PRODUCTION FACILITIES

Production Facilities means any building or equipment used for the purpose of producing, treating, or
separating produced fluids and gas, including but not limited to pumps, pumping units, compressors,
generators, gas flares, treaters, separators, storage tanks, and pits

Facilities are needed in order to :

1. produce goods
2. provide services.

Types of industrial buildings

1: Heavy industrial buildings
These types of industrial buildings are large in size and used by companies that manufacture steel,
cement or things like automobiles. usually have large store houses for keeping raw material and finished
goods. There can be huge blast furnaces inside these types of industrial buildings set up. There can also
be pressurized air and water lines, high capacity exhaust systems, cranes and storage tanks.

2: Warehouses
Types of industrial buildings that are used for storing goods. These type of industrial building are of
great use to manufacturers, people involved in wholesale business, exporters, importers, people
involved in business of transports etc.
Although warehouses can be of different sizes, they are usually large and are located outside city
limits. They can have more than one storey and can have loading docks, huge parking lots of big trucks.
It is important to know that since warehouses deal with lot of goods, their location is also planned in
such a way that goods can be loaded and unloaded directly from the ports, the railways stations or the
airports using cranes.
The goods in the warehouses include raw and packed materials across sectors including
agriculture, manufacturing, healthcare, food and beverages etc. They can also have a small office set up
inside the premises.

3: Telecom centres or data hosting centres

These facilities have large servers and computers and are very specialized types of industrial
buildings wherein there are large power lines capable of powering the computers. These are located in
proximity to large communication trunk lines. A data centre hosts computer systems and its related
components like telecommunications and data storage.

4: Cold storage buildings

These commercial building types are especially built to store large amounts of food products and
keep them under refrigerated conditions for long periods. These commercial building types are located
mostly along state and national highways and in places where there is good supply of electricity.

5: Light manufacturing buildings

These types of industrial buildings can be used in processing food items or assembly of light
machinery like fans, water pumps, gadgets, etc. These are generally small in size as compared to types of
industrial buildings that are heavy and do not have blast furnace, high capacity exhaust systems etc.
6: Research and development set up
Research and development (R&D) forms an integral part of many businesses and they like to set
up their own R&D centres which cater to their specific requirements. A lot of life sciences companies
have their R&D centres which are usually owned by them. These centres are generally not in the centre
of the city. Companies can house their scientists and other staff in these types of commercial buildings.
There can also be elements of office buildings in a R&D centre.

7: Flex buildings This is the newest addition to the category of types of commercial building/ industrial
buildings example and is a result of the evolving needs of modern times. These flex commercial building
types have more than one usage and can accommodate a R&D facility, an office set up, light
manufacturing and even showroom spaces. They are flexible in nature and some of the uses can be
changed by making simple modifications.

Operation of production facilities

-Production facilities usually operate according to design.
-In Oil and gas production, it follows a process flow. From the reservoir to the surface facilities where
they are separated, cleaned, and measured and then sent through a pipeline to the end user.
-During most of this process, everything operates according to plan. Occasionally, problems occur,
things break, malfunctions happen, settings change, horns go off, and shut-ins take place.

Manufacturing
-The manufacturing facility is the facility where the business builds its products. Another name for this
type of facility is an industrial facility.
-The company has both heavy manufacturing facilities as well as light industrial facilities. It is in the
heavy manufacturing facilities that the company makes all of their very large and very bulky items, such
as their large-screen televisions.
-It is in the light industrial facilities that the company makes their small items, such as their glasses with
a little computer screen in the corner. Looking at their facilities, everything is working smoothly.
-The company representative tells us that making their own products and keeping their processes
smooth are a couple ways they keep prices low and quality high.
-In heavy manufacturing facilities that large, complex items are made. example, the automotive, heavy
equipment, shipbuilding and aircraft industries all require heavy manufacturing facilities. Heavy
industrial facilities can also produce materials like refined oil and steel products.
-In light industrial facilities, smaller items, such as furniture, clothing, and toiletries, are produced. As
mentioned before, the meaning of heavy and light manufacturing can vary greatly depending on the
company.

Important factors to consider in a manufacturing plant:

-it is important to air-condition the processes and products
-create a good indoor climate for the employees, which is also in line with all regulation.
-Many production halls are very large and tall.
-In other production facilities harmful substances must be safely removed.
-High thermal loads need to be led out etc..
-Customized air conditioning not only increases employee motivation and performance, but also has a
positive impact on the production quality and resilience of the production machines

Facility Layout
 Facility layout and design is an important component of a business's overall operations, both in
terms of maximizing the effectiveness of the production process and meeting the needs of employees.
The basic objective of layout is to ensure a smooth flow of work, material, and information through
a system.
The basic meaning of facility is the space in which a business's activities take place.
The layout and design of that space impact greatly how the work is done—the flow of work,
materials, and information through the system.
The key to good facility layout and design is the integration of the needs of people (personnel and
customers), materials (raw, finishes, and in process), and machinery in such a way that they create a
single, well functioning system • • 1.

FACTORS IN DETERMINING LAYOUT AND DESIGN

Small business owners need to consider many operational factors when building a facility for maximum
layout effectiveness.

1.Ease of future expansion or change:

Facilities should be designed so that they can be easily expanded or adjusted to meet changing
production needs necessary, Weiss and Gershon in their book Production and Operations
Management .said "Therefore, any design should be flexible. Flexible manufacturing systems most often
are highly automated facilities having intermediate volume production of a variety of products. Their
goal is to minimize changeover or setup times for producing the different products while still achieving
close to assembly line (single-product) production rates."

2. Flow of movement

The facility design should reflect a recognition of the importance of smooth process flow. In the
case of factory facilities, the editors of How to Run a Small Business state that "ideally, the plan will
show the raw materials entering your plant at one end and the finished product emerging at the other.
The flow need not be a straight line. Parallel flows, Unshaped patterns, or even a zig-zag that ends up
with the finished product back at the shipping and receiving bays can be functional. However,
backtracking is to be avoided in whatever pattern is chosen. When parts and materials move against or
across the overall flow, personnel and paperwork become confused, parts become lost, and the
attainment of coordination becomes complicated."

1.Materials handling—Small business owners should make certain that the facility layout makes
it possible to handle materials (products, equipment, containers, etc.) in an orderly, efficient—and
preferably simple—manner.

2.Output needs—The facility should be laid out in a way that is conducive to helping the
business meet its production needs.

3. Safety—The facility layout should enable the business to effectively operate in accordance
with Occupational Safety and Health Administration guidelines and other legal restrictions.

4.Space utilization—This aspect of facility design includes everything from making sure that
traffic lanes are wide enough to making certain that inventory storage warehouses or rooms utilize as
much vertical space as possible.
 5. Shipping and receiving—The J. K. Lasser Institute counseled small business owners to leave
ample room for this aspect of operations. " While space does tend to fill itself up, receiving and shipping
rarely get enough space for the work to be done effectively, " it said Hionw to Run a Small Business . •

6.Ease of communication and support—Facilities should be laid out so that communication

within various areas of the business and interactions with vendors and customers can be done in an easy
and effective manner. Similarly, support areas should be stationed in areas that help them to serve
operating areas.

7.Flow of movement—The facility design should reflect a recognition of the importance of

smooth process flow. In the case of factory facilities, the editors oHf ow to Run a Small Business state
that "ideally, the plan will show the raw materials entering your plant at one end and the finished
product emerging at the other. The flow need not be a straight line. Parallel flows, U-shaped patterns, or
even a zig-zag that ends up with the finished product back at the shipping and receiving bays can be
functional. However, backtracking is to be avoided in whatever pattern is chosen. When parts and
materials move against or across the overall flow, personnel and paperwork become confused, parts
become lost, and the attainment of coordination becomes complicated." Facility layout In engineering,
layout is a design for the flow

Facility layout
-In engineering, layout is a design for the floor plan of a plant which aims to improve efficiency by
arranging equipment according to its function. It should ideally be designed to eliminate waste in
material flows, inventory handling and management.
-goals in designing the facility
-to ensure a minimum amount of materials handling,
-to avoid bottlenecks,
-to minimize machine interference,
-to ensure high employ

Types of Layout

Two distinct types of layout.

1. Product layout is synonymous with assembly line and is oriented toward the products that
are being made. It is applicable for high-volume repetitive operations
2.Process layout / Functional layout. It is oriented around the processes that are used to make
the products. Process layout is applicable for low volume custom-made goods.“ This type of
layout, the machines are not arranged according to the sequence of operations but are arranged
according to the nature or type of operation.

3. Fixed position layout

The least important for today’s industries. The major component remain in a fixed location, other
materials, parts ,tools, machinery, manpower. The major component or body of the product remain in a
fixed position because it is too heavy. Ex. Boilers, hydraulic, steam turbines and ships.
 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Physical properties of materials
Density-density is a measure of how compact matter is.

melting point- solids have a characteristic melting point, the temperature at which the solid melts to
become a liquid
thermal conductivity-refers to the intrinsic ability of a material to transfer or conduct heat. It is one of
the three methods of heat transfer, the other two being convection and radiation.
electrical conductivity (resistivity)- is a measurement of how easily a material allows electric current to
flow through it
thermal expansion-general increase in the volume of a material as its temperature is increased.
corrosion resistance-defined as the ability of a material (metallic or non-metallic) to withstand corrosion
damage caused by oxidation or other chemical reactions.

Chemical Properties of Engineering Materials

Chemical composition-Chemical composition can be defined as the arrangement, ratio, and type of
atoms in molecules of chemical substances.
Atomic bonding-Chemical Bonding refers to the formation of a chemical bond between two or more
atoms, molecules, or ions to give rise to a chemical compound

Mechanical Properties Of Materials

Creep and Slip- determine the amount of deformation a material experiences over time while under a
continuous tensile or compressive load at a constant temperature.
Slip is the large displacement of one part of a crystal relative to another part along crystallographic planes
and directions. Slip occurs by the passage of dislocations on close packed planes which are planes
containing the greatest number of atoms per area and in close-packed directions.
Brittleness-property of a material that fractures when subjected to stress but has a little tendency to
deform before rupture.
Hardenability- describes how deep a metal can be hardened upon quenching from high temperature
Hardness- describe a material’s resistance to deformation due to other actions, such as: Cutting,
Abrasion, Penetration, Scratching
Toughness- the ability of a material to absorb energy and withstand shock up to fracture
Strength- its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation
Malleability- A malleable material is one in which a thin sheet can be easily formed by hammering or
rolling. In other words, the material has the ability to deform under compressive stress.
Ductility. a ductile material is a material that can easily be stretched into a wire when pulled.
The engineering materials can be classified as:
1. Metals
a)Ferrous Metals- with Fe content such as cast iron, steel,, various steel alloys. They come from iron
ore, difference between iron and steel is the carbon content. Properties are too soft and ductile.
Ex.wrought iron, mild steel, stainless steel ,tool steel, plated steel. If magnet will stick then the material
has iron content
b) Non-ferrous Metals- with no Fe content. Such as Al,Cu,Pb,Ni,Sn,Ti,Zn. Precious; Au,Ag,Pt Rare;
Co,Be,Hg,Bi,Tn,Ce Metals in their pure state are luster: (aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium)
2. Non-Metals
a) Plastics/Polymers (thermoplastics, thermosets)
b) Ceramics and Diamond
c)Composite Materials &
d) Nano-materials.

Physical Properties of metals:

-Solid
-Hard(except Li,K,Na)
-Metallic luster
-Malleable(can be beaten into thin sheets)
-Ductile(can be drawn into wires)
-High melting points (Ga,Ce have low melting point)
-High boiling points
-Good conductors of heat(best are Ag, Cu.poor conductors are Pb and Hg)called thermal conductivity.
-Good conductors of electricity(best are Ag and Cu)
-Sonorus(produce sound when beaten)
-Packed together as closely as possible.
-Most metals have high density.

2. Non Metals:
a)PLASTICS – usually they are classified by their chemical structure, by their backbone or mother chain.
They are also referred to as polymers. The chemical composition of plastics are various elements like
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine and sulfur
1. Polyethylene Terephthalate(PET)- most widely used in bottling or packaging because of its Some
properties are applicable as fiber, effective moisture barrier, shatterproof, recyclable
2. Polyethylene(PE):
HDPE(high-density)- For more strength needed of a plastic, this kind is of-used, ex. Detergent container,
trash bins…
Low density polyethylene (LDPE) Low-density Polyethylene (LDPE) is a semi-rigid polymer with
low crystallinity
3. Polyvinyl Chloride( PVC)- the most well-known for use in the household and commercial and
construction .Ex. plumbing, electrical insulation. They are brittle, rigid or flexible(depends on the design),
strong.
4. Polypropylene(PP)- They are used for plastic parts of automobile and other packaging
consumer products. It is also used in textiles. A semi transparent, electrical insulator.
5.Polystyrene (PS)- Used in packaging, termed as “Styrofoam” naturally transparent.
6. Polyactic Acid (PLA)- This is derived from biomass rather than petroleum. It is biodegradable much
quicker than other plastic ,used in 3D printing.
7. Polycarbonate(PC)- Transparent known for its high impact strength.
8. Acrylic(PMMA)- Used in optical devices. extremely transparent, scratch resistance and less damaging
to human skin or eye tissue.
9. Acetal(POM)- Very high tensile strength with high creep resistance. Used to bridge the gap between
plastic and metals. Strong resistance to heat, abrasion and chemicals. Low coefficient of friction. Used for
gears.
10. Nylon(PA)- Used for clothing, reinforcement in rubber material like car tires. Used also for ropes
and injection molded parts for vehicles and mechanical equipment.
11. Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene(ABS)- Strong resistance to corrosive chemicals and physical
impact. Low melting point, easy to use in injection molding or 3D printing. Use in Lego toys.
RUBBER- a natural product harvested from rubber trees, it is commonly known as the latex . There are
types of latex origin;; synthetic artificially done or manmade.
ELASTOMERS- has an elastic properties as in rubber .ex. silicone rubber
GLASS- an inorganic material , usually transparent or trans-luscent, non-crystalline, amorphous solid.
WOOD- a porous, and fibrous structural tissue found in stems and roots of trees. It is an organic material.
Strong in tension, resists compression. There are 3 types; softwoods, hardwoods and engineered wood.
FABRICS-known as the textile. made from many materials from different sources such as animal( wool,
silk), plant (cotton, bamboo), mineral(asbestos, glass fiber), synthetic(nylon, polyester).These mentioned
sources are natural, There are fibers that are made from petroleum

PROPERTIES & USES OF COMMON ENGINEERING METALS

Metals - refer to chemical elements that are solid (with relatively high melting points), hard, strong,
opaque, lustrous elements. with good conductors of heat and electricity. Most metals are malleable and
ductile and are, in general, denser than the other elemental substances. In chemistry, a metal is an element
that readily forms positive ions (cations) and has metallic bonds.
Alkali Metals - The alkali metals can be found in the first column on the left side of the Periodic Table.
They are soft metals that are highly reactive and have one electron in their outermost s sub-shell.
The six alkali metals are:
-lithium
-sodium
-potassium
-rubidium
-caesium
-francium
Alkaline Earth Metals The alkaline earth metals are found in column 2 on the left side of the Periodic
Table. They are generally harder and denser than alkali metals, have 2 electrons in their outermost s sub-
shell, and each make a distinct color in their flames.
The six alkaline earth metals are:
-beryllium
-magnesium
-calcium
-strontium
-barium
-radium
Transition Metals- The transition metals are found in the center of the main body of the Periodic Table.
They are sometimes called Heavy metals and are denser than alkali or alkaline earth metals.
The rare earth metals are typically found in their own table below the main Periodic Table. However,
they actually fit into the middle of the Periodic Table. There are two types of rare earth metals anthanides
and Actinides .

Metals are classified into two main categories:

(1) Ferrous metals -which have iron as the main constituent. Iron is never found in its pure form in
nature. It has to be extracted from ores, which are classed according to the iron mineral that is
predominant.
2) Non-Ferrous metals- where iron is not the main constituent.

Pure iron is a relatively soft and readily coldworked metal. Its typical mechanical properties are:
Tensile strength = 310 MPa,
Elongation in 50 mm = 35.40 %
Yield point = 207 MPa,
Reduction in area = 75 % With such high percentage elongation and reduction in area pure Iron cannot be
used effectively for structural purposes. In order to improve some of its properties and make it a useful
and effective material, pure iron is alloyed with other chemical elements.
Alloys of Iron A large number of elements form alloys with iron.
-carbon
-chromium
-Manganese
-Nickel
-silicon that combined with iron, form commercially important alloys

Methods
There are different ways of forming alloys:
(a) the method of fusion of the constituents and solidification after mixture, and
(b) the method of diffusion, where the main metal is in its solid state, and the diffusing material is gas,
liquid or solid. The method of fusion is the most common.

Steel Alloys of iron and carbon -at times other elements added for special purposes, make up the
important classes of ferrous metals known as steel and cast iron, By varying the carbon content one can
impart desired characteristics to the final product.
-For engineering purposes, however, only the iron-carbon system between zero and 6.67% carbon by
weight is of importance in the study of steel and cast iron.
plain carbon steels- iron-carbon alloys containing from a trace to about 2% carbon with only negligible
amount of other elements.
cast iron- With carbon content between 2% and 6.67% While the iron containing a trace of carbon is
referred to as soft or dead mild steel, that containing 6.67% and represented by the formula
(Fe3C) (iron carbide) is commonly called cementite. Cementite is a very hard and brittle alloy.

Properties:
-Plain carbon steels are elastic materials with relatively high compressive, tensile and shear strength.
-They are also relatively stiff having generally high modulus of elasticity.
-Carbon content and ultimate tensile strength have a linear relationship. The yield point of steel
in tension also increases with carbon content.
-The ultimate compressive strength of steel in short members not affected by column action is
proportional to the carbon content up to 0.83 %.
-Dead mild steel (carbon content 0.07 -0.15 %) subject to tension test will draw down and elongate
extensively before rupture takes place: however this behavior changes with increasing carbon content.
-The shearing strength of steel also increases with carbon content and is approximately 80% of the tensile
strength for mild and medium-carbon steel, but decreases to 60% for high-carbon steel.
-The ultimate strength, yield point, modulus of elasticity and hardness of steel decrease with increase in
temperature.
-Mechanical work performed on a steel product affects its internal structure and properties.
-The effect on the properties depends to a certain extent on the temperature at which the mechanical work
is performed, i.e., hot working or cold working.

Methods of process
-Hot working of steel is done by :
-hot rolling
-forging
-hydraulic or- mechanical pressing and
-extrusion.
-Cold working is generally done at room temperature and the properties of cold-worked steel depend on
the method and amount of cold work. In general, cold working leads to a marked increase in ductility and
toughness; however, extensive cold working has a marked effect on high carbon than low carbon steels.
-The important reason for adding alloys other than carbon is to increase the strength and hardness of the
steel.
-next to carbon, molybdenum is the most effective hardening element.
-Chromium also gives great hardness.
-Nickel, silicon and tungsten increase strength. Chromium also insures increased resistance to corrosion.
-A combination of 18 percent chromium, 8 percent nickel and 0.07 to 0.16 percent carbons added to iron
results in a particularly effective stainless steel.

Corrosion If left unprotected, plain carbon steel corrodes. Corrosion starts at the surface of the steel and
in due course proceeds inwards and if not arrested will destroy the metal. Corrosion is the result of
chemical action of plain carbon steel that goes into solution with moist air or water containing dissolved
oxygen. At first contact with damp air, plain carbon steel forms a few atoms thick film of hydrogen and
other products of corrosion This film that is very thin and usually invisible has a protective effect over the
surface of the metal and may retard or even stop further corrosion. If however, free oxygen is abundant it
readily combines with the hydrogen film and permits further progress of corrosion. In construction, the
least expensive and common method of protecting steel against corrosion is the application of one or
several coats of paint over its surface.

Nonferrous Metals- Almost all nonferrous metals used in construction with the possible exceptions of
copper, lead, and zinc, are alloys.
-Nonferrous alloys are generally classified in terms of their predominant metal; thus most aluminums are
aluminum-based alloys, tins are tin-based alloys, and so on.
Aluminum Because it is light, noncorrosive, has a good strength-to-weight ratio, easily formed and
extruded, aluminum has a wide range of uses in construction. It can be formed into structural shapes,
extruded into architectural shapes, and cast into variety of miscellaneous shapes
Lead It is a soft, plastic, malleable metal used primarily in sheet form. It is used as flashing, in curtain
wall panels, and as roofing material. Lead is still widely used for car batteries, pigments, ammunition,
cable sheathing, weights for lifting, weight belts for diving, lead crystal glass, radiation protection and in
some solders. It is often used to store corrosive liquids.

Copper- has been used for centuries as roofing and is still considered to be one of the most satisfactory
and enduring materials for metal roofing. Most copper is used in electrical equipment such as wiring and
motors. This is because it conducts both heat and electricity very well, and can be drawn into wires. It
also has uses in construction (for example roofing and plumbing), and industrial machinery (such as heat
exchangers).

Tin- Because of its resistance to corrosion, tin is used largely to coat iron and steel roofing
sheets. Tin has many uses. It takes a high polish and is used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion,
such as in tin cans, which are made of tin-coated steel. Alloys of tin are important, such as soft solder,
pewter, bronze and phosphor bronze. A niobium-tin alloy is used for superconducting magnets.

Zinc- Rolled sheet zinc is sometimes used for roofing and flashing, but zinc has much wider application
as coating for steel roofing sheets. Zinc is also used in alloys such as brass, nickel silver and aluminum
solder. Zinc oxide is widely used in the manufacture of very many products such as paints, rubber,
cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, plastics, inks, soaps, batteries, textiles and electrical equipment.