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Coulomb’s Law – Superposition Form

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Electric Field Intensity

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Electric Field Intensity

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Electric Field Intensity

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Electric Field Intensity

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Electric Field Intensity

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Electric Field Intensity

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Electric Field Intensity

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Field Due to Continuous Volume Charge Distribution

• Visualize a region of space filled with a tremendous number of

charges separated by minute distances
• Replace this distribution of very small particles with a smooth
continuous distribution described by a volume charge density
• Denoting volume charge density by 𝜌𝑣 , having the units of coulombs
per cubic meter (𝐶/𝑚3 )

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Field Due to Continuous Volume Charge Distribution

• Defining 𝜌𝑣 mathematically by using a limiting process,

• The total charge within some finite volume is obtained by integrating

throughout that volume

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 Field Due to Continuous Volume Charge Distribution

Evaluate volume
integral to find
total charge
contained in a
2-cm length of
the electron
beam as shown
in Figure.

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Electric Flux and Electric Flux Density

Faraday’s findings

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Electric Flux and Electric Flux Density

Faraday’s findings

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Electric Flux and Electric Flux Density

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Electric Flux and Electric Flux Density

• If electric flux is denoted by Ψ and the total charge on the inner

sphere by Q, then for Faraday’s experiment

• At the surface of the inner sphere, Ψ coulombs of electric flux are

produced by the charge Q Coulombs distributed uniformly over a
surface having an area of 4𝜋𝑎2 𝑚2

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠

• Hence electric flux density 𝑫 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

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Electric Flux and Electric Flux Density

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Electric Flux and Electric Flux Density

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Electric Flux and Electric Flux Density

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Point Charge Fields

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Fields - Volume Charge Distribution

Replacing Q by volume charge distribution

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Gauss Law

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Gauss Law

Total flux

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Gauss Law

Mathematical form of Gauss law

Gauss law for volume charge

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Gauss Law - Illustration

To prove: Ψ = Q,
placing Q at center of spherical
coordinate system

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Gauss Law - Application

Electric flux within a differential volume element

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Gauss Law - Application

From Gauss law,

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Gauss Law - Application

Considering front surface,

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Gauss Law - Application

Taylor’s Series Expansion

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Gauss Law - Application

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Gauss Law - Application

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Gauss Law - Application

Adding front and back integrals,

Similarly,

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Gauss Law - Application

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Divergence and Maxwell’s First Equation

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Divergence and Maxwell’s First Equation

• Divergence operator can only accept a vector function as an

input. A vector function is simply a vector of 3 dimension,
broken into x, y, and z components.
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 Divergence and Maxwell’s First Equation

Allowing volume element to shrink to 0

Divergence of D = div D =

Divergence of vector flux density is outflow of flux from small closed surface per unit volume as volume shrinks to zero

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Divergence and Maxwell’s First Equation

Divergence is an operation on a vector yielding a scalar result, just as the dot product of two
vectors gives a scalar result

Separating the divergence operator and electric flux density from above expression

∇: Divergence operator del

𝐃 = 𝑫𝒙 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑫𝒚 𝒂𝒚 + 𝑫𝒛 𝒂𝒛

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Divergence and Maxwell’s First Equation

Divergence is an operation on a vector yielding a scalar result, just as the dot product of two
vectors gives a scalar result

Maxwell’s first equation for electrostatic

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Divergence

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Divergence Theorem

This theorem applies to any vector field for which the appropriate
partial derivatives exist.

From Gauss law

Volume charge density

Maxwell’s first equation

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Divergence Theorem

Equating the first and the last terms

Divergence theorem

Statement:
The integral of the normal component of any vector field over a closed surface is
equal to the integral of the divergence of the same vector field throughout the
volume enclosed by the closed surface.
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Divergence Theorem

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hJD8ywGrXks
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Energy and Potential

Moving a charge Q a distance dL in an electric field E – The force on Q arising from

the electric field is

Work done in displacing the charge Q by length dL is

-ve sign: Applied force in opposite direction

Total work required to move the charge a finite distance is

No work is done in carrying the unit charge around any closed path
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Potential Difference

Potential difference V is the work done (by an external source) in moving a

unit positive charge from one point to another in an electric field,

Potential difference between two points A and B is

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Potential Difference

VAB : PD between two points A and B

• If VAB is –ve: loss in potential energy – work done by the field

• If VAB is +ve: gain in potential energy – work done by external field
• It is independent of the path taken
• Potential field at any point due to a charge at the origin of the coordinate system
is

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Potential

• The potential arising from a single point charge is the work done in carrying a
unit positive charge from infinity to the point at potential is desired.

• The potential field in the presence of several point charges is the sum of the
individual potential fields arising from each charge.

• The potential arising from several point charges, or any continuous charge
distribution may therefore be found by carrying a unit charge from infinity to the
point in question along any path we choose.
• No work is done in carrying the unit charge around any closed path

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Potential and Equipotential Surface

• Potential V is the work done in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to
another point in an electric field.

• No work is done in carrying the unit charge around any closed path

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Potential and Equipotential Surface

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Potential and Equipotential Surface

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Potential Gradient

• Rate of change of potential w.r.t distance

• It allows to compute E

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 Potential Gradient

1. The magnitude of the electric field intensity is given by the maximum value of the rate of change of
potential with distance.

2. This maximum value is obtained when the direction of the distance increment is opposite to E or, in
other words, the direction of E is opposite to the direction in which the potential is increasing the most
rapidly.
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Potential Gradient

The operation on V by which −E is obtained is known as the gradient 

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Potential Gradient

 Grad V  ∇V

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Potential Gradient

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Energy Density in Electrostatic Field

Work done  Potential difference  Potential  Potential energy  Energy density

Potential energy  work done by an external source in positioning the charges

Initially, bringing a point charge Q1 from infinity to empty universe  no work done

Further, positioning of Q2 at a point in the field of Q1 requires an amount of work

given by the product of the charge Q2 and the potential at that point due to Q1.

Represent this potential as 𝑉2,1, where the first subscript indicates the location and
the second subscript the source.

That is, 𝑉2,1 is the potential at the location of Q2 due to Q1

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Energy Density in Electrostatic Field

Similarly,

------- (1)

However,

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Energy Density in Electrostatic Field

---------- (2)

Adding (1) and (2)

For continuous charge distribution

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Energy Density in Electrostatic Field

Maxwell’s first equation

Using

0
Applying Divergence theorem

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Metallic Conductors

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 Metallic Conductors

Electrons accelerate  continuous increase in velocity due to collision  attain average velocity (drift velocity)
Drift velocity Mobility

For these good conductors, a drift velocity of a few centimeters per second is sufficient to produce a
noticeable temperature rise and can cause the wire to melt if the heat cannot be quickly removed by
thermal conduction or radiation.

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 Metallic Conductors

where ρe is the free-electron charge density, a negative value.

The total charge density ρν is zero because equal positive and negative charges are present in
the neutral material.

The negative value of ρe and the minus sign lead to a current density J that is in the same
direction as the electric field intensity E.

Relation between J and E in terms of conductivity is,

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Conductor Properties and Boundary Conditions

• No charge may remain within the conductor. If it did, the resulting

electric field would force the charges to the surface.

• Charge density is zero within a conductor, and a surface charge density

resides on the exterior surface.

• For static conditions in which no current may flow, follows directly from
Ohm’s law: the electric field intensity within the conductor is zero.

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Conductor Properties and Boundary Conditions

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Conductor Properties and Boundary Conditions

Tangential field components can be determined

by applying

The integral is broken up into four parts around a closed path abcda

Letting the length from a to b or c to d be Δw and from b to c or d to a be Δh,

E=0 inside the conductor

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 Conductor Properties and Boundary Conditions

Allowing Δh to approach zero, keeping Δw small but finite

𝐸𝑡 ∆𝑤 = 0

=> 𝐸𝑡 = 0

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑡 = 0

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 Conductor Properties and Boundary Conditions

Normal component can be determined by applying Gauss law

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 Conductor Properties and Boundary Conditions

Boundary conditions:

1. The static electric field intensity inside a conductor is zero.

2. The static electric field intensity at the surface of a conductor is everywhere directed normal to that surface.
3. The conductor surface is an equipotential surface.

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Conductor Properties and Boundary Conditions

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Dielectric Materials

P: Polarisation

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Dielectric Materials and Boundary Conditions

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Dielectric Materials and Boundary Conditions

Normal components by applying Gauss law

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