MEIOSIS

Sexual reproduction involves gamete formation and fertilization. In fertilization, the male gamete unites
with the female gamete. The result is the zygote, the cell from which the individual will develop.In the
human body, sperm cells are the male gametes while egg cells are the female gametes. Nearly all cells in
our bodies are diploid (2n = 46). The exception is gametes, which result from the process of meiotic division
and are haploid (n). Meiosis is the process of cell division that, starting with a diploid cell, leads to the
formation of four haploid cells that are different from each other, the gametes. Meiosis allows for
considerable variability in the genetic makeup, due to the random distribution of members of each pair of
chromosomes within the gametes and due to crossing over (equational division similar to mitosis), in which
chromosomes are split into two chromatids. Meiosis is divided into MEIOSIS I and MEIOSIS II:

 MEIOSIS I
- In prophase I the two chromosomes of each pair join (synapses), forming tetrads, because they are
made of 4 chromatids. The corresponding genes on the two homologous chromosomes thus come
into close contact, and there can be mutual exchange of corresponding portions of DNA between
the two chromosomes: this phenomenon is called crossing over. This exchange makes it possible to
obtain "new" chromosomes consisting of portions of the "paternal" chromosome and the
"maternal" chromosome: the exchange of genes results in the continuous mixing, from generation
to generation, of characters belonging to different individuals;
- in metaphase I the spindle fibers connect to the chromosomes: each chromosome, divided into two
chromatids held together by the centromere, is linked to the spindle fibers of only one pole:
homologous chromosomes are connected to the opposite poles. Alignment of the chromosomes on
the metaphase plate occurs;
- in anaphase I there is migration of chromosomes to the poles. Homologous chromosomes migrate
to the opposite poles. In meiosis, unlike mitosis, the centromere does not divide, and the entire
chromosome formed by the 2 chromatids migrates to one pole, while its homologue goes to the
other pole. Thus at one pole we will have 23 chromosomes and at the other pole the 23
homologues all already divided into 2 chromatids.
- in telophase I we complete the separation of the two cells, which are haploid because they contain
only 23 of the 46 chromosomes; each chromosome is already split into two chromatids joined by
the centromere and is thus ready for a second division.
 MEIOSIS II
- prophase II, instead of prophase I, begins immediately after telophase I, that is, immediately after
the end of the first meiotic division, without the interposition of a resting phase or interphase.
- in prometaphase and metaphase II as in mitosis, the spindle, the equatorial plate, is formed,
spindle fibers are connected to the centromere of each chromosome, which thus remains
connected to both poles;
- in anaphase II the centromeres divide as in mitosis and the two chromatids of each chromosome
separate, migrating to the poles of the cell. Recall that there are only 23 chromosomes here.
- in telophase II, the cells separate. Each cell contains 23 chromosomes; that is, it is haploid. From a
diploid progenitor cell, 4 haploid spermatozoa are obtained. In contrast, for female gametes, only
one haploid oocyte is obtained from a diploid oocyte;
COMPARISON BETWEEN MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS
In both division processes DNA duplicates once: however, mitosis involves only one division of the nucleus
and produces two diploid cells; meiosis includes two divisions of the nucleus and produces four haploid
cells. In mitosis the sister chromatids of a given chromosome are identical; in meiosis, however, if a
crossing-over has taken place during prophase I, the sister chromatids may be different.In meiosis, the
number of chromosomes arranged in the metaphase plate is half the number in the mitotic nucleus.In
mitosis, each chromosome behaves independently of its homologue; moreover, during anaphase, it is the
chromatids that are dragged to the opposite poles of the cell. If at the beginning of a mitotic division we
have a C chromosome, at the end in both daughter nuclei we find a C chromosome, each consisting of a
single chromatid. Due to DNA duplication, each daughter cell is found to have the two complete sets of
chromosomes (one of paternal origin and one of maternal origin). In meiosis when synapses form, the
chromosomes of maternal origin pair up with their paternal homologs. Then, during anaphase I, the
homologues separate: this ensures that each child nucleus receives a representative of each pair. In
addition, meiosis I ensures that each daughter nucleus receives a complete set of chromosomes.