Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 203 (2021) 108608

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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

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Carbonate cementation patterns and diagenetic reservoir facies of the

triassic Yanchang Formation deep-water sandstone in the huangling area of
the Ordos Basin, northwest China
Guizhen Liu a, b, *, Guangcheng Hu c, Xiaozhang Shi d, Yaping Ma a, b, XiuZhen Yin a, b, Airong Li a, b
a
School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Xi’an Shiyou University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, 710065, China
b
Shanxi Key Laboratory of Petroleum Accumulation Geology, Xi’an Shiyou University, Shaanxi, 710065, China
c
Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, PetroChina, Beijing, 100083, China
d
School of Resources and Environment, Yibin University, Yibin, Sichuan, 644000, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Chang 6 member sandstone is one of the main oil reservoirs of the Ordos basin, China, and consists of a
Carbonate cementation lacustrine gravity flow deposited in Huangling area. Carbonate cement is volumetrically the most important
Diagenetic reservoir facies diagenetic parameter controlling reservoir quality in the sandstones.
Lacustrine deep-water sandstone
Three generations of carbonate cements were recognized. The massive microcrystalline calcite, poikilotopic
Yanchang formation
Ordos basin
calcite and microcrystalline dolomite from the supersaturated alkaline pore water precipitate with basement
cements at an early diagenesis stage. The ferroan calcite is mainly pore-filling and replacement cementation in
the middle diagenesis stage, and ferroan dolomite is pore-filling cementation in the late diagenesis stage.
The four types of reservoir facies and the distribution patterns were identified in the Chang 6 member
sandstones. (1) Massive carbonate cemented facies with high contents of carbonate cements are distributed along
the edges of the sandstone bodies, which are in the channels of the turbidite and sandy debris flow deposits. (2)
Partial carbonate cemented facies occur along the margins of the massive carbonate cemented facies. (3) The
porous facies with the lowest percentages of carbonate cements in sandstone are distributed in the middle of the
sand-bodies of the sandy debris flow deposits. (4) High muddy debris facies that have high percentages of
carbonate-cemented and high muddy debris sandstones occur essentially in the proximal overbank and lobe of
the turbidite deposits.
The reservoir quality of sandstones depended upon time of precipitation of carbonate cements on and
diagenetic processes. Massive carbonate cements and the high muddy debris of sandstones undergo lots of
carbonate cements and strong compaction in the early diagenesis stage, respectively. There was weak water rock
reaction of dissolution in the later diagenesis process. Partial carbonate cemented facies and the porous facies of
sandstones have sufficient water rock reaction and more dissolution pores.

1. Introduction flow, thus producing highly complex heterogeneity in the originally

In sandstone reservoirs, carbonate cements are the most abundant
authigenic minerals. The main constitutes are calcite, dolomite, ferroan
calcite, ferroan dolomite and siderite. They are widely distribution and
formation at different geological periods and in a variety of composi­
tions (Anjos et al., 2010; Carlos et al., 2001; Taylor et al., 2000; Wang
et al., 2008).
Carbonate cement is the main bottleneck in sandstone reservoir
development. The carbonate-cemented layers will interfere with fluid
homogeneous and massive reservoirs (Boles and Ramseyer, 2002; Dut­
ton et al., 2002, 2008). However, carbonate cementation controls on the
sandstone reservoir quality because carbonate cement reduces the
porosity and permeability of the reservoir, affects the fluid flow during
the production (Marcos and De Ros, 1995; Dutton, 2008). Thus, car­
bonate cementation in sandstones affects oil recovery. Understanding of
the origin of carbonate cements and distribution are important for
reservoir prediction and oil and gas productivity.
Carbonate cement is one of the most important diagenetic

* Corresponding author. School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Xi’an Shiyou University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, 710065, China.
E-mail address: liuguizhen509@xsyu.edu.cn (G. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2021.108608
Received 13 November 2019; Received in revised form 24 December 2020; Accepted 25 February 2021
Available online 27 February 2021
0920-4105/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
G. Liu et al.
constituents in the sandstones of the gravity-flow deposited in the
lacustrine Basins. The quality of siliciclastic rock reservoirs is often
influenced by the volume of the carbonate cements. Carbonate cements
are formed in different diagenetic environments with different evolu­
tions. The precipitation timing and precipitation mechanism are related
to compaction and their dissolution (Marcos, 1995; Liu et al., 2014).
Carbonate cements are precipitated not only in early stage of diagenesis
but also in the stage of mesodiagenesis with relatively high-temperature
and high-pressure conditions. Thus, carbonate cements in sandstones
have characteristics of wide geological distribution, multiple carbonate
generations and various diagenetic origins.
Many previous studies have discussed the origin and constitutes of
the carbonate cements in the Triassic Yanchang Formation of the Ordos
Basin (e.g., Yao et al., 2011; Wen et al., 2007; Sun et al., 2010; Liu et al.,
2012; Tian et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2017; Li et al., 2018). In these
studies, the origin of carbonate cements was analyzed (Yao et al., 2011;
Wen et al., 2007; Sun et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2017). The
origin of the substance for carbonate cements include the solution of the
detrital carbonate (Wen et al., 2007), the illitization of smectite (Yao
et al., 2011), the expelled fluid flow from the overlying shale, and the
decomposition of the unstable dark-color minerals in reservoirs (Sun
et al., 2010). The source of carbonate cementation can be divided into
endogenous and exogenous sources (Liu et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2017).
The characteristics of the carbonate cements and their effect on the
properties in the Chang 8 sandstone reservoirs have been studied pre­
viously (Tian et al., 2011; Li et al., 2018). Relatively few of these studies
Fig. 1. Location maps for study area and stratigraphic column. (A) Tectonic division in the Ordos Basin and location of China. (B) Stratigraphic column of the
Yanchang Formation. Ch = Chang.
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 203 (2021) 108608
have determined the distribution and the evolution of carbonate ce­
ments. Thus, the objectives of this article are to (1) analyse the distri­
bution patterns and compositions of the carbonate cements, (2)
determine the effect of the cement on the reservoir properties, and (3)
investigate in detail the formation and evolving processes of the car­
bonate cements.
2. Geological setting
The Ordos Basin, a large petroleum province in northwest China, is a
cratonic basin and has experienced several episodes of subsidence
(Yang, 2002). During the late Triassic, it was a large lacustrine basin that
began to uplift during the late Cretaceous (Yang, 2002). The research
area is located south of the Yishan slope in the Ordos Basin (Fig. 1A). The
Yishan slope has a uniform, gentle westward dip of less than 1◦ (Yang,
2002).
The Upper Triassic Yanchang Formation is a major tight oil sand­
stone reservoir in the Ordos Basin with a thickness of approximately
1000–1300 m (Yang et al., 2015). From top to bottom, the Yanchang
Formation was divided into 10 oil-bearing members: Chang 1–Chang 10
(Fig. 1B). Chang 7 is the most important oil-generating interval, and
Chang 6 and Chang 8 are the major oil-producing intervals (Yang, 2002;
Yang et al., 2016).
Recent research shows that there are thick layers of sand bodies in
the Chang 6 member of the Yanchang Formation in the central lacustrine
deep-water deposition of the Ordos Basin. These thick sand bodies were
G. Liu et al.
identified as lacustrine sandy-clastic flow deposits and have become a
new field of oil and gas exploration (Zou et al., 2009; Fu et al., 2010; Li
et al., 2011).
The depositional environment of the Chang 6 member was inter­
preted as lacustrine deep-water deposits of gravity-flow, which form
debris flow and high-density turbidity currents in the Huangling area.
The reservoirs have characteristics of low porosity/permeability and
complicated diagenetic alterations.
3. Samples and methods
The 80 samples used in this research were selected from the drill
cores of 5 oil wells of the Chang 6 member in the Huangling area of the
Ordos Basin. The sample depths range from 400 m to 610 m. The ge­
ometries of the carbonate-cemented sandstones and their patterns of
distribution were described in detail among the core intervals.
A total of 80 thin sections with a thickness of 0.03 mm were prepared
for petrographic analysis; these sections were selected to describe the
full range of the textural and facies types of the cements. The types of
carbonates were identified in all thin sections with the cath­
odoluminescent images (CL).
Fourteen core samples were prepared for XRD (X-Ray Diffractom­
eter) analysis to qualify the mineralogy of the sandstone.
SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) (LEO1450 VP) and EPMA
(Electron Probe Microanalysis) (XGT-9000) were performed to examine
the type, occurrence, and distribution of clay and carbonate minerals
and the types of porosity.
Carbon and oxygen isotope data of the main carbonate cement types
were determined in thirteen samples.
Log responses (GR, AC, DEN, and RT) of different diagenetic facies
were summarized by calibrating log values with cores and associated
thin sections.
4. Results
4.1. Detrital texture and composition
The sandstones of the Chang 6 member are arkoses and lithic arkoses
(Fig. 2). The main framework constituents observed from the thin sec­
tions are, in order of decreasing abundance, feldspar (21%–58%), quartz
(16%–41%), and rock fragments (3%–18%). Most of the rock features
are metamorphic rock (2%–6%) and acidic volcanic rock (1%–4%). The
detrital composition of the deep-water sandstones reveals a main
provenance from the northeast uplifted terrains of the Archeozoic and
Proterozoic metamorphic rock (Liu et al., 2013).
The grains in the porous reservoirs show mostly linear, concavo-
Fig. 2. Detrital composition of sandstone of the Chang 6 member in the
study area.
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 203 (2021) 108608
convex contacts and occasional point contacts. There are three types
of cementation: porous cementation, enlarged-porous cementation and
pore-filling cementation.
The Chang 6 member in the study area is mostly massive fine-grained
sandstone and siltstone with the most particle size ranging from 0.1 mm
to 0.22 mm, and the maximum is 0.46 mm. The sorting is commonly
fine, and most of the grains are subangular and subrounded.
4.2. Reservoir characteristics
The porosity observed in the thin section shows a residual inter­
granular pore (0–4%; av. 1%) (Fig. 3A), include intergranular pore and
intragranular dissolved pore (0–2%; av. 1.5%) (Fig. 3B). Intragranular
dissolved pore have been formed by partial dissolution of feldspars
(Fig. 3C), which forms small pores and microfracture throat (Fig. 3D).
As a whole, the reservoir qualities in the studied sandstones are quite
poor. The porosities of the 80 samples ranged from 4.9% to 16% with an
average of 10.5% (Fig. 4A), and the corresponding permeabilities
ranged from 0.042 mD to 1.5 mD with an average of 0.158 mD (Fig. 4B).
The displacement pressure is 0.54 MPa–8.6 MPa, the median pressure is
5.4 MPa–30.8 MPa, and the median radius is 0.03 μm–0.15 μm.
4.3. Diagenetic constituents
The diagenetic constituents of the Chang 6 member are mainly
composed of calcite, some of which are more than 70% of the cements,
followed by chlorite, hydromica (illite), silica, dolomite and pyrite
(Fig. 5).
Diagenetic features such as compaction, quartz overgrowths, authi­
genic clay cements (chlorite and illite), and feldspar dissolution are
observed. The most distinguishing diagenetic feature is carbonate ce­
ments (Table 1).
4.3.1. Compaction
Mechanical compaction resulted in the rearrangement and fracturing
of brittle grains and deformation of ductile grains, including mica and
mud intraclasts, to form a pseudomatrix.
There are many ductile grains, such as clay-rich volcanic fragments,
mud intraclasts and metapelite rock fragments, in the Chang 6 member
sandstones. Compaction is more easily developed during the eogenetic
stage, resulting in grain close-packing, concavo-convex grain contacting,
ductile components undergoing plastic deformation, and intergranular
porosity decreasing.
4.3.2. Carbonate cementation
The XRD analysis of 14 samples and the point counting of 14 samples
revealed that calcite constitutes 0.3–23.8% of the rock volume and
calcite constitutes between 1.2% and 9.2% of the diagenetic dolomite
(Table 1). The total carbonate content (calcite plus dolomite) varies
between 0.3% and 27.0% (Table 1).
The main composition of carbonate cements are calcite, ferroan
calcite, dolomite, and ferroan dolomite, with smaller amounts of siderite
in the sandstones. Calcite is the most abundant cements in the deep-
water gravity-flow deposits, showing a wide shape and structure. This
variety indicates important genetic diversities, which were described in
detail.
(1) Calcite
One type of calcite cement is micrite and microcrystalline (<10 μm)
calcite that occurs mainly in pore-filling cementation. Another type of
calcite cement is blocky, poikilotopic (>30–200 μm) cements, which fill
in interparticles (Fig. 6A, B, 6C, 6D). They are widely distributed in the
Chang 6 sandstones and account for 15.4% (0–33%) of the rock volume.
These cement show very loose packing and are formed from the grains
floating within the matrix, indicating a weakened compaction. These
G. Liu et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 203 (2021) 108608

Fig. 3. Pore types in sandstone. (A) (B) Residual intergranular pores. (C) Intragranular dissolved pore in plagioclase. (D) Intergranular dissolved pore and micro­
fracture throat.

Fig. 4. Distribution of porosity and permeability measured from core analysis data in the Chang 6 sandstones. (A) Porosity. (B) Permeability.

were formed at an early diagenesis stage or the eogenetic stage (Yao

et al., 2011).
The δ13C values of calcite cement ranges between − 0.50‰ and
0.52‰ and δ18O values ranges between − 22.38‰ and − 18.56‰
(Table 2, Fig. 7).

(2) Ferroan calcite

The ferroan calcite is macrocrystalline and has a clear, dispersed

Fig. 5. Histogram of cement distribution according to thin section results.
distribution in the intergranular pore. The main ferroan calcite occurs
due to grain replacement, and it replaces feldspar grains, quartz and
lithic fragments (Fig. 6E and F).
The precipitation of ferroan calcite occurs later than the feldspar
dissolution, quartz secondary overgrowth and secondary pore forma­
tion. The precipitation of ferroan calcite mainly fills in the residual
intergranular pores and the dissolved pore of the partial feldspar grain
dissolution. The sandstone underwent strong compaction and the clastic
particles were contacted in line with each other, some feldspar grains

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G. Liu et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 203 (2021) 108608

Table 1
The X-ray diffraction analyses of the minerals in the sandstones from the Chang 6 member.
Sample Depth (m) Mineral constituent (%)
Quartz Plagioclase Orthoclase Calcite and ferroan calcite Dolomite and ferroan dolomite Illite Chlorite Pyrite
S205 441.91 22.6 27.9 14.6 20.4 2.5 12
S205 458.15 23.3 25.4 16.5 23.8 1.5 9.5
S27 584.13 20.9 31.6 13.1 23.3 2.6 6 2.5
SZ1311 606.42 19.7 31.7 12.1 22.3 4.7 4.5 5
S27 538.12 33.9 35.8 9.6 9.7 5.5 5.5
S206 534.32 29.7 45.2 15.1 2.5 2 5.5
S205 445.67 31.8 42.1 2.5 1.6 4.5 17.5
S206 449.22 35.1 30.4 6.7 1.6 4.7 8 13.5
S27 582.34 39.3 31.9 14.5 1.1 1.2 6 6
S206 446.43 29.5 29.5 31.8 0.7 1.5 7
SZ1313 640.87 26.9 26.8 18.7 0.4 9.2 7 11
S206 532.38 38.2 37.2 12.1 0.3 5.5 6 0.7
SZ1311 609.19 30.8 40.5 12.2 0.3 3.2 3 10
SZ1313 616.73 36.6 34.6 9.2 6.6 3.5 9.5

were only partly replaced by ferroan calcite, which indicated that the
time of precipitation of the ferroan calcite cements is relatively late.
Therefore, the formation time occurred at the early mesogenetic stage.
The ferroan calcite shows δ13C from − 3.74‰ to − 2.19‰ and δ18O from
− 21.01‰ to − 19.64‰ (Table 2, Fig. 7).
(3) Dolomite and ferroan dolomite
The content of dolomite is only second to calcite in the deep-water
sandstone of the Chang 6 member. The ferroan dolomite dominantly
occurs as microcrystalline and pore-filling cementation. These dolomite
crystals are macrocrystalline and clear and are dispersed in the inter­
granular pores (Fig. 6G and H).
The δ13C values of dolomite ranges between 0.79‰ and 1.45‰ and
18
δ O values ranges between − 20.5‰ and − 16.98‰ (Table 2, Fig. 7).
The ferroan dolomite precipitation is also prominently localized
around the partial dissolved detrital K-feldspar. According to the dis­
tribution, the dolomite was precipitated after the feldspar dissolution
during late diagenesis or the mesogenetic stage A.
The ferroan dolomite shows δ13C from − 4.34‰ to − 1.36‰ and δ18O
from − 20.78‰ to − 17.73‰ (Table 2, Fig. 7).
4.3.3. Clay mineral cementation
According to the XRD and SEM analysis, the total clay content ranges
from 8.5% to 22%, with an average of 13%. The reservoir clay minerals
are mainly chlorite, illite and mixed-layer illite-smectite; kaolinite is
absent. The chlorite, with a mean relative content of 65% (range from
30% to 86%), and the illite, with a mean relative content of 34.8%
(range from 20% to 70%), were also observed in all the samples. The
mixed-layer of illite–smectite, with a mean relative content of 27%, is
present in all samples and accounts for the clay composition, whereas
the mixed-layer of illite-smectite contains 15–20% smectite. The mixed-
layer illite-smectite minerals are intermediate products that were
formed through the transformation of smectite to illite or chlorite, in
which the measured percentage of the smectite is less than 25%, indi­
cating a late diagenesis stage (Liu et al., 2015).
Chlorite cement is often observed in lacustrine deep-water sand­
stones. It occurs as grain-coating platelets or as pore-filling patches
(Fig. 8A). The chlorite cement frequently engulfs the quartz over­
growths, thus retarding the other cement overgrowths. The chlorite
cement completely filled the pores and impeded the late silica cement
precipitation occurring in the pore spaces (Fig. 8A). A type of chlorite
film was discovered on the surface of the calcite cement (Fig. 8B), which
is interpreted as the product of the calcite cement dissolution-
precipitation reaction (Zhou et al., 2017). The occurrence of chlorite
film on the silica cement overgrowth or calcite indicates a mesogenetic
stage.
Illite mainly presents in the illite-smectite mixed-layer and seldom
develops independently, and it typically occurs in a filamentous form. In
petrographic analysis, most of the coatings around detrital grains
contain sericite to some degree (Fig. 8C). The SEM analysis indicates
that illite is the most abundant clay mineral around the grains (Fig. 8B).
Because of the possible transformation of illite to sericite (K-rich
muscovite) and the appearance of these products together in most cases,
the term illite-sericite is preferred here. Illite-sericite coatings generally
engulf the quartz overgrowths (Fig. 8D).
4.3.4. Silica cementation
Silica cements are dominated by the quartz cements. The quartz
cements occur as discontinuous overgrowths (Fig. 9A). Microquartz
crystals fill the intergranular pores as discrete crystals (Fig. 9B). The
quartz grains are continuously coated by thick illite or chlorite fringes,
whereas microquartz crystals are discontinuous or absent.
4.3.5. Dissolution
The dissolution in the Chang 6 member is mostly the feldspar grains,
rock fragments and carbonate cements dissolution, with a face porosity
of 0.2%–1.5% and an average of 0.5%. The dissolution of the feldspar
mainly corrodes along the grain edge or cleavage direction, forming
strip-like and mesh-like dissolution holes and forming cast holes when
the feldspar is completely dissolved (Fig. 10A and B). Based on the ho­
mogenization temperature of salt water inclusions (95–115 ◦ C), which
indicates that the dissolution of feldspar occurred later, mostly in the
mesogenetic stage A (Liu et al., 2015).
4.4. Distribution patterns of carbonate cements and diagenetic reservoir
facies
The distribution pattern of the carbonate cements is the major con­
trol of heterogeneity of the Chang 6 member sandstone reservoirs. Ac­
cording to the content of carbonate cements and composition of the
sandstone minerals and diagenetic characteristic, four diagenetic
reservoir facies were defined. There are massive carbonate cemented
facies, partial carbonate cemented facies, porous cemented and high
muddy debris facies. The distribution of these diagenetic reservoir facies
in the sandstone is shown in Fig. 11.
4.4.1. Massive carbonate cemented facies
The massive carbonate cemented facies, with a pervasive carbonate
cementation, are characterized by a high volume content at over 20%
(Fig. 12A and B), and are referred to as calcarenaceous fine sandstone.
There are barely visible pores under the microsection. The quality of the
reservoir is poor, with an average porosity of 6% and an average
permeability of 0.06 mD according to core analysis.
The distribution of the massive cement layers is along the base and
top of the sandstone body, along the contacts with the shales. The

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G. Liu et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 203 (2021) 108608

Fig. 6. Photographs showing the characteristics of the authigenic carbonates in the studied sandstones. (A) Poikilotopic calcite cements. (B) CL image of calcite
cements. (C) SEM image of calcites. (D) EPMA of the calcites. (E) The calcite replaces of the detrital feldspar grains. (F) CL image of calcite cements. (G) SEM image of
euhedral rhombohedral ferroan dolomite crystals. (H) EPMA of the ferroan dolomite crystals. (Q = quartz, Ca = calcite, F = feldspar, Dol = dolomite).

thickness and number of massive cement layers vary among reservoirs,
and most of the layers are approximately 5 cm to 1 m thick (Fig. 11).
4.4.2. Partial carbonate cemented facies
The partial carbonate cemented facies are characterized by carbon­
ate content ranging from 10% to 20%. The pore of the partial carbonate
cemented facies is a secondary pore. It was formed by the dissolution of
early carbonate cements and feldspar grains and partial decreased by the
precipitation of late discrete calcite and a small amount of late authi­
genic chlorite, quartz, illite and albite (Fig. 12C and D). The average
reservoir porosity is 7.6% and the average permeability is 0.2 mD.
The gradational zones (a few centimeters to 0.2–1 m thick) are

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G. Liu et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 203 (2021) 108608

Table 2 The quality of the reservoir is poor. The average porosity is 5% and
Carbon and oxygen isotope ratios of representative diagenetic carbonates in the average permeability is 0.04 mD. However, some sandstone with high
Chang 6 member of the Triassic Yangchang Formation. amounts of mud clasts and metapelite rock fragments often develop
Sample Member lithology δ13C δ18O compaction (pressure dissolution) microfractures during the compac­
PDB (‰) PDB (‰) tion process. The early hydrocarbon filling is generally distributed along
Y414 Chang 6 Calcite 0.52 − 18.59 these compacted microfractures.
W65 Chang 6 Calcite 1.02 − 18.56 The distribution of the high muddy clast zones is in the fine sand­
W26 Chang 6 Calcite 0.51 − 20.45 stone and thin sandbody (Fig. 11) in the overbank and lobe deposits of
B280 Chang 6 Calcite − 0.5 18.8
−
the turbidite.
W26 Chang 6 Calcite − 0.41 − 18.22
B274 Chang 6 Calcite 0.46 − 21.38
W63 Chang 6 Dolomite 1.08 − 16.98 4.5. Pathways of diagenetic evolution
B280 Chang 6 Dolomite 1.45 − 17.69
B282 Chang 6 Dolomite 0.79 20.5
−
Overall, the Chang 6 sandstone underwent the whole diagenetic
L45 Chang 6 Ferroan calcite − 2.19 − 19.64
B472 Chang 6 Ferroan calcite − 3.74 − 21.01
evolution process from early diagenesis (eogenesis) to burial diagenesis
B282 Chang 6 Ferroan dolomite − 4.34 − 20.78 (mesogenesis), including compaction, cementation (including chlorite,
W58 Chang 6 Ferroan dolomite − 1.36 − 17.73 microcrystalline calcite, quartz overgrowth and intergranular silica,
illite, and dolomite), and two-stage hydrocarbon filling stages and two-
stage dissolution (Liu et al., 2019). However, due to the differences in
the sandstone types and mineral compositions, there are some differ­
ences in the diagenesis, diagenetic evolution and pore evolution among
the sandstones (Fig. 13).

4.5.1. Massive carbonate cemented facies

The massive carbonate cemented facies are typically characterized
by abundant calcite cements in the early eogenesis stage (Fig. 13). The
calcite precipitates directly from the alkaline pore water in the early
diagenesis stage A and blocks most of the primary intergranular pores
with basal cementation, thus greatly reducing the reservoir porosity and
forming calcareous zones.
Compaction and quartz overgrowth and ferroan calcite and ferroan
dolomite cementation combine to reduce the porosity with increasing
burial. When the hydrocarbon filled, there was limited pore water to
migrate, and there was weak dissolution in the later diagenesis process.

4.5.2. Partial carbonate cemented facies

Fig. 7. δ13CPDB versus δ13OPDB diagram of the carbonate cements in the Chang
6 member.
characterized by the partial carbonate cementation and have interme­
diate reservoir quality. This facies occurred between massive cemented
facies and porous facies (Fig. 11) and is well developed in the Chang 6
member reservoirs.
4.4.3. Porous facies
The porous facies constitute less than 10% the carbonate cements,
and they are characteristics of high porosity and high permeability
reservoirs. In the porous facies, the residue of early carbonate cements is
relatively few. The small amounts of carbonate cements in these layers
are discrete calcites and late ferroan calcites. The porous facies reser­
voirs have some residual intergranular pores (Fig. 12E and F) and pre­
sent a range of porosities from 8% to 16% (average 11%) and
permeability from 0.2 mD to 1.5 mD (average 0.35 mD).
The distribution of the porous zones is in the middle of the sandstone
body thickness (Fig. 10), which is interpreted as a sandy debris flow and
a channel of turbidite.
4.4.4. High muddy debris facies
The volume of the high muddy debris facies is greater than 15%, and
they are characteristic of abundant muddy clasts and metapelite rock
fragments. This facies typically undergoes strong compaction during
early diagenesis and presents ultra-low permeability and ultra-low
porosity owing to the noneffective microporosity which is contained
in the pseudomatrix (Fig. 12G and H).
The sandstone has changed into a tight sandstone reservoir because
of the early calcite cement and the ferroan calcite and ferroan dolomite
cement occurring in the late diagenesis stage. During the burial stage,
the early carbonate cement is dissolved, which improves the porosity of
the sandstone. After that, a large number of iron-bearing carbonates and
a small amount of illite precipitation decrease the reservoir porosity
(Fig. 13).
4.5.3. Porous facies
Porous facies reservoirs are characterized by minor amounts of car­
bonate cements during the early diagenesis stage A. Diagenesis is
dominated by early compaction, chlorite cementation and late dissolu­
tion. Because of the relatively high maturity of the sand body compo­
sition and strong compaction resistance, the compaction is weak, and
the porosity lost by the compaction is small.
The pore lining chlorites precipitate and block the intergranular
pores, which induces a decrease in the sandstone porosity. In the middle
diagenesis stage A, organic acid enters the reservoir, and the silicate
minerals undergo selective dissolution, developing a number of sec­
ondary pores. The dissolution of feldspar grains provides physical
sources for the subsequent quartz secondary enlargement, ferroan
calcite and illite precipitation. Under certain temperature and pressure
conditions, cements form and fill the dissolution pores or intergranular
pores to decrease the sandstone porosity (Fig. 13).
4.5.4. High muddy debris facies
The diagenesis of the high plastic lithic sandstone mainly occurs in
the early diagenesis stage (Fig. 13). Because of the strong compaction
influence, plastic debris generally is distorted, swelled and pseudo-
hybridized in the early diagenesis stage, resulting in a large number of
intergranular pores and throat blockages. After the early diagenesis

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G. Liu et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 203 (2021) 108608

Fig. 8. Photomicrographs of clay mineral cementation. (A) Optical photomicrograph showing chlorite cement. (B) SEM images of chlorite. (C) SEM images of flaky
illite filling pores. (D) SEM images of fibrous illite and mixed-layer illite-smectite filling pores. (Q = quartz, Ca = calcite, Chl = chlorite, I = illite, I/S = mixed-layer
illite-smectite).

Fig. 9. Photomicrographs of the quartz cement. (A) Optical photomicrograph showing extensive cementation by quartz overgrowths. (B) SEM image of prismatic
quartz outgrowths covering and engulfing chlorite rims. (Q = quartz, Chl = chlorite).

stage A-B, most of the primary pores are almost absent and the reservoir
has become a low porosity and low permeability reservoir or even a tight
reservoir. Due to the rapid decrease of the pore size during compaction,
there was no effective space for the subsequent fluid activities that
sandstone can provide during the deep buried stage, and the degree of
late dissolution was limited.
reservoir quality, while the massive carbonate cemented facies reservoir
has a poor reservoir quality (Fig. 14). In the study area of the Chang 6
member, the reservoirs with porosity over 7% and permeability over 0.1
mD can be regarded as effective reservoirs.
5. Discussion

5.1. Origin of the carbonate cements

4.6. Diagenetic reservoir facies and reservoir quality
The textures, elemental and isotopic compositions of the carbonate
The quality of reservoir is a function of both its porosity and
cements indicate a complex evolution of the pore fluid chemistry during
permeability. In tight sandstones, reservoir property is controlled by the
the diagenesis of the Chang 6 member sandstones. Three generations of
volume of the carbonate cements. The different diagenetic facies have
carbonate cements are discerned according to petrographic and
different reservoir qualities. The porous facies reservoir has the best

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G. Liu et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 203 (2021) 108608

Fig. 10. Photomicrographs of the feldspar dissolution. (A) Optical photomicrograph of a partial dissolved feldspar grain. (B) SEM image of a partial dissolved
feldspar grain. (F = feldspar).

Fig. 11. Cross sections of diagenetic reservoir facies distribute in the deep-water gravity-flow sandstones of the Chang 6 member.

geochemical evidence. sandstones. The homogenization temperature of the fluid inclusions in

(1) Early stage carbonate cements
Early stage carbonate cements are major calcite and dolomite ce­
ments in pore-filling. Microcrystalline calcite cements were directly
formed from the pore water of sediments and supersaturated precipi­
tation in relation to CaCO3 in the sedimentary water medium under
alkaline diagenesis conditions (Chowdhury and Noble, 1996; Yao et al.,
2011). The blocky calcites are usually considered to be connected to the
rapid oscillation of Eh in meteoric environments (Moore, 1989) and do
not replace debris grain and improve the anti-compaction ability of
calcite cements is lower (80%–90%), which indicates that calcite ce­
ments were primarily formed in the early diagenesis stage A (Luo et al.,
2016). These were formed before compaction during an early diagenesis
stage. The material sources of early calcium come from the carbonate
dissolved in lakes brought by river deltas and from the dissolution of
shells after the death of shellfish microorganisms (Yao et al., 2011;
Zhang and Huang, 2012).
The δ13C values of calcite cements change from − 0.50‰ to 0.52‰
and the δ18O values change from − 21.38‰ to − 18.22‰ (Table 2,
Fig. 7), and dolomite have similar carbon and oxygen isotope values
(δ13C values from 0.79‰ to 1.45‰, and δ18O values from − 21.01‰ to

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G. Liu et al. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 203 (2021) 108608

Fig. 12. Photomicrographs of the diagenetic facies from the Chang 6 member. (A) And (B) Massive carbonate cemented sandstones. (C) And (D) Partial carbonate
cemented sandstones. (E) and (F) Porous facies sandstones. (G) and (H) High muddy debris facies sandstones. A, C, E, and G are plane-polarized light. B, D, F, and H
are shown in crossed plates from the same area.

10
G. Liu et al.
Fig. 13. The evolution pathways of the diagenetic reservoir facies in the Chang 6 member.
Fig. 14. Cross plots of the porosity and permeability of the different diagenetic
facies reservoirs.
− 19.64‰) with calcite, which indicate the characteristics of the inor­
ganic carbon sources. These results imply that the precipitation of the
early calcite cements has little relationship with the decarboxylation,
but is closely connected to the alkaline lake environment that is over­
saturated with carbonate calcium due to its earlier precipitation (Wang
et al., 2008; Wen et al., 2007; Zheng and Liu, 1999; Liu et al., 2015).
(2) Medium stage carbonate cements
Middle stage carbonate cement is the main ferroan calcite, which fills
in the remaining intergranular pores and secondary dissolution pores
formed by feldspar grains dissolution. The formation of the ferroan
calcite is later than the dissolution of the feldspar and quartz cement.
They were precipitated at the A stage of mesogenesis. According to the
X-ray diffraction analyses of the minerals in the sandstones, the higher
the content of carbonate cement in sandstone, the lower the content of
quartz and feldspar (Table 1).
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 203 (2021) 108608
Therefore, the sources of calcium are mainly from the dissolved
products of the feldspar and volcanic debris in acidic fluid environment.
Iron and magnesium ions come from the transformation of clay minerals
at high temperatures. Organic acids generated during thermal matura­
tion of organic matter probably provided a source of acid and export into
sandstones.
The isotopic composition of the ferroan calcites cement is charac­
terized by relatively wide distribution of δ13C values (range from
− 3.74‰ to − 2.19‰) and relatively light δ18O values (from − 21.01‰ to
− 19.64‰) (Table 2, Fig. 7), indicates that ferroan calcite cements is
usually related to decarboxylation of organics.
(3) Later stage carbonate cements
The composition of later carbonate cements is ferroan dolomites, and
most of them are clean and large grains, which are interparticle fill. In
burial diagenesis, because of the deep burial of strata and the increase of
temperature and pressure under relatively high-temperature, high-
pressure and anoxic reduction conditions, and especially in the stage B
of mesogenesis, pore water contains a large amount of Fe2+ and Mg2+,
which are generated by the conversion of clay minerals and dissolution
of early carbonate cements (Yao et al., 2011). When the partial pressure
of CO2 decreases, these ions can easily combine into the lattice of calcite
or dolomite to form iron-bearing minerals. The late carbonate cements
are mostly filled in the remaining intergranular pores of sandstone after
the hydrocarbon filling, indicating that their formation is later than that
of the hydrocarbon filling events and in the mesogenetic stage A.
The δ13C values of range ferroan dolomites from − 4.34‰ to − 1.36‰
and the δ18O values range from − 20.78‰ to − 17.73‰ (Table 2, Fig. 7),
indicates that ferroan dolomite cements is influenced not only by
organic carbon source, but also by a certain amount of inorganic carbon
source provided by carbonate cements dissolution.
From the carbon and oxygen isotope test data of the authigenic
carbonate in the Yanchang Formation in the central and southern part of
the Ordos Basin, it was found that the formation temperature of calcite
and dolomite was concentrated in the range of 60–80 ◦ C, and ferroan
calcite were varied from 75 to 125 ◦ C, whereas the precipitation
G. Liu et al.
temperature of ferroan dolomite ranged from 100-125 ◦ C, indicating
that the formation of the carbonate cement had multiple stages and
patterns (Sun et al., 2010).
5.2. The water-rock interaction model of the carbonate cements
The water-rock interaction mechanism of carbonate cement is quite
complicated. Based on the petrologic and mineralogic characteristics of
the sandstone, the carbon and oxygen isotope ratios, and the vertical
distribution of the carbonate cements, it is indicated that the different
types of carbonate cements in the Huangling area have different water-
rock interaction (Fig. 15).
The early carbonate cements with a relatively heavier carbon and
oxygen isotope ratio was precipitated directly from supersaturated
alkaline fluid under normal temperature and pressure conditions. When
the pore water is supersaturated and carbonates cements precipitated, it
Fig. 15. Schematic cartoon showing the water-rock interaction model of carbonate cements.
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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 203 (2021) 108608
forms different contents of carbonate cements in the feldsarenite sand­
stone (Fig. 15 (a), (b), (c)). The high muddy debris sandstone has a
moderate content of carbonate cement (Fig. 15 (d)).
An important material source for medium and later carbonate
cement was organic acids generated during thermal maturation of
organic matter, which provided a source of acid for carbonate dissolu­
tion and feldspar dissolves (Fig. 15(1)). The Ca2+, Fe3+ and Mg2+ ions
released by the clay mineral transformation process were also important
source materials (Fig. 15(2), (3)). The medium and later carbonate ce­
ments have relatively light carbon and oxygen isotope ratio.
Due to the massive early carbonate cementation, the migration of
pore water is blocked in the sandstone. The water rock reaction is
relatively limited and the action intensity is weak. Therefore early car­
bonate cements have rarely dissolved in massive carbonate cemented
sandstone (Fig. 15 (e)) and the late carbonate cementation make the
sandstone tighter. Partially cemented carbonate of the sandstone have
G. Liu et al.
sufficient water rock reaction and more dissolution pores (Fig. 15 (e),
(f)). The high muddy debris sandstone has a strong compaction effect
and the water-rock interaction is limited and the strength of water-rock
action is weak (Fig. 15 (h)).
6. Conclusions
The porosity in the deep-water sandstone reservoirs were strongly
effected by diagenetic evolutionary processes, mainly the precipitation
of carbonate cements in the alkaline pore water of the early diagenesis
stage A, and blocks most of the primary intergranular pores with basal
cementation, which greatly reduces the reservoir porosity and forms
calcareous zones. The dissolution of the carbonate cements during the
burial stage increases the sandstone porosity. However, due to the dif­
ferences in the sandstone types and mineral compositions, there are
some differences in the diagenesis, diagenetic evolution and pore evo­
lution among the sandstones.
(1) Three precipitation stages of carbonate cements were recognized
by petrography. The microcrystalline calcites, poikilotopic cal­
cites and microcrystalline dolomite precipitated at an early
diagenesis stage. The ferroan calcite is mainly pore-filling and
replacement cementation in the middle stage and the ferroan
dolomite is pore-filling cementation in the late stage.
(2) The early carbonate cements was precipitated directly from su­
persaturated alkaline fluid under normal temperature and pres­
sure conditions. An important material source for medium and
later carbonate cement was the feldspar dissolution process that
the organic matter participates in and the clay mineral
transformation.
(3) The four types of reservoir facies and the distribution patterns
were identified in the Chang 6 member sandstones. The massive
carbonate cemented facies with high contents of carbonate ce­
ments (>20%) and basal cementation to form calcareous zones,
which distributed along the edges of the sand bodies in the lobe
deposits where the sandstone changes into siltstone. The partial
carbonate cemented facies have over 10% but less than 20%
carbonate cement, which appears along the edges of the massive
carbonate cemented facies. The porous facies have less than 10%
carbonate cement and occur in the middle of the massive sand­
stone bodies, which are located in the sandy flow deposits. The
high muddy debris facies have high percentages of carbonate-
cemented (10%) and high muddy debris (15%) sandstone and
occur essentially in the proximal overbank and lobe of the
turbidite deposits.
(4) The controlling role of carbonate cements on reservoir quality
depended upon time of precipitation and diagenetic processes.
Massive carbonate cements and the high muddy debris of sand­
stones undergo lots of carbonate cements and strong compaction
in the early diagenesis stage, respectively. There was weak water
rock reaction of dissolution in the later diagenesis process and has
low porosity and low permeability of sandstones. Partial car­
bonate cemented facies and the porous facies of sandstones have
sufficient water rock reaction and more dissolution pores.
Authors’ contributions statement
Liu Gui-Zhen analyzed and interpreted reservoir diagenetic facies
and evaulation. Hu Guang-Cheng engaged in core observation and
description. Xiaozhang Shi engaged in core data analysis and log
interpretation. Yaping Ma analyzed diagenetic constituents and gen­
erations of carbonate cements. XiuZhen Yin analyzed reservoir char­
acteristics and related thin sections. Airong Li drawed the relevant maps
in the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
13
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 203 (2021) 108608
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This study was financially supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No. 41602156; 41772140) and Scientific
Research Program Funded by Shaanxi Provincial Education Department
(Grant No. 20JS126).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.petrol.2021.108608.
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